Rozprawy doktorskie na temat „Beam”

The extreme electron beams are characterized by parameters that are comparable or superior to the state of the art. The beams parameters proposed in the more advanced machines under development or in operation demonstrate that extreme beam qualities are necessary to conceive experiments meeting the demands of cutting-edge research. The optimization of parameters such as brightness, beam current or energy spread plays a major role in the design choices of new and competitive machines. A large amount of simulations of beam dynamics is required, accompanied later by a specific R&D of machine components and demonstration experiments. In the field of beam dynamics, the development and improvement of tracking simulators and optimization tools is a main topic. For this reason, in the beam physics group of INFN & University of Milan the code GIOTTO, based on a genetic algorithm, is being developed for years specifically for this purpose. During the work of PhD, I developed new features in the GIOTTO code that allowed me to apply it to new type of problems: simulation of a beam based method for the increase of the brightness of linac beams, design from scratch of matching lines for plasma driven FELs (Free Electron Lasers), the study of new linear acceleration and compression techniques and a preliminary study on how to produce an ultra-cold beam for a quantum-FEL. All these works are united by being applied to linear machines dedicated to the production of high-brightness electron beams for various purposes. During the last year of PhD, I had the opportunity to participate in the design of an FEL source, named MariX. MariX is based on a compact acceleration scheme where the electron beam propagates twice through a superconducting standing wave linac thanks to an arc compressor that reverses the direction of the beam and compresses it.

The ANSI/AISC 360-10 Appendix-6 provisions provide limited guidance on the bracing requirements for beam-columns. In cases involving point (nodal) or shear panel (relative) lateral bracing only, these provisions simply sum the corresponding strength and stiffness requirements for column and beam bracing. Based on prior research evidence, it is expected that this approach is accurate to conservative when the requirements can be logically added. However, in many practical beam-column bracing situations, the requirements cannot be logically added. This is because of the importance of the brace and transverse load position through the cross-section depth, as well as the fact that both torsional and lateral restraint can be important attributes of the general bracing problem. These attributes of the bracing problem can cause the current beam-column bracing requirement predictions to be unconservative. In addition, limited guidance is available in the broader literature at the current time regarding the appropriate consideration of combined lateral and torsional bracing of I-section beams and beam-columns. Nevertheless, this situation is quite common, particularly for beam-columns, since it is rare that separate and independent lateral bracing systems would be provided for both flanges. More complete guidance is needed for the proper consideration of combined bracing of I-section beams and beam-columns in structural design. This research focuses on a reasonably comprehensive evaluation of the bracing strength and stiffness requirements for doubly-symmetric I-section beams and beam-columns using refined Finite Element Analysis (FEA) test simulation. The research builds on recent simulation studies of the basic bracing behavior of beams subjected to uniform bending. Various cases of beam members subjected to moment gradient are considered first. This is followed by a wide range of studies of beam-column members subjected to constant axial load and uniform bending as well as axial load combined with moment gradient loading. A range of unbraced lengths are considered resulting in different levels of plasticity at the member strength limit states. In addition, various bracing configurations are addressed including point (nodal) lateral, shear panel (relative) lateral, point torsional, combined point lateral and point torsional, and combined shear panel lateral and point torsional bracing.

Modern nuclear physics makes extensive use of exotic particle beams created using accelerators, such as unstable ion isotopes and antiprotons. These give access to a wide range of fundamental studies that are at the cutting edge of science. The commissioning and operation of these accelerators require powerful beam diagnostic devices that are specially adapted to these unusual, and often very faint, beams. The work leading to this thesis, focuses on the development of the beam diagnostic system of the future superconducting linear accelerator at the High Intensity and Energy Isotope Separator On-Line Device (HIE-ISOLDE), which shall deliver stable and unstable isotope beams ranging from Helium to Radium at beam energies between 0.3 and 10 MeV/u and intensities from few particles per second up to 1 nA. The main elements of the diagnostics system are a Faraday cup for the measurement of the absolute beam current, a scanning blade with a V-shaped slit, which together with the Faraday cup allows one to measure the transverse beam profile and the beam position, a silicon detector for energy spectroscopy and time of flight measurements, plus a set of collimators and attenuating or stripping foils. The performance of the beam instrumentation will impact directly on the operation of the facility, therefore a lot of care has been put to identify the performance requirements and ensure that the design fulfills the needs. The techniques used by the systems studied during this work are widely used, but had to be adapted to the special design of the superconducting HIE-ISOLDE Radioactive EXperiment (REX) linac. In particular the compactness of the accelerator, and as a consequence of the diagnostic devices, required pushing the understanding of the physics behind the techniques in order to overcome limitations in the design parameters usually considered unbreakable. For this realistic models of all devices had to be developed that allowed detailed numerical studies. This new set of diagnostics for the HIE-ISOLDE REX linac is the most compact in the facility, and has been tested extensively in a wide range of ion beams. In addition to the HIE-ISOLDE work, a Secondary Emission Monitor (SEM) was tested at the Antiproton Decelerator (AD) facility using a 300 keV antiproton beam, together with other detector groups in the AEgIS collaboration such as nuclear emulsions, the MIMOTERA and the 3D pixel detector. In the frame of this thesis, a performance comparison among these detector technologies is done with the aim to identify an ideal set of diagnostics for the AD and for other similar antiproton facilities. This thesis first presents the models developed as well as the results of the numerical simulations, then the design of the prototypes and the experimental results obtained with beams in antiproton and ion accelerator facilities. All devices and techniques part of this R&D are characterized in detail, their performance and limitations described and options for further improvements indicated.

