Artykuły w czasopismach na temat „Bureau of War Records”

AbstractOn September 4, 1939, a special bureau was established within the legal department of the Wehrmacht with the task of ‘ascertaining violations of international law committed by enemy military and civilian persons against members of the German armed forces, and investigating whatever accusations foreign countries should make against the Wehrmacht’. The purpose of this article is to provide a brief overview of the material collected by the Germans during the war, to test the credibility of the German investigations, review case-studies and inquire into the integrity of the judges carrying out the investigations. The Wehrmacht bureau functioned from the very beginning until the final days of war. It investigated some 10,000 war crimes, of which the files for perhaps some 4,000 have survived. Half the files contain investigations of war crimes in the Soviet Union; the other volumes refer to war crimes allegedly committed by American, British, French, Polish, Yugoslav and other Allied nationals. After a careful review of the bureau's records and methods of operation, the conclusion is warranted that the investigations were carried out in a methodically correct manner and that many of the reports present prima facie cases that deserve further investigation. There remains thefundamental question of the judges' integrity, how it was possible for them to carry out investigations into Allied war crimes, when the German government, the SS, the Einsatzgruppen and the Wehrmacht were engaging in various degrees of official criminality. In search of an answer, the author reviews the testimony of numerous witnesses at the Nuremberg trials, including SS judge Georg Konrad Morgen, who had the commander of Buchenwald arrested on corruption charges, but was prevented from completing investigations into concentration camp killings. Hitler's order no. I concerning secrecy appears to have been largely observed, thus frustrating investigation attempts and keeping knowledge of the Holocaust relatively limited.

Abstract By looking at list-making and comparative assessments of trade, this article on central administrative practices of record management aims at discussing the mobilization of archives in French colonial supervision in the eighteenth century. A Bureau des Colonies was created in the French Secretariat of the Marine in 1710: from the very outset, its main mission was to deal with the colonial records, mostly correspondence, through which the colonies were administered. Archives had been collected and classified in the Bureau des archives from 1699 onwards. But this implied an effort in the organization of papers: throughout the eighteenth century, the imperial administration created several other documentary tools that produced a simplified and ideal vision of the empire and of its place in the global order. Looking at the kinds of papers produced by the colonial administration and where these records were kept provides insight into how the central authorities understood the colonial empire. The paperwork shaped the way administrators understood empire, through operations carried out by the clerks on the records. Records were collected from all the colonies and actors, with a growing sense of being a unique agency possessing relevant records that were reduced to similar storage units by agents without field experience. In fact, archives became crucial in strengthening the empire as a political unity, under a centralized metropolitan direction, mainly after the Seven Years’ War.

Historians and social scientists have relied on contemporaneous textual accounts to document African American mobility in the immediate aftermath of emancipation after the Civil War, but they have interpreted them in widely varying ways. Some emphasize large-scale migration across the South, while others suggest that most movements were local and limited. This research tracks the early or “first wave” of African American migrants between 1865 and 1867 within and out of the South in an attempt to map the motion taking place after the war and to document the scale, direction, and intensity of African American mobility in the period between 1865 and 1867. The Freedmen's Bureau records indicate certain kinds of movements within the South, while our census methodology shows that there was more movement out of the South than accounted for in the Freedmen's Bureau labor records or previously accounted for in the historiography. Further, we observe two types of movement: short-term migration based on one-year contracts, perhaps returning to the point of origin, and another movement not always mediated through the Freedmen's Bureau that was more long term, but also subject to the freedperson's return to the point of origin. We seek to chart the process of emancipation over time and across space, detecting spatial patterns on an otherwise highly variable individual experience. No study has used the Freedmen's Bureau labor contracts to trace African American labor movements, and no study has deployed the 1880 individual census data to examine African American migration based on birthplace cohorts.

Drawing on declassified records of the little-known Federal Bureau of Narcotics, this article examines counternarcotics operations in postwar Istanbul in the context of the Cold War and its impact on U.S. officials’ conceptions of national security. Ever-expanding drug control operations demonstrated the emergence of U.S. hegemonic impulses independent of the deepening conflict with the Soviet Union. The article challenges the view that U.S. policy on drug control during the early Cold War era existed primarily as an adjunct of the “deep state.” Actual U.S. policies were shaped by a much more complex set of factors.

William Albertson, who was executive secretary of the New York Communist Party and a member of the National Committee of the Communist Party USA (CPUSA), was framed as an informant for the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) in 1964. Only in recent years have newly released FBI records enabled scholars to understand why the FBI undertook the operation and how much damage it did to the CPUSA. In 1964 two leaks from the FBI hinted that the bureau had a high-level informant in the CPUSA who was providing information about secret Soviet subsidies. The leaks were accurate and endangered one of the FBI's most successful intelligence operations, Operation Solo, which involved the use of two brothers, Morris Childs and Jack Childs, who were confidants of CPUSA General Secretary Gus Hall, as key informants. The framing of Albertson was intended to deflect CPUSA and Soviet attention from the real FBI informants to a bogus one. The ploy succeeded. The forged documents the FBI planted convinced Hall and other senior CPUSA officials that Albertson was the FBI informant. Despite Albertson's vehement denials and energetic defense, he was expelled. The CPUSA thought it had eliminated the informant, and the Childs brothers were able to continue in their role until old age forced their retirement in 1977.

Pierwszą komórką lotniczą o charakterze archiwalnym była Komisja Historyczna, powstała w Paryżu w marcu 1940 r., która nie podjęła działalności. Akta lotnicze zostały ewakuowane w czerwcu 1940 r. do Wielkiej Brytanii przez kancelarzystów i złożone w Blackpool. We wrześniu 1940 r. powstała Komisja Likwidacyjna aktów b. Dowództwa Sił Powietrznych w Paryżu, która istniała do marca 1941 r., po czym przeszła w stan wegetacji. Na jej strukturach w grudniu 1941 r. powołano Biuro Historyczne Lotnictwa, którego zadaniem było gromadzenie, opracowywanie i przechowywanie dokumentów. W styczniu 1945 r. Biuro weszło w skład Służby Archiwalno-Muzealnej, a w lipcu tegoż roku doszło do przeniesienia Biura do Dunholme Lodge, gdzie stacjonowało do zakończenia swojej działalności w 1948 r. W ostatnich latach istnienia Biuro Historyczne zajmowało się opracowaniem i selekcją zbiorów. Ostatecznie zachowane przez lotnictwo dokumenty oraz pamiątki trafiły do Instytutu Historycznego im. gen. Sikorskiego w Londynie. Archival services of the Polish Air Force during the Second World War The Historical Commission, established in Paris in March 1940, can be considered the first archival cell of the Air Force, however, it never became operational. Records of the Air Force were evacuated in June 1940 to the United Kingdom by office workers, and deposited in Blackpool. In September 1940, the Records Liquidation Commission of the former Air Force Command in Paris was established, and existed until March 1941. After that time, its activities came to a halt. Based on its structures, in December 1941, the Aviation Historical Bureau was established. Its tasks included gathering, processing, and storing documents. In January 1945, the Bureau was incorporated into the Archival and Museum Services, and in July, the Bureau was transferred to Dunholme Lodge, where it remained until 1948, when it terminated its operations. In the final years of its existence, the Historical Bureau mainly dealt with processing and classifying the collections. Eventually, the records and memorabilia kept by the Air Force were deposited in the Sikorski Historical Institute in London.

