Rozprawy doktorskie na temat „Catalytic reaction dynamics”

QC 20150911

At the time of the doctoral defense, the following papers were unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 2: Manuscript. Paper 5: Mansucript.

Selective catalytic reduction (SCR) of NO_x using NH₃ as a reductant (4NH₃+ 4NO + O₂ 6H₂O + 4N₂) over Cu-SSZ-13 zeolites is a commercial technology used to meet emissions targets in lean-burn and diesel engine exhaust. Optimization of catalyst design parameters to improve catalyst reactivity and stability against deactivation (hydrothermal and sulfur poisoning) necessitates detailed molecular level understanding of structurally different active Cu sites and the reaction mechanism. With the help of synthetic, titrimetric, spectroscopic, kinetic and computational techniques, we established new molecular level details regarding 1) active Cu site speciation in monomeric and dimeric complexes in Cu-SSZ-13, 2) elementary steps in the catalytic reaction mechanism, 3) and deactivation mechanisms upon hydrothermal treatment and sulfur poisoning.

We have demonstrated that Cu in Cu-SSZ-13 speciates as two distinct isolated sites, nominally divalent Cu^II and monovalent [Cu^II(OH)]⁺ complexes exchanged at paired Al and isolated Al sites, respectively. This Cu site model accurately described a wide range of zeolite chemical composition, as evidenced by spectroscopic (Infrared and X-ray absorption) and titrimetric characterization of Cu sites under ex situ conditions and in situ and operando SCR reaction conditions. Monovalent [Cu^II(OH)]⁺ complexes have been further found to condense to form multinuclear Cu-oxo complexes upon high temperature oxidative treatment, which have been characterized using UV-visible spectroscopy, CO-temperature programmed reduction and dry NO oxidation as a probe reaction. Structurally different isolated Cu sites have different susceptibilities to H₂ and He reductions, but are similarly susceptible to NO+NH₃ reduction and have been found to catalyze NO_x SCR reaction at similar turnover rates (per Cu^II; 473 K) via a Cu^II/Cu^I redox cycle, as their structurally different identities are masked by NH₃ solvation during reaction.

Molecular level insights on the low temperature Cu^II/Cu^I redox mechanism have been obtained using experiments performed in situand in operando coupled withtheory. Evidence has been provided to show that the Cu^II to Cu^I reduction half-cycle involves single-site Cu reduction of isolated Cu^II sites with NO+NH₃, which is independent of Cu spatial density. In contrast, the Cu^I to Cu^II oxidation half-cycle involves dual-site Cu oxidation with O₂ to form dimeric Cu-oxo complexes, which is dependent on Cu spatial density. Such dual-site oxidation during the SCR Cu^II/Cu^I redox cycle requires two Cu^I(NH₃)₂sites, which is enabled by NH₃solvation that confers mobility to isolated Cu^I sites and allows reactions between two Cu^I(NH₃)₂ species and O₂. As a result, standard SCR rates depend on Cu proximity in Cu-SSZ-13 zeolites when Cu^I oxidation steps are kinetically relevant. Additional unresolved pieces of mechanism have been investigated, such as the reactivity of Cu dimers, the types of reaction intermediates involved, and the debated role of Brønsted acid sites in the SCR cycle, to postulate a detailed reaction mechanism. A strategy has been discussed to operate either in oxidation or reduction-limited kinetic regimes, to extract oxidation and reduction rate constants, and better interpret the kinetic differences among Cu-SSZ-13 catalysts.

The stability of active Cu sites upon sulfur oxide poisoning has been assessed by exposing model Cu-zeolite samples to dry SO₂ and O₂ streams at 473 and 673 K, and then analyzing the surface intermediates formed via spectroscopic and kinetic assessments. Model Cu-SSZ-13 zeolites were synthesized to contain distinct Cu active site types, predominantly either divalent Cu^II ions exchanged at proximal framework Al (Z₂Cu), or monovalent [Cu^IIOH]⁺ complexes exchanged at isolated framework Al (ZCuOH). SCR turnover rates (473 K, per Cu) decreased linearly with increasing S content to undetectable values at equimolar S:Cu ratios, consistent with poisoning of each Cu site with one SO₂-derived intermediate. Cu and S K-edge X-ray absorption spectroscopy and density functional theory calculations were used to identify the structures and binding energies of different SO₂-derived intermediates at Z₂Cu and ZCuOH sites, revealing that bisulfates are particularly low in energy, and residual Brønsted protons are liberated at Z₂Cu sites as bisulfates are formed. Molecular dynamics simulations also show that Cu sites bound to one HSO₄^- are immobile, but become liberated from the framework and more mobile when bound to two HSO₄^-. These findings indicate that Z₂Cu sites are more resistant to SO₂poisoning than ZCuOH sites, and are easier to regenerate once poisoned.