>Magister Scientiae - MSc
This dissertation consists of two main sections. The first section focuses on generating zero order Bessel beams using axicons. An axicon with an opening angle y = 5⁰ was illuminated with a Gaussian beam of width ω₀ = 1.67 mm from a cw fiber laser with central wavelength λ = 1064 nm to generate zero order Bessel beams with a central spot radius r₀ = 8.3 ± 0.3 μm and propagation distance ½zmax = 20.1 ± 0.5 mm. The central spot size of a Bessel beam changes slightly along the propagation distance. The central spot radius r₀ can be varied by changing the opening angle of the axicon, y, and the wavelength of the beam. The second section focuses on applications of the generated Bessel beams in laser microdrilling. A Ti:Sapphire pulsed femtosecond laser (λ = 775 nm, ω₀ = 2.5 mm, repetition rate kHz, pulse energy mJ, and pulse duration fs) was used to generate the Bessel beams for drilling stainless steel thin sheets of thickness 50 μm and 100 μm and microscopic glass slides 1 mm thick. The central spot radius was r₀ = 15.9 ± 0.3 μm and ½zmax = 65.0 ± 0.5 mm. The effect of the Bessel beam shape on the quality of the holes was analysed and the results were discussed. It was observed that Bessel beams drill holes of better quality on transparent microscopic glass slides than on stainless steel sheet. The holes drilled on stainless steel sheets deviated from being circular on both the top and bottom surface for both thicknesses. However the holes maintained the same shape on both sides of each sample, indicating that the walls are close to being parallel. The holes drilled on the glass slides were circular and their diameters could be measured. The measured diameter (15.4±0.3 μm) of the hole is smaller than the diameter of the central spot (28.2 ± 0.1 μm) of the Bessel beam. Increasing the pulse energy increased the diameter of the drilled hole to a value close to the measured diameter of the central spot.