Since World War Two, the USS Ranger (CV-4) has become perceived as incapable of combat in the Pacific Theater. Digitization has provided a new opportunity to examine its perception by commanders responsible for the carrier’s employment. These records reveal that the common perception of the carrier stemmed from diplomatic necessity, from an overworked bureau uneager for additional projects, and from commands eager to acquire Ranger for non-combat duty. Ranger was considered by the US Navy as fit for combat in the Pacific Theater during WWII, but other requirements overrode the need for one additional combatant carrier in the Pacific. À la suite de la Seconde Guerre mondiale, l’USS Ranger(CV-4) était considéré comme un porte-avions incapable de combattre dans le théâtre du Pacifique. La numérisation a permis aux commandants responsables de l’emploi du porte-avions d’examiner cette perception sous un nouvel angle. Ces documents révèlent que la perception commune du porte-avions provenait de la nécessité diplomatique, d’un bureau surchargé de travail qui voulait éviter des projets supplémentaires et de commandements désireux d’acquérir le Ranger pour des tâches non combattantes. La marine américaine considérait le Ranger comme étant apte au combat dans le théâtre du Pacifique pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale, mais d’autres exigences l’ont emporté sur la nécessité d’avoir un porte-avions de combat supplémentaire dans le Pacifique.

Purpose This scholarly work aims to investigate the business career of Alfred J. Kohlberg, an American importer of hand-embroidered handkerchiefs in 1922-1957. Design/methodology/approach This paper uses archival resources from the National Archives, the Herbert Hoover Presidential Library, the Hoover Institution Archives, the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Custom Courts records, Japanese Government records and other government documents. Findings Scholars have focused on how Kohlberg’s political activities paved the way for McCarthyism. The sources of his vast wealth have not received attention. Kohlberg parlayed a 1922 trip to Asia into a highly lucrative importing business specializing in Chinese napery. By 1930, he mostly imported hand-embroidered handkerchiefs for sale in upscale American department stores. He employed as many 12,000 people in his Shantou godown and contracted for the employment of at least 100,000 embroiderers and perhaps many hundreds of thousands more. Despite American Government policy and the wishes of other importers, Japanese occupation authority documents show that Kohlberg negotiated a bribe to keep the port open. This paper concludes that Kohlberg’s business reflected traditional Chinese business organization. While he stressed his patriotic activities during the Second World War, Kohlberg promoted his business interest over the national interest. Finally, the Chaoshan Region prospered by providing the modern world with traditional hand-produced goods. Research limitations/implications This work explains how the Chaoshan Region functioned in the global economy. It calls for a deeper examination of this entire industry in China and around the world. Originality/value This work uses documents from multiple archives, including Japan and the USA. It also includes declassified documents from the Federal Bureau Investigation. This work constitutes a template for international business history.

The Irish Easter Rebellion of 1916 produced shockwaves in US labor and radical circles arguably as great as those that emanated from the Russian Revolution of 1917. Yet while Bolshevik agitation in the United States in the aftermath of the Russian Revolution, along with its role in fostering a post – World War I “Red Scare,” has been carefully studied, the significance of the Irish Revolution for US labor and radical politics has received relatively little attention. This article uses the records of the Bureau of Investigation and the Department of Justice, among other sources, to suggest that American authorities were profoundly worried about the subversive influence of Irish Sinn Féin revolutionaries on the American labor and women’s suffrage movements. Authorities were right to be worried, for while some Irish and Irish American Sinn Féin advocates were social conservatives, others championed new forms of workers’ and women’s empowerment that fundamentally threatened existing social and political structures.

This article is an empirical study on Choi Myung-ik’s literature conducted in North Korea(1945-1967). There are three things discussed. First, I found several new first-round records that give a glimpse of Choi Myung-ik’s literary and social activities during the period of his return to North Korea. These activities include the revision of the date of birth, the year of school, the activities of the Education Bureau during the liberation period, the joint exhibition of the novel collection Engineer, and the dispatch to the local area Second, the writer discovered six books of Choi Myung-ik’s works. Except for the Bunin book Buddhist monk Seosan which is a copy of the Yanbian Competition Society, the rest are historical materials and children’s and youth literature. After the war, the essence of the most important literature was in those two. Third, 21 new pieces of Choi Myung-ik’s words, which were published in the continuous media during the period of his stay in North Korea, were discovered. Thus, the total number of episodes will increase to 78. It was put into 12 branches by Choi Myung-ik. It is a story with medium-length novels, short stories, bean novels, wall novels, saga stories, true stories, essays, pelletons, reviews, political theories, and juvenile novels. Choi Myung-ik was a dagalae writer. This article greatly expanded the scope of Choi Myung-ik’s literature. Waiting for quick research.

The article studies the creation of the first archival organization in Primorye, the Primorye Regional Archival Committee. It was due to the efforts of professors of the history and philology faculty (later, part of the Far Eastern State University), one of the first higher education institutions in the Russian Far East, established in Vladivostok in 1918 by the inteligentsia escaping the Civil War. The article attempts to identify and systematize the scattered papers of departmental archives in order to promote the development of the archiving and the study of the region. The research has revealed several factors that contributed to the emergence of archiving in the Far East, one of them large-scale migration during the Civil War with predominance of educated and enterprising people. After receiving the status of scientific institution, the Primorye Regional Archival Committee (later, the Primorye Province Archival Bureau) reviewed, collected, and described documents in major departmental archives of the region, thus laying the foundation of archiving in the Russian Far East, and, moreover, identified historical artifacts, thus providing a headstart for archaeologists and ethnographers. The first archivists laid down professional foundations for archival studies in the Far East. Their methodological recommendations published in the Bulletin of the Primorie Regional Archival Committee (Izvestiya Primorskoi oblastnoi arkhivnoi komissii) or separately haven’t yet lost their significance. Promulgation of archiving and public involvement in the search for valuable historical records and objects provide an example of skill and efficacy. These activities were all the more significant since they started on a voluntary basis, with no official support or funding. The article draws on publications and materials from the personal archive of A. P. Georgievsky (1888–1955), archivist and educator. New materials help to clarify the first archivists’ biographical data and to assess the significance of their activities in identifying and collecting data about the history of the Far East and for further development of its archives.

Overview This article examines the Westinghouse Science Talent Search over the first sixteen years of its operation. A national contest involving thousands of high school seniors annually, it reflected a growing national concern with developing scientific manpower in the midst of global conflict, the Cold War, and a growing military–industrial complex. Background/Context While there have been recent studies on the historical development of science education, particularly in the mid-twentieth century and immediate postwar era, little attention has been devoted to such extracurricular activities as science fairs and academic contests. This study addresses this gap by examining a prominent national talent search competition, while assessing its place in the development of a meritocratic ethos in science. Focus of Study The study describes the genesis of the Science Talent Search, its approach to identifying winners, and the inequitable impact of this approach. Although the competition's organizers emphasized its meritocratic quality, our analysis demonstrates that the selection process that it employed systematically discriminated against certain groups of students. Research Design The study was conducted by historical research in primary and secondary sources, particularly those associated with the Science Talent Search in the first two decades of its existence. Statistical data also were compiled from Science Talent Search records and combined with data from the U.S. Office of Education and the Census Bureau to conduct an analysis of factors contributing to success in the contest. Conclusions/Recommendations Most Science Talent Search winners over the period in question were White males from large urban schools with greater financial resources. Women and African American students were underrepresented, as were students from rural areas and schools with relatively few resources. Ultimately, this national competition reflected social and cultural forces that shaped the science professions in a crucial period of their growth, and may have represented a lost opportunity to make scientific training more truly meritocratic at a formative time in its development.