The stability of active Cu sites on various small-pore Cu-zeolites during hydrothermal deactivation (high temperature steaming conditions) has also been assessed by probing the structural and kinetic changes to active Cu sites. Three small-pore, eight-membered ring (8-MR) zeolites of different cage-based topology (CHA, AEI, RTH) have been investigated. With the help of UV-visible spectroscopy to probe the Cu structure, in conjunction with measuring differential reaction kinetics before and after subsequent treatments, it has been suggested that the RTH framework imposes internal transport restrictions, effectively functioning as a 1-D framework during SCR catalysis. Hydrothermal aging of Cu-RTH results in complete deactivation and undetectable SCR rates, despite no changes in long-range structure or micropore volume after hydrothermal aging treatments and subsequent SCR exposure, highlighting beneficial properties conferred by double six-membered ring (D6R) composite building units. Exposure aging conditions and SCR reactants resulted in deleterious structural changes to Cu sites, likely reflecting the formation of inactive copper-aluminate domains. Therefore, the viability of Cu-zeolites for practical low temperature NO_x SCR catalysis cannot be inferred solely from assessments of framework structural integrity after aging treatments, but also require Cu active site and kinetic characterization after aged zeolites are exposed to low temperature SCR conditions.

Although Cu-SSZ-13 zeolites are used commercially in diesel engine exhaust after-treatment for abatement of toxic NO_x pollutants via selective catalytic reduction (SCR) with NH₃, molecular details of its active centers and mechanistic details of the redox reactions they catalyze, specifically of the Cu(I) to Cu(II) oxidation half-reaction, are not well understood. A detailed understanding of the SCR reaction mechanism and nature of the Cu active site would provide insight into their catalytic performance and guidance on synthesizing materials with improved low temperature (< 473 K) reactivity and stability against deactivation (e.g. hydrothermal, sulfur oxides). We use computational, titration, spectroscopic, and kinetic techniques to elucidate (1) the presence of two types of Cu²⁺ ions in Cu-SSZ-13 materials, (2) molecular details on how these Cu cations, facilitated by NH₃ solvation, undergo a reduction-oxidation catalytic cycle, and (3) that sulfur oxides poison the two different types of Cu²⁺ ions to different extents at via different mechanisms.

Copper was exchanged onto H-SSZ-13 samples with different Si:Al ratios (4.5, 15, and 25) via liquid-phase ion exchange using Cu(NO₃)₂ as the precursor. The speciation of copper started from the most stable Cu²⁺ coordinated to two anionic sites on the zeolite framework to [CuOH]⁺ coordinated to only one anionic site on the zeolite framework with increasing Cu:Al ratios. The number of Cu²⁺ and [CuOH]⁺ sites was quantified by selective NH₃ titration of the number of residual Brønsted acid sites after Cu exchange, and by quantification of Brønsted acidic Si(OH)Al and CuOH stretching vibrations from IR spectra. Cu-SSZ-13 with similar Cu densities and anionic framework site densities exhibit similar standard SCR rates, apparent activation energies, and orders regardless of the fraction of Z₂Cu and ZCuOH sites, indicating that both sites are equally active within measurable error for SCR.

The standard SCR reaction uses O₂ as the oxidant (4NH₃ + 4NO + O₂ -> 6H₂O + 4N₂) and involves a Cu(I)/Cu(II) redox cycle, with Cu(II) reduction mediated by NO and NH₃, and Cu(I) oxidation mediated by NO and O₂. In contrast, the fast SCR reaction (4NH₃ + 2NO + 2NO₂ -> 6H₂O + 4N₂) uses NO₂ as the oxidant. Low temperature (437 K) standard SCR reaction kinetics over Cu-SSZ-13 zeolites depend on the spatial density and distribution of Cu ions, varied by changing the Cu:Al and Si:Al ratio. Facilitated by NH₃ solvation, mobile Cu(I) complexes can dimerize with other Cu(I) complexes within diffusion distances to activate O₂, as demonstrated through X-ray absorption spectroscopy and density functional theory calculations. Monte Carlo simulations are used to define average Cu-Cu distances. In contrast with O₂-assisted oxidation reactions, NO₂ oxidizes single Cu(I) complexes with similar kinetics among samples of varying Cu spatial density. These findings demonstrate that low temperature standard SCR is dependent on Cu spatial density and requires NH₃ solvation to mobilize Cu(I) sites to activate O₂, while in contrast fast SCR uses NO₂ to oxidize single Cu(I) sites.