Contact between beam elements is a specific category of contact problems which was introduced by Wriggers and Zavarise in 1997 for normal contact and later extended by Zavarise and Wriggers to include tangential and frictional contact. In these works, beam elements are assumed to have rigid circular cross-sections and each pair of elements cannot have more than one contact point. The method proposed in the early papers is based on introducing a gap function and calculating the incremental change of that gap function and its variation in terms of incremental change of the nodal displacement vector and its variation. Due to complexity of derivations, specially for tangential contact, it is assumed that beam elements have linear shape functions. Furthermore, moments at the contact point are ignored. In the work presented in this licentiate thesis, we mostly adress the questions of simplicity and robustness of implementations, which become critical once the number of contact is large. In the first paper, we have proposed a robust formulation for normal and tangential contact of beams in 3D space to be used with a penalty stiffness method. This formulation is based on the assumption that contact normal, tangents, and location are constant (independent of displacements) in each iteration, while they are updated between iterations. On the other hand, we have no restrictions on the shape functions of the underlying beam elements. This leads to a mathematically simpler derivation and equations, as the linearization of the variation of the gap function vanishes. The results from this formulation are verified and benchmarked through comparison with the results from the previous algorithms. The proposed method shows better convergence rates allowing for selecting larger loadsteps or broader ranges for penalty stiffness. The performance and robustness of the formulation is demonstrated through numerical examples. In the second paper, we have suggested two alternative methods to handle in-plane rotational contact between beam elements. The first method follows the method of linearizing the variation of gap function, originally proposed by Wriggers and Zavarise. To be able to do the calculations, we have assumed a linear shape function for the underlying beam elements. This method can be used with both penalty stiffness and Lagrange multiplier methods. In the second method, we have followed the same method that we used in our first paper, that is, using the assumption that the contact normal is independent of nodal displacements at each iteration, while it is updated between iterations. This method yields simpler equations and it has no limitations on the shape functions to be used for the beam elements, however, it is limited to penalty stiffness methods. Both methods show comparable convergence rates, performance and stability which is demonstrated through numerical examples.
Kontakt mellan balkelement är en speciell typ av kontaktproblem som först analyserades 1997 av Wriggers och Zavarise med avseende på kontakt i normalriktningen. Teorin utvecklades senare av Zavarise och Wriggers och  inkluderade då även kontakt i tangentiella riktningar. I dessa arbeten antas balkelementen ha ett styvt cirkulärt tvärsnitt och varje elementpar kan inte ha mer än en kontaktpunkt. Metodiken i dessa artiklar bygger på  att en glipfunktion införs och därefter beräknas den inkrementella förändringen av glipfunktionen, och också dess variation, som funktion av den inkrementella förändringen av förskjutningsvektorn och dess variation. På grund av de komplicerade härledningar som resulterar, speciellt för den tangentiella kontakten, antas det att balkelementen har linjära formfunktioner. Dessutom tas ingen hänsyn till de moment som uppstår vid kontaktpunkten. I de arbeten som presenteras i denna licentiatavhandling har vi valt att inrikta oss mot frågeställningar kring enkla och robusta implementeringar, något som blir viktigt först när problemet innefattar ett stort antal kontakter. I den första artikeln i avhandlingen föreslår vi en robust formulering för normal och tangentiell kontakt mellan balkar i en 3D-rymd.Formuleringen bygger på en kostnadsmetod och på antagandet att kontaktens normal- och tangentriktning samt dess läge förblir detsamma (oberoende av förskjutning) under varje iteration. Dock uppdateras dessa storheter mellan varje iteration. Å andra sidan har inga begränsningar införts för formfunktionerna hos de underliggande balkelementen. Detta leder till en matematiskt enklare härledning samt enklare ekvationer, eftersom variationen hos glipfunktionen försvinner. Resultat framtagna med hjälp av denna formulering har verifierats och jämförts med motsvarande resultat givna av andra metoder. Den föreslagna metoden ger snabbare konvergens vilket ger möjlighet att använda större laststeg eller större omfång hos styvheten i kontaktpunkten (s.k. kostnadsstyrhet). Genom att lösa numeriska exempel påvisas prestanda och robusthet hos den föreslagna formuleringen. I den andra artikeln föreslår vi två alternativa metoder för att hantera rotationer i kontaktplanet hos balkelementen. I den första metoden linjäriseras glipfunktionen. Denna metod presenterades först av Wriggers och Zavarise. För att kunna genomföra beräkningarna ansattes linjära formfunktioner för balkelementen. Den här metoden kan användas både med kostnadsmetoder och metoder baserade på Lagrangemultiplikatorer. I den andra föreslagna metoden har vi valt att följa samma tillvägagångsätt som i vår första artikel. Detta betyder att vi antar att kontaktens normalriktning är oberoende av förskjutningarna under en iteration men uppdateras sedan mellan iterationerna. Detta tillvägagångsätt ger enklare ekvationer och har inga begränsningar vad gäller de formfunktioner som används i balkelementen. Dock är metoden begränsad till att utnyttja kostnadsmetoder. Båda de föreslagna metoderna i denna artikel ger jämförbar konvergens, prestanda och stabilitet vilket påvisas genom att lösningar till olika numeriska exempel presenteras.

QC 20160408

Scanned proton beams offer the possibility to take full advantage of the dose deposition properties of proton beams, i.e. the limited range and sharp peak at the end of the range, the Bragg peak. By actively scanning the proton beam, laterally by scanning magnets and longitudinally by shifting the energy, the position of the Bragg peak can be controlled in all three dimensions, thereby enabling high dose delivery to the target volume only. A typical scanned proton beam line consists of a pair of scanning magnets to perform the lateral beam scanning and possibly a range shifter and a multi-leaf collimator (MLC). Part of this thesis deals with the development of control, supervision and verification methods for the scanned proton beam line at the The Svedberg laboratory in Uppsala, Sweden.

Radiotherapy is preceded by treatment planning, where one of the main objectives is predicting the dose to the patient. The dose is calculated by a dose calculation engine and the accuracy of the results is of course dependent on the accuracy and sophistication of the transport and interaction models of the dose engine itself. But, for the dose distribution calculation to have any bearing on the reality, it needs to be started with relevant input in accordance with the beam that is emitted from the treatment machine. This input is provided by the beam model. As such, the beam model is the link between the reality (the treatment machine) and the treatment planning system. The beam model contains methods to characterise the treatment machine and provides the dose calculation with the reconstructed beam phase space, in some convenient representation. In order for a beam model to be applicable in a treatment planning system, its methods have to be general.