Abstract BACKGROUND: Agent Orange (AO), a 1:1 mixture of herbicides + TCDD (2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin), was used during the Vietnam War to destroy dense jungle and enemy crops. In 2002 the Department of Veteran Affairs (VA) determined that chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) was associated with AO exposure. Case-control studies suggest an increased risk of death from CLL in areas where herbicide use was highest. There is also an increased incidence of other cancers (prostate, melanoma) in AO-exposed veterans. Limited data exists as to the specific impact of AO exposure on CLL disease presentation and outcome. METHODS: Patients (pts) diagnosed with CLL from 2009-2013 were identified in the National VAMC Tumor Registry. Baseline demographic and laboratory parameters were obtained, including Rai stage, marrow cytogenetics (when available), and lymphocyte doubling time (LDT). AO exposure was identified according to the medical record. The VA Benefits and Compensation officers determine AO exposure based on whether a person served on land and in the brown waters in Vietnam during the appropriate timeframe. Timing and types of CLL therapies were identified to determine if AO exposure influenced CLL treatment. RESULTS: 2052 CLL pts were identified, of which 418 had AO exposure. AO-exposed pts presented at a younger age (63.2 versus [vs] 70.5 years (yrs), p <0.0001), had a higher hemoglobin (14.3 vs 13.8 g/dl, p<0.001) and lower lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) (203 vs 227 IU/L, p = 0.01) compared to those without AO exposure. There were no differences in white cell, platelet, or absolute lymphocyte counts, Rai stage or LDT among the groups. Cytogenetic data was available for 1167 pts. There was no difference in the incidence of 17p-, 11q-, or 13q- between the two groups. Median overall survival (OS) was significantly better in patients with AO exposure, even when adjusted for age and Rai stage (median not reached vs 91.2 months, p <0.0001. OS benefit was primarily seen in pts age 60-69 yrs (p = 0.002), and those with 11q- (p = 0.001). No OS differences were found in pts with 17p- or 13q-. Among all pts, regardless of AO exposure status, OS decreased with higher Rai stage. There was a trend towards AO-exposed pts to be more likely to receive CLL-directed therapies (37% vs 32%, p = 0.07). AO exposed pts were more likely, than unexposed pts, to receive therapies as follows: fludarabine, chlorambucil, rituximab (FCR) first-line (38% vs 21%) and second-line (11.6 vs 5%); bendamustine + rituximab (BR) first-line (25% vs 18%), second-line (35 vs 26%), and third-line (31 vs 23%). Pts with no AO exposure were more likely to receive single agent chlorambucil or cyclophosphamide as first-line therapy (17 vs 10%). CONCLUSION: Pts with AO exposure, compared to unexposed pts, had an OS benefit independent of age and Rai stage, with this benefit seen primarily in younger pts (age 60-69 yrs) and in those with 11q-. AO-exposed pts were also more likely to receive disease-specific therapy. This unexpected OS finding will require further analyses for confounding variables, but could potentially be related to earlier treatment with regimens as FCR or BR. Disclosures Morrison: Celgene: Speakers Bureau; Genentech: Speakers Bureau; Gilead: Speakers Bureau; Pharmacyclics: Speakers Bureau; Celgene: Other: Data Monitoring Committee; Merck: Other: Adjudication Committee.

Abstract Introduction: Multiple myeloma (MM) is a progressive, rarely curable, B-cell malignancy (McCachren et al. 2021). The incidence is increasing, with the greatest acceleration in emerging markets (Cowan et al. 2016). Optimal management amidst emerging treatments is challenging (Bruno et al. 2020; Mohty et al. 2020). This study aimed to obtain real-world data on treatment, toxicity and healthcare utilization in patients with MM in emerging markets. Methods: INTEGRATE is an international, multi-center, retrospective, observational study of the medical records of alive or deceased patients aged ≥18 years with newly diagnosed (NDMM) or relapsed/refractory (RRMM) disease between 1 January 2010 and 31 December 2011 (Figure 1). The primary objective was to describe the time to next treatment (TTNT) at each line of therapy. Results: Patient records were screened at 45 centers across Argentina, China, Republic of Korea, Russia, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, Taiwan and Turkey. In the NDMM group (N=1,511), patients were followed up for a median 56.9 months, 50.6% were male and predominantly White (50.2%) or Asian (37.9%). The mean age at diagnosis was 59.6 years (range 24.4-97.3 years). Most patients (51.4%) had immunoglobulin G (IgG) myeloma, and 32.0% had IgG kappa and were staged using International Staging System criteria (49.6%). Many patients had bone lesions in 1-3 sites (43.3%) and a majority had no fluorescence in situ hybridization data reported. There were 481 (31.8%) patients who underwent frontline stem-cell transplantation (SCT), of the 987 patients who did not, 121 (12.3%) were eligible for transplant. In the RRMM group (N=621), patients were followed up for a median 62.2 months, 50.1% were male, 57.0% White and 32.2% Asian. The mean age at diagnosis was 57.9 years (range 17.7-86.4 years). Most patients (52.5%) had IgG myeloma, 33.5% had IgG kappa, and 44.1% had bone lesions in more than three sites. Of the 144 patients eligible for SCT at the relapsed/refractory diagnosis, 98 (68.1%) underwent transplantation. The median time on first-line therapy was 6.0 months (interquartile range [IQR] 3.7-10.4), 6.4 months (IQR 3.2-11.9) at second line and 6.6 months (IQR 3.3-9.6) at third line for NDMM patients. In the RRMM group, the median time on first-line therapy was 5.7 months (IQR 3.5-9.0), 6.0 months (IQR 3.3-9.5) at second line and 6.0 months (IQR 3.1-10.9) at third line. The most common first-line therapies are shown in Table 1. The median TTNT for patients with NDMM was 39.5 months (95% confidence interval [CI] 37.6-42.6) at first line, 33.9 months (95% CI 28.8-37.0) at second line and 20.9 months (95% CI 17.1-27.1) at third line (Figure 2). In the non-SCT NDMM subgroup, 44% of patients had documented relapse or disease progression after first-line treatment and the 5-year OS rate was 64.6% (95% CI 61.2-67.9). In the SCT NDMM subgroup, 43.2% of patients had documented relapse or progression after first-line treatment and the 5-year OS rate was 73.5% (95% CI 69.1-77.4). In a risk factor analysis, Asian ethnicity (p&lt;0.001), bone marrow plasma cells at diagnosis (p&lt;0.001), no SCT performed frontline for NDMM (p=0.001), ISS stage II/III and the presence of either t(4;14), t(14;16) or del 17p13 (p=0.022) were associated with shorter TTNT in the NDMM patients. Conclusions: INTEGRATE is the largest real-world study to describe the management of MM across these eight emerging markets that remains reflective of the treatments currently available in these countries. We found time on therapy not dissimilar to cohorts in Europe and the US (Mohty et al. 2020; Hari et al. 2018) although the real-world OS appears longer than previous reports from Japan (Akizuki et al. 2020) and the US (Bruno et al. 2020). In addition, median duration of treatment during the first 3 lines of therapy are also very similar to that reported by Kwee et al. 2016. The INTEGRATE study highlights a wide variation between the TTNT and duration of treatment and has the potential to inform screening and management decisions based on available treatments to maximize lines of therapy. Figure 1 Figure 1. Disclosures Kim: Janssen, BMS: Research Funding. Schutz: Takeda: Honoraria; Johnson & Johnson: Honoraria; Sanofi: Honoraria. Mitina: Takeda: Honoraria, Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees. Chng: Novartis: Honoraria, Research Funding; Antengene: Honoraria; Pfizer: Honoraria; Sanofi: Honoraria; AbbVie: Honoraria; Amgen: Honoraria; BMS/Celgene: Honoraria, Research Funding; Johnson & Johnson: Honoraria, Research Funding; Takeda: Honoraria; Aslan: Research Funding. Wu: Takeda: Current Employment, Current equity holder in publicly-traded company. Wan: Takeda: Current Employment. Huang: Takeda: Current Employment, Current equity holder in publicly-traded company. Beksac: BMS: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees, Speakers Bureau; Janssen: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees, Speakers Bureau; Sanofi: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees, Speakers Bureau; Amgen: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees, Speakers Bureau; Oncopeptides: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees, Speakers Bureau; Takeda: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees, Speakers Bureau.