We also studied the effect of sulfur oxides, a common poison in diesel exhaust, on Cu-SSZ-13 zeolites. Model Cu-SSZ-13 samples exposed to dry SO₂ and O₂ streams at 473 and 673 K. These Cu-SSZ-13 zeolites were synthesized and characterized to contain distinct Cu active site types, predominantly either divalent Cu²⁺ ions exchanged at proximal framework Al sites (Z₂Cu), or monovalent CuOH+ complexes exchanged at isolated framework Al sites (ZCuOH). On the model Z₂Cu sample, SCR turnover rates (473 K, per Cu) catalyst decreased linearly with increasing S content to undetectable values at equimolar S:Cu molar ratios, while apparent activation energies remained constant at ~65 kJ mol^-1, consistent with poisoning of each Z₂Cu site with one SO₂-derived intermediate. On the model ZCuOH sample, SCR turnover rates also decreased linearly with increasing S content, yet apparent activation energies decreased monotonically from ~50 to ~10 kJ mol^-1, suggesting that multiple phenomena are responsible for the observed poisoning behavior and consistent with findings that SO₂ exposure led to additional storage of SO₂-derived intermediates on non-Cu surface sites. Changes to Cu²⁺ charge transfer features in UV-Visible spectra were more pronounced for SO₂-poisoned ZCuOH than Z₂Cu sites, while X-ray diffraction and micropore volume measurements show evidence of partial occlusion of microporous voids by SO₂-derived deposits, suggesting that deactivation may not only reflect Cu site poisoning. Density functional theory calculations are used to identify the structures and binding energies of different SO₂-derived intermediates at Z₂Cu and ZCuOH sites. It is found that bisulfates are particularly low in energy, and residual Brønsted protons are liberated as these bisulfates are formed. These findings indicate that Z₂Cu sites are more resistant to SO₂ poisoning than ZCuOH sites, and are easier to regenerate once poisoned.

Electronic excitation energy transfer (EET) and electron transfer (ET) are of the fundamental importance to biochemical processes and solar energy conversion. The goal of this thesis is to develop and apply theoretical and computational tools to understand the mechanisms and kinetics of EET and ET in selected molecular systems with the aim to control and boost their efficacy. Specifically, this thesis focuses on three subjects: (1) computational study of energy transfer and its pathways in Ruthenium based metal organic frameworks (MOFs), (2) developing a general analytical model to describe the kinetics of energy transfer/electron transfer in condensed media, and (3) developing theoretical frameworks to describe multiple electron/exciton transfer processes.

In the study of energy transfer in Ruthenium based MOFs, we found that the excitation transport kinetics was well described by a Dexter (exchange) triplet-to-triplet incoherent multi-step hopping mechanism. The sensitive distance dependent rate for Dexter energy transfer in different MOF structures establishes unique energy transport pathways. For example, both one- and three-dimensional exciton-hopping networks were found in mixed Ru/Os MOFs. As such, Dexter energy transfer may potentially be helpful for spatially directing excitation energy along specific direction, for example, towards reaction centers, and an amenable for designing high efficiency energy transfer materials.

Significant amount EET processes happen in condense media and the nature of energy migration kinetics depends heavily on the donor (D) and acceptor (A) distribution in the media, especially for organic photovoltaic devices. The EET in the condense phase allow us to study the impact of ordered, partially ordered, and disordered DA distribution on the solar energy harvesting efficiency. To better account for the EET in condense phase, we developed a general analytical model for the description of the time-dependent luminescence decay emphasizing on the actual D-A spatial distribution. Applications of the developed model have been made to investigate the long-range excitation energy transfer in disordered polymer systems. By fitting the experimental transient luminescence spectra, we found that the derived EET kinetics showed better agreement with experimental observed luminescence decay both in short and long times, a significant improvement over the earlier models by Inokuti and Hirayama. Our model is more reliable in a wide range of time and acceptor density and can also be used for electron transfer.

The frontiers of ET and EET are moving from single particle one-step reactions to coupled multi-particle and multi-step processes. To understand the leading features that mediate the two-electron transfer in catalysis, we developed a two-electron transfer superexchange model that focuses on the roles of these features including (1) the one- and two-electron virtual intermediate states that mediate the ET, (2) the number of virtual intermediates with system size, and (3) the multiple classes of pathways interferes. Key questions, including how bridge structure and energetics influence multi-electron superexchange and interference between singly- and doubly-oxidized (or reduced) bridge virtual states are investigated. We found that even simple linear donor-bridge-acceptor systems have pathway topologies that resemble those seen for one-electron superexchange through bridges with multiple parallel pathways. The simple model two-electron transfer systems studied here exhibit a richness that is amenable to experimental exploration by manipulating the multiple pathways, pathway crosstalk, and changes in the number of donor and acceptor species. The features that emerge from these studies may assist in developing new strategies to deliver multiple electrons in condensed phase redox systems, including multiple-electron redox species, multi-metallic/multi-electron redox catalysts, and multi-exciton excited states.