In this thesis, a beam model for a scanned proton beam is developed. The beam model contains models and descriptions of the beam modifying elements of a scanned proton beam line. Based on a well-defined set of generally applicable characterisation measurements, ten beam model parameters are extracted, describing the basic properties of the beam, i.e. the energy spectrum, the radial and the angular distributions and the nominal direction. Optional beam modifying elements such as a range shifter and an MLC are modelled by dedicated Monte Carlo calculation algorithms. The algorithm that describes the MLC contains a parameterisation of collimator scatter, in which the rather complex phase space of collimator scattered protons has been parameterised by a set of analytical functions.

Dose calculations based on the phase space reconstructed by the beam model are in good agreement with experimental data. This holds both for the dose distribution of the elementary pencil beam, reflecting the modelling of the basic properties of the scanned beam, as well as for complete calculations of collimated scanned fields.

I en värld i ständig utveckling, med en befolkningsökning och en urbanisering större än någonsin, ställs stora krav på nya bostäder. Dessa bör ha ett lågt klimatavtryck och ska kunna vara bostad åt många människor. Även att hålla städerna kompakta är viktigt för att kunna tillhandahålla med allmänna tjänster såsom kollektivtrafik, sophämtning, avlopp, vatten etc. Detta löses ofta genom att bygga de nya husen på höjden. Ett alternativ till att minska klimatavtrycket är att bygga dessa hus i det snabbt växande materialet bambu. Avsikten är att dessa hus byggs i moduler av balkar, pelare etc. Denna rapport behandlar den balk, eller den dubbeldäckarbalk, som skulle användas i en sådan konstruktion. I rapporten finns beskrivet hur dubbeldäckarbalken ska konstrueras för att uppnå optimala egenskaper med avseende på spänning och deformation. Dubbeldäckarbalken är konstruerad med två parallella bambustjälkar som sammanfogas med hjälp av ett antal invändigt armerade stöd gjorda av betong. Dubbeldäckarbalken optimeras utifrån antal stöd, avstånd mellan stöden, vinkel på stöden och avstånd mellan stjälkarna. Dessa valueras med hjälp av beräkningar och förenkligar gjorda i Matlab, och valideras sedan med hjälp av verktyget ANSYS Mechanical. Den slutgiltiga verionen av en 4 meter lång dubbeldäckarbalk har fem stycken stöd, där två av dessa placeras vid ytterkant, två placeras 0.84 meter från ytterkant och det sista placeras i mitten. De fyra yttre stöden är vinklade 45° mot mitten jämfört med bambustjälkarnas riktning. Det slutgiltiga avståndet mellan bambustjälkarnas centrum är 30 centimeter, vilket ger en total höjd av 40 centimeter.
In a world in constant development, with an increase in population and an urbanisation greater than ever, huge requirements are put on the housing industry. A need for small impact on the environment, to be able to house multiple families in one building, and also keeping the cities compact to be able to supply basic public services in an efficient manner. This is often solved by building higher and higher. An alternative solution to make these higher buildings more environmentally friendly and cheaper would be to use a material vastly available, bamboo. This report deals with the double-decker beam, the brain child of Saevfors Consulting, that would be used in such a construction. It is described how this double-decker beam would be constructed in order to be optimized in regards to deformation and stresses. The double-decker beam consists of two bamboo culms interconnected by reinforced concrete struts. It is optimized in regards to four main design parameters. Namely, the number of struts, the strut placement, the angle of the struts and the distance between the two bamboo culms. These were evaluated with the help of simplified calculations made in Matlab, which were in turn verified by more complex simulations in ANSYS Mechanical. The final version of the 4 m long double-decker beam had a total of five struts. The outermost strut being placed at the origin of the culm, and the second strut placed at a distance of 0,84 m from the origin, both being reclined 45°. These are then mirrored in the vertical central strut, and so the double-decker beam takes on a symmetrical appearance.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--Indiana University, Dept. of Physics, 2008.
Title from PDF t.p. (viewed on Jul 29, 2009). Source: Dissertation Abstracts International, Volume: 69-12, Section: B, page: 7579. Adviser: Shyh-Yuan Lee.