This article critically analyses the operations of the Criminal Records Bureau (‘the CRB’) and seeks to determine why the Bureau closed abruptly in December 2012. It questions whether the decision to open in March 2002 was expedient, in light of the apparent flaws in the operational assumptions made by Capita Plc, the successful bidder for the CRB contract, and the long-standing problems with the criminal records data. The article then identifies three key failings in the administration of the criminal records checks which it is submitted quickly and decisively eroded public and political confidence in the Bureau. The article concludes by considering who, if anyone, is responsible for the apparent failure of the CRB, and what lessons might be learned by the organisation which replaced it.

Recent scandals in the churches relating to the abuse of children and vulnerable adults have led to a desire to protect those to whom the churches minister by putting in place safeguards which screen out those not suitable to work in this capacity. For the Roman Catholic Church, the implementation of the Nolan Report has been a key part of this process, together with the setting up of the Catholic Office for the Protection of Children and Vulnerable Adults(COPCA). The Conference of Religious (the representative body of priests, sisters and brothers who belong to religious orders) has also been involve in ongoing dialogue with diocesan bishops about how the recommendations of the Nolan Report might best be implemented At the same time, concerns have been raised about whether some of the measures being implemented compromise important principles of privacy and confidentiality. This discussion looks at this from the particular viewpoint of a nun1 who does not work with children or vulnerable adults, and explores whether she is required to undergo checks by the Criminal Records Bureau simply by virtue of being a nun.

Eight species of flowering platns, viz. Corydalis vaginans Royle, Lepidium virginicum L., Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronq., Erigeron annuus (L.) Pers. Gentiana crassuloides Bureau et Franchet, Orobianche cernua Loefl. Var. pseudo-clarkei Jafri, Chenopodium murale L. and Eleocharis retroflexa (Poir.) Urb. Have been described as new records for the Flora of Ladakh. Of these Gentiana crassuloides Bureau et Franchet, Chenopodium murale L., Eleocharis retroflexa (Poir.) Urb. are being recorded for the first time from the state of Jammu & Kashmir.

Archive management in universities is an obligation contained in Law no. 43 of 2009 concerning Archives. Pawyatan Daha University as an organization engaged in the field of education one of its administrative activities is to carry out the filing process carried out by the Bureau of Academic Administration, Student Affairs and Alumni (BA2AK). The purpose of this study was to identify and describe the implementation of active dynamic archive management in improving public services at the Bureau of Academic Administration, Student Affairs and Alumni (BA2AK) based on Law no. 43 of 2009 concerning Archives. This type of research uses descriptive research with a qualitative approach. The results of this study are that the Implementation of Dynamic Archive Management in the Bureau of Academic Administration, Student Affairs, and Alumni (BA2KA) Pawyatan Daha University based on Law no. 43 of 2009 concerning archive management has not run optimally. This is because the results of the analysis of the 4 stages of management contained in Law no. 43 of 2009 concerning archive management has been implemented but each of these stages is not running optimally. There are still many shortcomings at each stage for archive management, especially at the storage and retrieval stage. Storage and retrieval, most of which still have an impact on the lack of ineffective and efficient archive management, so it is necessary to improve digital management

The Census Bureau evaluates the quality of the decennial census in two ways: through a systematic reinterview program to check the original work; and through demographic analysis. Reinterviews replicate some of the original data collection as closely as possible under tight supervisory control or with supplementary questions. Demographic analysis compares population estimates (based on birth, death and immigration records) with census field results.

Americans can be thankful for their many wise and articulate analysts in such places as the Brookings Institution and Time's Washington bureau, as well as in the State Department and other branches of the U.S. Government. Leon V. Sigal, for example, was a visiting scholar at' Brookings when he wrote Nuclear Forces in Europe. His already wide reading knowledge had been enriched by experience as assistant director of the Bureau of Politico-Military Affairs in 1970-80 and by discussions with others at Brookings (for instance, Raymond L. Garthoff, former executive secretary of the SALT I delegation). Strobe Talbott has written two previous books on arms control and foreign policy while working in Washington as Time's diplomatic correspondent. Trained at Yale and Oxford, he has served also in the London and Moscow offices of Time. Talbott has read widely and seems to have easy access to many U.S. policymakers on arms control. Sigal and Talbott display not only a powerful mastery of the relevant facts, but also an ability to present complexities with elegant clarity. They have additional gifts of empathy, wisdom, and cautious realism concerning what can and should be done about arms limitation.

The transition from slavery to freedom in the post-Civil War American South featured the efforts of the Freedmen's Bureau (FB) to help ex-slaves overcome an extremely hostile, racist environment that included the need to articulate new labor relations structures given the demise of the plantation system, to overcome the limitations on equality legislated by the infamous Black Codes, to address the pressing need to educate masses of highly illiterate black children, and the need to provide protection for freedmen from unscrupulous landowners. This paper seeks to measure the degree to which accounting and those performing accounting functions for the FB were able to ameliorate these dire conditions that have caused Reconstruction to be perceived as one of the most negative epochs in the history of American democracy.