Finally, to understand the role of structural and environmental disorder on incoherent ET, we developed a perturbative model based on the kinetic master equation to examine incoherent ET in non-equilibrium and non-Markovian regime. The developed method provides an effective way to explicitly investigate how a general (non-Gaussian) fluctuation in ET rate can modify the ET kinetics. Applications of this method have been made to study the ET kinetics for donor-bridge-acceptor systems with the structural and environmental fluctuations. Changing in ET kinetics with structural fluctuations of different nature was examined. Dominant fluctuation characters that significantly boost or reduce ET rate were identified. These findings may be helpful in designing efficient ET materials and provide strategies in modulating ET rate.

Various organic reactions, including important synthetic reactions involving C–C, C–N, and C–O bond formation as well as reactions of biomolecules, are known to be accelerated when the reagents are present in confined volumes such as sprayed or levitated microdroplets or thin films. This phenomenon of reaction acceleration and the key role of interfaces played in it are of intrinsic interest and potentially of practical value as a simple, rapid method of performing small-scale synthesis. This dissertation has three focusing subtopics in the field of reaction acceleration: (1) application of reaction acceleration in levitated droplets and mass spectrometry to accelerate the reaction-analysis workflow of forced degradation of pharmaceuticals at small scale; (2) fundamental understanding of mechanisms of accelerated reactions at air/solution interfaces; (3) discovery the use of glass particles as a `green' heterogeneous catalysts in solutions and systematical study of solid(glass)/solution interfacial reaction acceleration as a superbase for synthesis and degradation using high-throughput screening.

Reaction acceleration in confined volumes could enhance analytical methods in industrial chemistry. Forced degradation is critical to probe the stabilities and chemical reactivities of therapeutics. Typically performed in bulk followed by LC-MS analysis, this traditional workflow of reaction/analysis sequence usually requires several days to form and measure desirable amount of degradants. I developed a new method to study chemical degradation in a shorter time frame in order to speed up both drug discovery and the drug development process. Using the Leidenfrost effect, I was able to study, over the course of seconds, degradation in levitated microdroplets over a metal dice. This two-minute reaction/analysis workflow allows major degradation pathways of both small molecules and therapeutic peptides to be studied. The reactions studied include deamidation, disulfide bond cleavage, ether cleavage, dehydration, hydrolysis, and oxidation. The method uses microdroplets as nano-reactors and only require a minimal amount of therapeutics per stress condition and the desirable amount of degradant can be readily generated in seconds by adjusting the droplet levitation time, which is highly advantageous both in the discovery and development phase. Built on my research, microdroplets can potentially be applied in therapeutics discovery and development to rapidly screen stability of therapeutics and to screen the effects of excipients in enhancing formulation stabilities.

My research also advanced the fundamental understanding of reaction acceleration by disentangles the factors controlling reaction rates in microdroplet reactions using constant-volume levitated droplets and Katritzky transamination as a model. The large surface-to-volume ratios of these systems results in a major contribution from reactions at the air/solution interface where reaction rates are increased. Systems with higher surface-active reactants are subject to greater acceleration, particularly at lower concentrations and higher surface-to-volume ratios. These results highlight the key role that air/solution air/solution interfaces play in Katritzky reaction acceleration. They are also consistent with the view that reaction increased rate constant is at least in part due to limited solvation of reagents at the interface.

While reaction acceleration at air/solution interfaces has been well known in microdroplets, reaction acceleration at solid/solution interfaces appears to be a new phenomenon. The Katritzky reaction in bulk solution at room temperature is accelerated significantly by the surface of a glass container compared to a plastic container. Remarkably, the reaction rate is increased by more than two orders of magnitude upon the addition of glass particles with the rate increasing linearly with increasing amounts of glass. A similar phenomenon is observed when glass particles are added to levitated droplets, where large acceleration factors are seen. Evidence shows that glass acts as a ‘green’ heterogeneous catalyst: it participates as a base in the deprotonation step and is recovered unchanged from the reaction mixture.

Subsequent to this study, we have systematically explored the solid/solution interfacial acceleration phenomena using our latest generation of a high-throughput screening system which is capable of screening thousands of organic reactions in a single day. Using desorption electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (DESI-MS) for automated analysis, we have found that glass promotes not only organic reactions without organic catalysts but also reactions of biomolecules without enzymes. Such reactions include Knoevenagel condensation, imine formation, elimination of hydrogen halide, ester hydrolysis and/or transesterification of acetylcholine and phospholipids, as well as oxidation of glutathione. Glass has been used as a general `green' and powerful heterogeneous catalyst.