In order to fully understand the third order nonlinear optical response of materials under high irradiance excitation it is necessary to study the temporal and polarization dependence of nonlinear refraction and absorption. There are several existing approaches such as Z-scan and pump-probe techniques to determine those responses. As part of this work, these approaches will be briefly outlined before presenting beam deflection, applied from photothermal beam deflection, as an alternative experimental technique to determine the nonlinear refraction with its temporal and polarization dynamics. This technique measures the angle of the probe beam deflected via the index gradient of the material induced by strong excitation beam, to determine both the sign and magnitude of the nonlinear refraction. The temporal and tensor properties of the nonlinear refractive index can be determined by introducing a delay line, and by varying the polarization of the excitation and probe beam, respectively. To demonstrate the practicality of the beam deflection technique, we performed measurements on Fused Silica, Carbon Disulfide and Zinc Oxide. Each of these samples shows quite different nonlinear responses. Amorphous fused silica exhibits nonlinear refraction purely from instantaneous electronic contribution; while Carbon Disulfide shows a much slower response, originating not only from the electronic contribution but also from non-instantaneous nuclear movements (e.g. molecular orientation). These two contributions can be separated by varying the polarization direction of the excitation and probe beam. By introducing lock-in detection technique, a sensitivity of /5500 can be achieved. In Zinc Oxide, a wide-bandgap semiconductor, we measure both nonlinear refraction and two-photon absorption simultaneously. Therefore the beam deflection is a sensitive technique, which can be used to measure the time and polarization dynamics of the nonlinear response of the material.
M.S.
Masters
Optics and Photonics
Optics and Photonics
Optics; International

This report covers the product development process of a C-profile forming a box beam for use in storage systems. The company Brännehylte Lagersystem AB is in need of a new box beam that in pair can handle a maximum load of 4000 kg (four pallets x 1000 kg). At present the company has only one beam capable of a maximum load of 4x800 kg and wants to expand its product range and develop as a company and compete with others in the storage systems market. The first step began with acquiring information on the different beams and how they behave under stress. Then began a combination of brainstorming and brainwriting to generate a number of concepts of how a C-profile could possibly look like. After screening of the different concepts using Gut-feeling method three most appropriate concepts were left and were pitted against each other in a Pugh Matrix to get the best possible C-profile for further development. Calculations and tests were done on the selected concept with a combination of elementary cases and SolidWorks. For the beam to be approved it must meet the EU standard for storage racks. The calculated beam resulted in a working beam in theory, which in turn must be produced to confirm that the theory is true. Because a prototype must be produced in order to confirm the results, then the work cannot be proven in practical example and only be proven in theory.

Multi-beam satellite systems have been studied a lot in the last ten years. They have many promising features like power gain, interference reduction, high flexibility to adapt the asymmetric traffic distribution, and the improvement of the system capacity compared with single-beam systems. In multi-beam satellite systems, the beamforming antenna can generate a number of spot beams over the coverage area. However, each beam will compete with others for resources to achieve satisfactory communication. This is due to the fact that the traffic demand is potentially highly asymmetrical throughout the satellite coverage. Therefore, in order to achieve a good match between offered and requested traffic, the satellite requires a certain degree of flexibility in allocating power, bandwidth and time-slot resources. Current multibeam satellite systems with regular frequency reuse and uniform power allocation can not satisfy these increasing requirements, which motivate us to investigate new transmission schemes to replace the current ones. In this dissertation, we first propose a novel system design, flexible system, which is an extension of current multi-beam systems. It is characterized by the non-regular frequency reuse and the flexibility in bandwidth and power allocation. Then, the Beam Hopping (BH) system is proposed to evaluate the performance improvement with the flexibility in time/space and power domain. As we know, the flexible system and BH system operate in frequency and time/space domain, respectively. In order to know which domain shows the best overall performance, we propose a novel formulation of the Signal-to-Interference plus Noise Ratio (SINR) which allows us to prove the time/frequency duality of these two schemes. Furthermore, to efficiently utilize the satellite resources (e.g., power and bandwidth), we propose two capacity optimization approaches subject to per-beam SINR constraints. Moreover, due to the realistic implementation, a general methodology is formulated including the technological constraints, which prevent the two systems dual of each other (named as technological gap). The Shannon capacity (upper bound) and the state-of-art Modulation and Coding (MODCOD) are analyzed in order to quantify the gap and evaluate the performance of the two candidate schemes. Comparing with the current conventional systems, simulation results show significant improvements in terms of power gain, spectral efficiency and traffic matching ratio. They also show that the BH system is less complex design and outperforms the flexible system specially for non-real time services. This part of the Ph.D. work supported by an ESA-funded project on next generation system of “Beam Hopping Techniques for Multi-beam Satellite Systems”. This research is in close collaboration with the leading space industry (e.g. INDRA, MDA) and space research institutions (e.g., ESA, DLR (German Space Agency)). In addition, we extend the work to mobile environments (e.g., railway scenario). Since the current air interface standards (e.g., DVB-S2/RCS) lack of specification for mobile scenarios, a new Fade Mitigation Technique (FMT), i.e., Link Layer Forward Error Correction (LL-FEC) is introduced as a fading countermeasure for DVB-S2/RCS in mobile environments. This part of the work points out that LL-FEC can overcome the deep fading in mobile satellite scenarios (e.g. railway) by optimizing the FEC codes (e.g. Reed-Solomon and Raptor codes). We have to note that such air interface standards might need change to adapt to the new proposed systems: flexible and BH. However, the methodology presented is also applicable. We further investigate the secure communication of multibeam satellite systems by using the system model developed in the BH project. The physical (PHY) layer security technique is investigated to protect the broadcasted data and make it impossible to be wiretapped. A novel multibeam satellite system is designed to minimize the transmit power under the constraints of the individual secrecy rate requested per user. The main contributions of this Ph.D. dissertation can be summarized as: a. We study the resource allocation optimization in multi-domain (frequency, time, space and power) for multi-beam satellite systems. First, we develop novel matricial-based analytical multibeam system-level models that directly allows testing different payloads technology and system assumptions. Second, we prove that the system performance can be increased by dynamically adapting the resource allocation to the characteristics of the system, e.g., traffic requested by the terminal. b. Theoretical studies and simulations prove that the proposed novel transmission schemes perform better than the current system design in terms of power gain, spectral efficiency, etc.. In addition, BH system turns out to show a less complex design and superior performance than the flexible system. c. Our analytical models allows us to also prove the theoretical duality between the flexible and BH systems, which work in frequency domain and time domain, respectively. Moreover, we develop a general methodology to include technological constraints due to realistic implementation, obtain the main factors that prevent the two technologies dual of each other in practice, and formulate the technological gap between them. d. We extend the work to mobile scenarios and prove that LL-FEC is applicable for mobile satellite systems (e.g., railway) to compensate the fade due to the mobility by optimizing the FEC codes (Reed-Solomon and Raptor codes). The results show that Multiple Protocol Encapsulation Inter-burst FEC (MPE-IFEC) and extended MPE-FEC with Raptor codes - as finally specified in DVB Return Channel via Satellite for Mobile Scenario (DVB-RCS+M) - consistently perform better than other LL-FEC schemes for mobile scenarios. e. We point out that how to change the signalling of current version of standards (e.g., DVB-S2/RCS+M) in order to allow achievable performance in the mobile scenarios. The proposal has been finally adopted by the DVB-RCS+M standard. f. We finally make use of our developed system models to investigate whether the multibeam scenario allows the use of PHY layer security, a very valuable feature that would broaden multibeam satellite applications. We prove that our models are directly applicable for the study of PHY layer security in terms of joint optimization of power control and beamforming for the BH payload. Moreover, the proposed algorithm can ensure the minimum power consumption subject to the individual secrecy rate requested per user. Based on the work of the Ph.D., three journal papers and eleven international conference papers have been published, and these publications systematically cover all the contributions of this doctoral thesis work.