<p><strong>Abstract.</strong> In Japan, the political system was changed greatly and new Meiji government under Meiji Emperor was born in 1868. Meiji government made great efforts to modernize Japan to hold its independence, hiring many professionals from the western advanced countries, sending many students to the western advanced countries, establishing obligatory education system, and so on.</p><p>It invited French military mission to modernize its army. The mission arrived in Japan in 1872 and stayed until 1880 changing its members. It included engineer officers as follows: Engineer captain Albert Jourdan (1872&amp;ndash;1878), Engineer captain Ernest Vieillard (1873&amp;ndash;1876), Engineer lieutenant captain Lucian Kreitmann (1876-1888) and two other engineer officers succeed until 1880. They worked fundamentally as the teachers of engineering including survey and mapping. Jourdan had additional works as Coast Defense plan and military construction such as Military School.</p><p> Jourdan participated in the Japan Coast Defense Planning Mission headed by French mission chief and ordered by the Army Minister,Yamagata. Coast Defense Plan maps were drawn for Kagosima Bay, Hakodate Bay, Tsuruga Bay, etc. Japanese officers of the General Staff Bureau engaged in making base maps for planning and supported the Mission in the field. The mapping technology would be transferred to the Japanese officers on the job.</p><p>The French Mission members began various military educations in 1872. TIZU SAISIKI (Map Color Rule) was published in 1873, which was translated book by Tomohiro Kosuge (later, the founder and the first director of Japan Land Survey) and others from a French map book brought by Jourdan. Jourdan and Vieillard taught military engineering, based on the textbooks 1855 for French engineer regimental schools, which were translated by T. Kosuge and others and published as KOUHEI SOUTEN (Manual for Military Engineers) including Survey Division in 1873&amp;ndash;1875.</p><p>In 1875, Grand Military Field Exercise was held in Narashinohara near Tokyo, when the field was surveyed at 1/10,000 scale with six plane table teams including T. Kosuge directed by E. Vieillard and a map was compiled and published next year.</p><p>In 1876, the first three textbooks on mapping of the Military School were printed ; SOKUTI KOUHON (Land Survey Textbook), TIRIZUGAKU KOUHON (Topography Textbook) and SOKUTI KANHOU (Rapid Survey Method in the Military School. The former two were Kreitmann’s lecture records and the last one was translated book of a textbook of French Artillery and Engineering Application School Military Field Exercise was held in Narashinohara, when the field was surveyed with plane table method at 1/20,000 scale by the Military School pupils directed by L. Kreitmann. The compiled map was printed next year in the Military School.</p><p>In 1877, Seinan Civil War occurred in Kyushu Islan. Rapid survey maps were drawn by the members of the Survey Division of the Army Ministry. After the war, military field exercise was held in Shimoshidzu, when the field was surveyed with plane table method at 1/20,000 scale by the Military School pupils directed by L. Kreitmann. The compiled map was printed next year in the Military School.</p><p>In 1879, T. Kosuge was nominated to the head of the Survey Division, General Staff Office. He presented his second opinion, “Rapid Survey Plan of the Whole County “ without triangulation which remained as the object of study to the head of the General Staff Office and this plan was accepted.</p><p>In 1880 following the “Rapid Survey Plan”, the rapid survey began with plane table method at 1/20,000 scale in Kanto metropolitan area on a large scale.</p><p>In 1881, according the comparison of the results of the normal triangulation and the graphical triangulation on the plane table, it was concluded that the former should be adopted for the whole country control point survey and that the survey system and organization should be changed.</p><p>In 1889, Army Land Survey was founded by T. Kosuge following the model of Prussian Land Survey, Germany and the first director was T. Kosuge. However, KOUHEI SOUTEN (Manual for Military Engineers) Second Edition, Survey Division was published, translated from the textbook 1883 for the French Engineer Regimental School.</p>

This article seeks to explore the experiences of those boys who, in late 1930s/ early 1940s Sydney, were considered, by the courts and the churches, amongst others, to be 'the "problem" children of this community'. The sources for this exploration are the records of the Metropolitan Children's Court, Surry Hills and the Christ Church St Laurence Boys' Welfare Bureau. Children's courts were established in New South Wales in 1905. From 1934 onwards all metropolitan cases were heard at Surry Hills. The Boys' Welfare Bureau was established in April 1936 by Christ Church St Laurence, an Anglican church situated near Central Railway Station, Sydney. The records of the Bureau and the Court provide insights into the ways in which both religion and the law attempted to shape the lived experience of these boys, in inner city Sydney, within the context of current ideas about juvenile delinquency and its treatment.

Carlisle Museum's Natural History Record Bureau, Britain's first local environmental records centre, collected and collated records, mainly of birds but including also mammals and fishes, from amateur naturalists. It initially covered an area of 80 kilometres around Carlisle, and later from Cumberland, Westmorland and the detached portion of Lancashire north of Morecambe Bay: in effect the modern-day county of Cumbria. At the end of each year, those records which had been accepted were logged in a special “Record Book”, and a summary published. For the first eight years of its ten-year existence (1902–1912), these were printed in the local newspaper, The Carlisle Journal, but from 1908 they also appeared in The Zoologist. Alongside the Record Bureau, the Museum undertook a number of other activities, including a short-lived attempt to establish a bird-ringing project, an investigation into the impact of black-headed gulls ( Chroicocephalus ridibundus) on farming and fisheries interests (an early example of economic ornithology), the setting up of Kingmoor Nature Reserve and the protection of nesting peregrines ( Falco peregrinus), buzzards ( Buteo buteo) and ravens ( Corvus corax). The effectiveness of the Natural History Record Bureau and the reasons for its demise are briefly discussed.

In 1910 Gustav Warneck received nominations and support for both the Nobel Peace Prize and the Nobel Prize for Literature. His boosters, mostly from Germany but also from elsewhere in Europe, later speculated that Warneck's failure to secure an award was because his dual nomination prevented enough support for either prize. Instead, they went to theBureau international permanent de la Paix(Permanent International Peace Bureau) and to German poet and author Paul Johann Ludwig Heyse. The laudatory merits of the Permanent International Peace Bureau and Heyse aside, what had made Warneck worthy in the minds of so many for a Nobel Prize?

The umrah bureau sector in Indonesia has great business potential. The increasing number of umrah pilgrims are not accompanied by a level of literacy towards the credibility of the bureau. This raises problem in the form of umrah bureau business practices that are illegal. A lot of fraud cases has caused huge losses to the pilgrims as consumers. This study aims to reveal the factors that causes umrah bureau fraud and formulate anticipatory steps for bureau that indicated fake. The method used is narrative review by elaborating previous research, literature studies, and also supporting database of cases that validate. This research composed by 35 literatures synthesized. The characteristics of the umrah bureau which are indicated fake, including: 1) sloping prices accompanied by promos; 2) travel legality; and 3) ponzi business model. To anticipate, prospective pilgrims should not be tempted by the promos offered by bureau. Prospective pilgrims must also dig up information related to permits, track records and feedback, as well as transparency of facilities that will be provided by the bureau. Regulators must tighten supervision of the business climate through cooperation with associations of umrah organizers in the local area. That way, consumer protection for the umrah bureau will be more secure.