In this study, the Dual Beam Phased Array Antenna System designed for COST260* project is upgraded to have the abilities of beam steering, tracking and direction finding by providing the necessary computer codes using C++ Programming Language. The functions of new prototype are tested to verify the operation. *COST260 project was an adaptive phased array receiving antenna system for satellite communication, which was operating at 11.49-11.678 GHz band.

Thesis (S.M.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Nuclear Science and Engineering, 2011.
Cataloged from PDF version of thesis.
Includes bibliographical references (p. 177-179).
An electron beam transport system was designed for use in the Bremsstrahlung Beam Generation System of the Integrated Stand-off Inspection System (ISIS). The purpose of this electron transport system was to provide for electron beam diagnostics and energy selection while also positioning the electron beam on a target down range. The transport system and its component magnets were designed using the TRANSPORT, Poisson, and Opera 3D codes, as well as several custom Python scripts. By implementing several methods in each part of the design process, it was possible to design the electron transport system to the exact specifications of the ISIS electron beam. This careful and iterative design process was documented in such a way to facilitate future beam transport design both at the MIT Plasma Science and Fusion center and elsewhere. This design process resulted in a beam transport system composed of three irondominated resistive-coil electromagnets. The system was designed for beam momentum up to 60 MeV/c and emittance of order 20 mm-mrad. Through magnetic field simulation and beam transport in 3D, a ID matrix code which tracks individual particles was developed. This code agreed with more detailed beam calculations and should allow for rapid beam simulation during system testing and operation.
by Robert E. Block.
S.M.