Abstract "Federal Reclamation and the American West in the Twentieth Century" looks at four phases in the history of the Bureau of Reclamation. The first phase lasted from the adoption of the Reclamation Act of 1902 into the 1930s. In those years, the bureau attempted to create small family farms by bringing water to the desert lands of the West. That effort failed, in part because farming was becoming less attractive in the United States during the early decades of the 20th century, in part because irrigation was too expensive, and in part because the bureau made many mistakes in administering the 30 projects it created. A second phase of the bureau’s life began in the 1930s, with the "high dam era." From 1930 into the 1950s, the bureau’s mission became inconsistent as it strived to serve a new constituency, city dwellers and industries on the Pacific Coast, at the same time it continued to push the family farm. The bureau entered a third phase of life after World War II, when the power it generated became identified with winning the Cold War against the Soviet Union and agribusiness eclipsed the family farm in the West. Finally, once big dams began to look too expensive and like "old technology," the bureau recreated itself into an agency which now claims to work in the interest of protecting the environment and serving as the West’s "water broker." The Bureau of Reclamation, which has done as much as any federal agency to build the modern American West, has shown an amazing ability to pursue inconsistent objectives and to recreate itself.

On New Year’s Day in 1863, President Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, freeing the slaves in much of the South. Lincoln’s act transformed the Civil War from a sectional rebellion to a war of liberation. Although the proclamation’s immediate legal effect was minimal, since it touched only those areas still resisting Union authority, its political effect was far reaching and dramatic. With a single stroke of his pen, Lincoln ensured that the Union victory would create a new class of citizens, the freedmen, numbering well over 3 million. Almost all of these new citizens were landless and destitute. Despite their new legal status, they were faced at the war’s end with a social structure that regarded them as inferior, treating them with contempt at best and with violent fury at worst. In emancipating the slaves and overturning the economic and social basis of southern society, the federal government shouldered the responsibility of finishing what it had begun, making the freedmen citizens.

AbstractThe damaged and sunken ships of Pearl Harbor contained information on the response of ships and their damage control teams to modern weapons. As they were raised to be repaired, the physical evidence of damaged areas was carefully recorded. The Navy’s ship design organization, the Bureau of Ships (Buships), combined the physical evidence with crew action reports to determine what worked and what did not. Buships published the results in almost 70 War Damage Reports, which were illustrated with photographs and newly prepared extent-of-damage drawings. This paper is a high-level introduction to that massive body of work.The customers of the reports were the damage control schools, the operational fleet (needing to ruthlessly remove flammable materials), the naval repair yards (installing ship alterations to overcome deficiencies), and the designers of new construction warships. The report series was continued covering ships damaged or lost in the Pacific battles. Modern warship features that are now thought of as “good practice,” such as ring fire mains with one line high and the other low on the opposite side of the ship, are a result of “lessons learned” from the war damage surveys. The paper compares the 1938 design Iowa class battleships and the war design Des Moines class heavy cruisers, which incorporated the lessons learned. The differences in compartmentation and damage control fittings of the two classes are described.

Introduction to the January 2004 issue of Notes and Records with a picture of Sir George Airy who, as Astronomer Royal, was a member of the International Commission on the Metre (1870) which established the Metric Sytem and led to the Convention du Mètre (1875) and the International Bureau of Weights and Measures.

AbstractAlthough most all contemporary studies of China and Africa focus on current economic or foreign policy concerns, this article provides a preliminary mapping of Africa-China cultural exchanges during the Cold War. Growing out of the Africa-Asia Conference of Bandung, Indonesia, in 1955, the Afro-Asian Writers Bureau forged third world solidarities via an alternative conception of postcolonialism based on the transnationalism of global South cultural struggle. By analyzing the cultural exchanges of the bureau, and in particular their definition ofworld literature, this article seeks to move beyond postcolonial scholarship that focuses exclusively on a vertical relationship between the colonizer and colonized. In so doing, it both reinterprets the Cold War from outside of an American and Soviet dichotomy and provides a critical cultural historicization to China’s current, and often controversial, presence in Africa.

AbstractThe United Nations Technical Assistance Administration (TAA) was the world organization’s main body for development advice throughout the 1950s. In technical assistance, the UN found a global mission at a time when its peace and security functions seemed ineffective. Technical assistance experts preached the need for less developed countries to plan and modernize. This process has been studied with regard to American modernization theory, but the important role of the UN as an autonomous diplomatic actor has been less visible. The UN was a relatively acceptable source of technical assistance for many governments. Among them was Indonesia, which welcomed UN help for its State Planning Bureau. TAA aid to the Planning Bureau advanced the interests of both organizations but both failed to institutionalize themselves enough to survive the decade. Both, however, left important legacies: the TAA for UN development thinking, and the Planning Bureau for the Indonesian developmentalist state.

Amid war and occurring natural disasters such as earthquakes and floods, protecting and preserving cultural heritage as well as records related to it is of the most significant importance. The Ministry of Culture and Media of the Republic of Croatia has recognized the importance of the preservation of national cultural heritage leading the project “E-culture – digitization of cultural heritage“. The Croatian Memorial Documentation Centre of the Homeland War also aspires to join and participate in the project. Besides records of the military and civil institutions related to the Homeland War, the Croatian Memorial Documentation Center of the Homeland War aims to include documents on broader areas of activities from the Homeland War and related to the War in its collections. Accordingly, one of the most important collections is the one with archives of records related to the Croatian cultural heritage in Homeland War. The aim of the paper is to describe the quantity, characteristics and contents of the archive records related to the Croatian cultural heritage destroyed during the Homeland War in Croatia that is stored in the Croatian Memorial Documentation Center of the Homeland War.

Problems of criminal records classification have been studied. The article considers classification of criminal records according to the main criteria: intended purpose, degree of centralization and functional (target) purpose. Criminal records develop and operate within various state bodies of Ukraine, therefore records can be classified by intended purpose as follows: records of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Ukraine; State Tax Service of Ukraine; State Customs Service of Ukraine; Security Service of Ukraine; State Bureau of Investigation of National Anti-Corruption Bureau; General Prosecutor’s Office, etc.All of them are aimed at facilitating investigation of criminal offenses. At the same time, criminal records of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Ukraine, in turn include records of: the National Police of Ukraine, functioning in the department of information and analytical support; State Border Guard Service of Ukraine; State Migration Service of Ukraine; Main service center of MIA of Ukraine; Expert Service of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Ukraine. It has been proved that according to the degree of centralization, records should be divided into central, regional and local; but at the same time, the virtual absence of records in the expert service at the local level is stressed, which is confirmed by results of studying case files of criminal proceedings and interviews of investigators. According to the view of authors, criminal record keeping of objects at the local level in the general classification should be left for further consideration, but responsibility for its formation and functioning should be assigned to the city departments of technical and forensic support of police. Classification of criminal records by functional (target) purpose into search and reference ones is substantiated. At the same time, it is noted that reference and support records in the form of collections have lost their meaning today and cannot make up the system of criminal records. In view of the authors, they can be characterized as information databases formed and operating in cyberspace and that can be both freely available and owned by enterprises, institutions, organizations and individuals. In practice, this type of record keeping practically non-existent which is evidenced by studying work results of investigative police departments and expert service.

Fitting to its doctrine of preventiv war, the Bush Administration founded a bureau of reconstruction, designing reconstruction plans for countries which are still not destroyed. Reconstruction after war or after a “natural disaster” developed to a profitable branch of capitalist investment. Also the possibilities to change basic political and economic structures are high and they are widely used by the US-government and institutions like the International Monetary Fund.