The limited availability of the present energetic resources and the climate changes induced by the increase of the level of CO2 in the atmosphere are pushing humanity to completely rethink the ways to produce and consume energy. In the long term, a significant contribution to the solution of the world energy issue may come from nuclear fusion: the raw materials, deuterium and lithium, are worldwide accessible and in sufficient quantity to feed the future fusion reactors for several centuries. The largest fusion experiment is ITER, in phase of construction in France. The ITER machine is designed to produce a fusion power of 500 MW, 10 times the input power. Moreover ITER will be the first experiment to continuously operate with deuterium-tritium plasmas, and will have to stand the neutron irradiation produced by nuclear fusion. To reach the desired performances various additional heating systems are foreseen to heat the plasma core up to 10-15 keV. One of the most important heating systems will be composed by 2 neutral beam injectors (NBIs), which produce 2x16.7 MW beams, composed by H/D atoms. To obtain the beams H-/D- ions produced by an ion source will be accelerated at high energy (870 keV for hydrogen, 1 MeV for deuterium) and then neutralized thanks to the charge exchange interaction with the molecules of a H2/D2 gas. The construction of such a system is very challenging and 2 prototypes will be built and tested in Padua at Consorzio RFX. The first one, SPIDER (Source for the Production of Ions o Deuterium Extracted from an Rf plasma), operative in 2016, aims at studying the source part of the NBI, accelerating ions at lower energies, up to 100 keV. The prototype of the full ITER negative NBI system is MITICA (Megavolt ITer Injector Concept and Advancement), it will start operating in 2019. Both SPIDER and MITICA will be equipped with a large number of diagnostics: in particular, the Beam Emission Spectroscopy (BES) will measure the spectrum of the radiation produced by the beam when interacting with the background gas in order to measure the divergence and the uniformity of the beam produced by the ion source. The divergence is a key parameter for the safety of the test facilities, since it is related to the power deposition of the beam on the beam line component. The beam uniformity is crucial for the heating effectiveness of the beam itself. The PhD activity was mostly devoted to develop the BES diagnostics of SPIDER and MITICA, with the target to measure divergence in the range 3- 7 mrad (e-folding) with a relative error below 10%, and values of uniformity in the range 90-100%. In particular, the work consisted in: • developing a set of codes (dBES) for the simulation of the behavior of the BES diagnostics; • studying and improving the methods of analysis for the data that will be collected by BES. • completing the design of the BES diagnostics, also selecting and testing its hardware components; Experimental data of the test facilities BATMAN (BAvarian Test MAchine for Negative ions), MANITU (Multi Ampere Negative Ion Test Unit) and ELISE (Extraction from a Large Ion Source Experiment) at the Max Planck Institut für Plasmaphysik (IPP) in Garching, have been used to validate the numerical model at the base of dBES and to improve the method of analysis of the BES spectra. During my stays at the ITED group of IPP Garching the results of dBES were also benchmarked against those of the BBC-NI code, developed at IPP for similar purposes. Besides SPIDER and MITICA the studies were also addressed to NIO1 (Negative Ion Optimization 1), hosting an RF ion source which produces a 130 mA beam composed by H- ions. The test facility was jointly built by Consorzio RFX and INFN-LNL, with the aim of studying and improving the production of negative ions, as well as testing concepts and instrumentation for SPIDER and MITICA. For NIO1 the BES diagnostic was entirely designed; the tests on NIO1 of this diagnostic will allow a first experimental validation of the design of those for SPIDER and MITICA. The PhD research is described in this thesis as follows: • Chapter [chap:Introduction] gives a briefly describes the ITER reactor. The principle of operation of the neutral beam injectors is then explained, together with the characteristics of the considered experiments: SPIDER and MITICA, BATMAN, MANITU, ELISE and NIO1. The main diagnostics installed in the negative ion sources and more generally in the NBIs are presented, too. • Chapter [chap:Beam-Emission-Spectroscopy] describes the work done on the simulation codes dedicated to Beam Emission Spectroscopy. The physical phenomena at the base of the BES diagnostic operation are explained. The code dBES, developed for the simulation of the BES diagnostic and for the analysis of its measurements, is described. dBES is then benchmarked against the BBC-NI code and with the experimental data of the BES diagnostics in the BATMAN, MANITU and ELISE test facilities. • Chapter [chap:Designtotal] presents the design of the BES diagnostics in the experiments NIO1, SPIDER and MITICA, carried out by means of the dBES code. • Chapter [chap:Experimental-work] presents the experimental activities carried out to test the available instrumentation for the BES and the optical emission spectroscopy diagnostics in NIO1, SPIDER and MITICA; the design activity of some components is also illustrated. • The summary is reported in chapter [chap:Conclusions]. There follows the list of the articles published and of the technical notes written during the PhD.