During World War II, when the Office of War Information urged the American film companies to help the nation win the war, the OWI's Bureau of Motion Pictures delivered both moral support and guidance. The BMP “Manual” (1942), for instance, encouraged producers to show women dropping off their children at day-care centers, then cheerfully heading off to jobs where they enjoyed equal opportunity and equal pay. Scenes like those may have been fantasy, and for some women wryly amusing, and yet, in the late 1940s and beyond, as one historian says, World War II came to be thought of as “the best war ever,” the war, according to myth, where there were no tensions over class, or race, or gender.

ABSTRACT Farmer, teacher, law student, Union Army soldier and captain, Freedmen's Bureau agent, plantation owner, entrepreneur, state senator, and U.S. consul were among the many positions held by Marshall Harvey Twitchell. This paper draws from an archive to illustrate some of the business dealings of a successful Vermonter in postbellum Louisiana.

The World Trade Center Attack or 9/11 tragedy has awakened the international community, particularly the United States (US) to sharpen its foreign policy in facing security threats coming from ‘weak states’. One of the most prominent weak states examples that pose a grave threat to other countries are the Northern Triangle Countries of Central America that referred to Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador. Hence, this paper will discuss the rationale behind US initiatives in dealing with security threats in El Salvador as one of the Northern Triangle Countries. In analyzing the case, the writers will use the weak state concept and national interest concept. The result of this paper finds that El Salvador corresponds to the elements of a weak state and further poses security threats by giving rise to transnational criminal organizations, drug trafficking, and migrant problems in which overcoming those security threats has become US vital national interest. However, we also find that although decreasing security threats and strengthening El Salvador government capacity is highly correlated, strengthening El Salvador governance through the providence of aid and assistance is actually classified as US important national interest. Keywords: Security threats; Northern Triangle; weak state; El Salvador; national interest REFERENCES Ambrus, Steven. “Guatemala: The Crisis of Rule of Law and a Weak Party System.” Ideas Matter, January 28, 2019. https://blogs.iadb.org/ideas-matter/en/guatemala-the-crisis-of-rule-of-law-and-a-weak-party-system/. Andrade, Laura. Transparency In El Salvador. 1st ed. 1. El Salvador: University Institute for Public Opinion, Asmann, Parker. “El Salvador Citizens Say Gangs, Not Government 'Rule' the Country.” InSight Crime, August 19, 2020. https://insightcrime.org/news/brief/el-salvador-citizens-say-gangs-not- government-rules-country/. Accessed July 11, 2021. Art, Robert J. A. Grand Strategy for America. Ithaca: Century Foundation/Cornell UP, 2004. BBC News Indonesia "Kisah Di Balik MS-13, Salah Satu Geng Jalanan Paling Brutal Di Dunia." BBC News Indonesia. BBC, April 21, 2017.https://www.bbc.com/indonesia/majalah-39663817.Accessed July 11, 2021. Bureau of Western Hemisphere Affairs “U.S. Relations With El Salvador - United States Department of State.” U.S. Department of State. U.S. Department of State, April 14, 2021.https://www.state.gov/u-s-relations-with-el-salvador/. Accessed July 11, 2021. “Bureau of International Narcotics and Law ENFORCEMENT Affairs: El Salvador Summary -United States Department of State.” U.S. Department of State. U.S. Department of State, February3, 2021. https://www.state.gov/bureau-of-international-narcotics-and-law-enforcement-affairs-work-by-country/el-salvador-summary/. Central Intelligence Agency. Central Intelligence Agency, July 6, 2021. https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/el-salvador/. Accessed July 11, 2021. Dudley, Steven, and Avalos, Silva “MS13 In the Americas: How the World’s Most Notorious Gang Defies Logic, Resists Destruction. National Institute of Justice”, 2018. “El Salvador Homicides Jump 56 Percent as Gang Truce Unravels.” Reuters, December 30,2014.https://www.reuters.com/article/us-el-salvador-violence-idUSKBN0K81HR20141230. Eizenstat, Stuart E., John Edward Porter, and Jeremy M. Weinstein. “Rebuilding Weak States.”Foreign Affairs 84, no. 1 (2005): 134. https://doi.org/10.2307/20034213. FOXBusiness. “How MS-13, One of America's Most Dangerous Gangs, Is Funded.” Fox Business.Fox Business, April 19, 2017.https://www.foxbusiness.com/features/how-ms-13-one-of-americas-most-dangerous-gangs-is-funded. Accessed July 11, 2021. Fukuyama, Francis.Cornell University Press. Ithaca, USA: Cornell University Press, 2004. Galdamez, Eddie. “Water Pollution in El Salvador. Getting Worse Every Year.” El Salvador INFO,June 30, 2021. https://elsalvadorinfo.net/water-pollution-in-el-salvador/. Accessed July 11, 2021. Gies, Heather. “Once Lush, El Salvador Is Dangerously Close to Running out of Water.” Environment. National Geographic, May 4, 2021.https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/el-salvador-water-crisis-drought-climate-change. Accessed July 11, 2021. Giedraityte, Ieva. “Empire, Leadership OR Hegemony: US Strategies towards the Northern Triangle Countries in the 21st Century.” Latin American Yearbook – Political Science and International Relations 7 (2019): 175. https://doi.org/10.17951/al.2019.7.175-192. “Government Revenues.” Government Revenues - Countries - List. Accessed August 4, 2021.https://tradingeconomics.com/country-list/government-revenues. “Guatemala: An Assessment of Poverty.” Poverty Analysis - Guatemala: An Assessment of Poverty. Accessed August 4, 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20161225194831/http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/ TOPICS/EXTPOVERTY/EXTPA/0,,contentMDK:20207581~menuPK:443285~pagePK:148956~piPK:216618~theSitePK:430367,00.html. Herningtyas, Ratih. "Weak State As A Security Threat: A Case Study Of Colombia." Journal of International Relations 2, no. 2 (2014): 146-156. “Honduras.” World Bank. Accessed August 4, 2021. https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/honduras#:~:text=Honduras%20is%20a%20low%20middle,than%20US%241.90%20per%20day. Iesue, Laura. “The Alliance for Prosperity Plan: A Failed Effort for Stemming Migration,” COHA, November 21, 2019, https://www.coha.org/the-alliance-for-prosperity-plan-a-failed-effort-for-stemming-migration/. Accessed July 11, 2021 Indexmundi. “Countries Ranked by Intentional Homicides (per 100,000 People)." Countries ranked by Intentional homicides (per 100,000 people), n.d.,https://www.indexmundi.com/facts/indicators/VC.IHR.PSRC.P5/rankings. Accessed July 11,2021. Insight Crime. “Central America Regional Security Initiative (CARSI)." InSight Crime, October 18,2011, https://insightcrime.org/uncategorized/central-america-regional-security-initiative/. Accessed July 11, 2021 “Income Held by Top 20 Percent in El Salvador.” Statista, July 5, 2021.https://www.statista.com/statistics/1075313/el-salvador-income-inequality/. International Monetary Fund. “El Salvador: Selected Issues.” IMF Staff Country Reports 16, no. 206 (2016): 1. https://doi.org/10.5089/9781498342346.002. Interpol "El Salvador." El Salvador, n.d.,https://www.interpol.int/en/Who-we-are/Member-countries/Americas/EL-SALVADOR. Accessed July 11, 2021. “Key Issues AFFECTING Youth in El Salvador - OCDE.” Key Issues affecting Youth in El Salvador - OCDE. Accessed August 8, 2021.https://www.oecd.org/fr/pays/elsalvador/youth-issues-in-el-salvador.htm. Lakhani, Nina. “Gang Violence in El Salvador Fuelling Country's Child Migration Crisis.” The Guardian. Guardian News and Media, November 18, 2014.https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/nov/18/el-salvador-gang-violence-child-migration-crisis. Accessed July 11, 2021. “Life under Gang Rule in El Salvador.” Crisis Group, December 10, 2018. https://www.crisisgroup.org/latin-america-caribbean/central-america/el-salvador/life-under-gang-rule-el-salvador. Löwenheim, Oded. “Transnational Criminal Organizations and Security: The Case against Inflating the Threat.” International Journal 57, no. 4 (2002): 513–36. https://doi.org/10.2307/40203690. “Mano Dura: El Salvador Responds to Gangs.” Taylor & Francis. Accessed August 5, 2021.https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09614520701628121?journalCode=cdip20.Menjivar, Cecilia, and Andrea Gomez Cervates. “El Salvador: Civil War, Natural Disasters, and Gang Violence Drive Migration.” migrationpolicy.org, May 11, 2021.https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/el-salvador-civil-war-natural-disasters-and-gang-violence-drive-migration. Accessed July 11, 2021. Meyer, Peter J., and Ribando Clare Seelke. Central America Regional Security Initiative: Background and Policy Issues for Congress. Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress, Congressional Research Service, 2014. Michaels, Peter S. Lawless Intervention: United States Foreign Policy in El Salvador and Nicaragua, 6, 7, no. 2 (January 5, 1987). https://doi.org/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/71463263.pdf. OSAC. “El Salvador 2020 Crime & Safety Report,” https://www.osac.gov/Content/Report/b4884604- 977e-49c7-9e4a-1855725d032e. Days on July 9, 2021. “Overview.” World Bank. Accessed August 4, 2021. https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/elsalvador/overview. Patrick, Stewart. “Weak States and Global Threats: Assessing Evidence of Spillovers.” SSRN Electronic Journal, 2006, 1–31. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.984057. Published by Teresa Romero, and Jul 5. “Gini Coefficient: Wealth Inequality in El Salvador.” Statista,July 5, 2021.https://www.statista.com/statistics/983230/income-distribution-gini-coefficient-el-salvador/. “Remarks by President Obama after Meeting with Central American Presidents.” National Archives and Records Administration. National Archives and Records Administration. Accessed August 8, 2021. https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2014/07/25/remarks-president-obama-after-meeting-central-american-presidents. Riney, Lt Col Thomas J. “How Is MS-13 a Threat to US National Security? .” AIR WAR COLLEGE AIR UNIVERSITY , February 12, 2009. https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA540139.pdf. Rivera, Mauricio. “Drugs, Crime, and NONSTATE Actors in Latin America: Latin American Politics and Society.” Cambridge Core. Cambridge University Press, October 12, 2020. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/latin-american-politics-and-society/article/abs/drugs-crime-and-nonstate-actors-in-latin-america/67CF0B66AB8673D0C50F2F99AC93A1B7. Schneider, Mark. “Where Are the Northern Triangle Countries Headed? And What Is U.S. Policy?” Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS), July 9, 2021. https://www.csis.org/analysis/where-are-northern-triangle-countries-headed-and-what-us-policy. Seelke, Clare Ribando. “CRS Report for Congress.” El Salvador: Political, Economic, and Social Conditions and U.S. Relations, November 18, 2008. https://doi.org/https://www.refworld.org/pdfid/4951ec75e.pdf. Silva Avalos, Hector. “Corruption in El Salvador: Politicians, Police, and Transportistas.” SSRN, April 2, 2014. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2419174. Sleinan, Julett Pineda. “Salvadoran Court: Ex-President and Wife Guilty of Illicit Enrichment.” OCCRP. Accessed August 5, 2021. https://www.occrp.org/en/daily/13586-salvadoran-court-ex- president-and-wife-guilty-of-illicit-enrichment. The United States Department of Justice. “MS-13's Highest-Ranking Leaders Charged with Terrorism Offenses in the United States.”, January 19, 2021. https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/ms-13-s-highest-ranking-leaders-charged-terrorism-offenses-united-states. Retrieved July 9, 2021. Transformation Index. “BTI 2020 El Salvador Country Report.” BTI Blog, 2020. https://www.bti-project.org/en/reports/country-report-SLV.html. Accessed July 11, 2021. “U.S. Strategy for Engagement in Central America Results Architecture – Overall Summary.”State.gov. Accessed August 8, 2021. https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/U.S.-Central-America-Strategy-Objectives.pdf. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. “Death Threats and Gang Violence Forcing More Families to FLEE Northern Central America – UNHCR and Unicef Survey.” UNHCR. Accessed August 5, 2021. https://www.unhcr.org/news/press/2020/12/5fdb14ff4/death-threats-gang-violence-forcing-families-flee-northern-central-america.html. U.S. Department of Homeland Security, “Combating Gangs,” https://www.ice.gov/features/gangs.Diakses pada 9 Juli 2021. USAID, “GENERATING HOPE: USAID IN EL SALVADOR, GUATEMALA, AND HONDURAS,”https://www.usaid.gov/generating-hope-usaid-el-salvador-guatemala-and honduras. Diakses pada 8 Juli 2021. United States General Accounting Office, “EL SALVADOR Military Assistance Has Helped Counter but Not Overcome the Insurgency,” https://www.gao.gov/assets/nsiad-91-166.pdf. Retrieved July 8, 2021. U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement “Combating Gangs.”, January 27, 2021. https://www.ice.gov/features/gangs. Accessed July 9, 2021. Valencia, Robert. “MS-13 and Barrio 18 Gangs Allegedly Employ More People in El Salvador than the Country's Largest Employers.” Newsweek. Newsweek, November 2, 2018.https://www.newsweek.com/ms-13-barrio-18-gangs-employ-more-people-el-salvador-largest-employers-1200029. Accessed July 11, 2021 Wang, Shaoguang. "China's Changing of the Guard: The Problem of State Weakness." Journal of Democracy 14, no. 1 (2003): 36-42. doi:10.1353/jod.2003.0022. Weber, Max. “Economy and society: An outline of interpretive sociology. Vol. 1. Univ of California Press, 1978. Welsh, Teresa. “US to Resume Northern Triangle Aid, Pompeo Says.” devex, 2019.https://www.devex.com/news/us-to-resume-northern-triangle-aid-pompeo-says-95846. Whelan, Robbie. “Why Are People Fleeing Central America? A New Breed of Gangs Is Taking Over.” The Wall Street Journal. Dow Jones & Company, November 2, 2018. https://www.wsj.com/articles/pay-or-die-extortion-economy-drives-latin-americas-murder-crisis-1541167619. Retrieved July 8, 2021. Williams, Phil. "Transnational criminal enterprises, conflict, and instability." Turbulent Peace: The challenges of managing international conflict (2001): 97-112. World Bank. “Overview.” World Bank, October 9, 2020.https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/elsalvador/overview. Retrieved July 8, 2021.