La disponibilità limitata delle attuali risorse energetiche e i cambiamenti climatici indotti dall’aumento della concentrazione di CO2 nell’atmosfera impongono all’umanità di ripensare completamente i modi di produrre e consumare energia. Nel lungo termine, un contributo importante alla soluzione del problema energetico mondiale potrebbe arrivare dalla fusione nucleare: le materie prime, deuterio e litio, sono accessibili in tutto il globo e in quantità sufficiente per alimentare i futuri reattori a fusione per diversi secoli. Il più grande esperimento a livello mondiale sulla fusione è ITER, in fase di costruzione in Francia. ITER è progettato per produrre dalla fusione fino a 500MW, 10 volte la potenza in ingresso. Inoltre, ITER sarà il primo esperimento a operare permanentemente con plasmi di deuterio e trizio, quindi conterrà materiale radioattivo (il trizio) e dovrà sopportare l’irraggiamento neutronico prodotto dalla fusione nucleare. Per raggiungere le prestazioni volute serviranno varie forme di riscaldamento addizionale, in modo da portare la temperatura centrale del plasma a 10 15 keV. Uno dei sistemi di riscaldamento più importanti sarà costituito da 2 iniettori di neutri (NBI), che producono fasci da 16.7 MW composti da particelle neutre (H/D). Per ottenere i fasci ioni H-/D-, prodotti da un’apposita sorgente, verranno accelerati ad energie elevate (870 keV per l’idrogeno, 1 MeV per il deuterio) e successivamente neutralizzati grazie alle reazioni di scambio carica con le molecole di un gas di idrogeno/deuterio. Costruire un sistema simile è un’operazione complessa, per questo 2 prototipi saranno costruiti e testati a Padova presso il Consorzio RFX. Il primo, SPIDER (Source for the Production of Ions o Deuterium Extracted from an Rf plasma), che sarà operativo dal 2016, verrà utilizzato per studiare la produzione e accelerazione (fino a 100 keV) degli ioni negativi. Il secondo sarà il prototipo di un intero iniettore di neutri per ITER, MITICA(Megavolt ITer Injector Concept and Advancement), che entrerà in funzione nel 2019. Sia SPIDER che MITICA saranno dotati di un gran numero di diagnostiche: in particolare, la Beam Emission Spectroscopy (BES) misurerà lo spettro della radiazione prodotta dall’interazione tra fascio e gas di fondo, con lo scopo di misurare la divergenza e l’uniformità del fascio prodotto dalla sorgente di ioni. La divergenza è un parametro chiave per la sicurezza degli impianti, poichè è legata alla potenza depositata dal fascio sulle strutture degli esperimenti. L’uniformità del fascio è cruciale per l’efficacia del fascio stesso nel riscaldamento del plasma. L’attività di dottorato è stata dedicata in gran parte a sviluppare le diagnostiche BES di SPIDER e MITICA, con l’obiettivo di misurare la divergenza nell’intervallo 3 7 mrad (e-folding) con un errore relativo sotto il 10%, e valori di uniformità nell’intervallo 90 100%. In particolare, il lavoro è consistito nel: • sviluppare un set di codici (dBES) per la simulazione del comportamento della diagnostica BES; • studiare e migliorare i metodi di analisi dei dati che saranno raccolti dalla BES; • completare il design della diagnostica, anche individuando e testando la sua componentistica hardware; Le misure raccolte negli impianti sperimentali BATMAN(BAvarian Test MAchine for Negative ions), MANITU (Multi Ampere Negative Ion Test Unit) ed ELISE (Extraction from a Large Ion Source Experiment) al Max Planck Institut für Plasmaphysik (IPP) a Garching, sono state utilizzate per validare il modello numerico alla base di dBES a per migliorare il metodo di analisi degli spettri BES. Durante le visite al gruppo ITED di IPP Garching i risultati di dBES sono stati confrontati con quelli del codice BBC-NI, sviluppato a IPP per scopi analoghi. Oltre che su SPIDER e MITICA gli studi si sono concentrati anche su NIO1 (Negative Ion Optimization 1), dotato di una sorgente RF che produce un fascio di 130 mA composto da ioni H. L’esperimento è frutto di una collaborazione tra Consorzio RFX e INFN-LNL, con lo scopo di studiare e migliorare la produzione di ioni negativi, nonchè di testare la strumentazione per SPIDER e MITICA. Per NIO1 è stata interamente progettata la diagnostica BES; i test su NIO1 di questa diagnostica permetteranno una prima verifica sperimentale del design delle diagnostiche analoghe per SPIDER e MITICA. Il lavoro di dottorato è descritto nella tesi come segue: • Il capitolo 1 fornisce una breve descrizione del reattore ITER. Viene poi illustrato il principio di funzionamento degli iniettori di neutri, nonchè le caratteristiche dei esperimenti presi in considerazione: SPIDER e MITICA, BATMAN, MANITU, ELISE e NIO1. Vengono inoltre presentate le principali diagnostiche installate nelle sorgenti di ioni negativi e più in generale negli iniettori di neutri. • Il capitolo 2 descrive il lavoro svolto sui codici di simulazione per la Beam Emission Spectroscopy. Vengono illustrati i fenomeni fisici alla base del funzionamento della diagnostica. Viene successivamente presentato il codice dBES, sviluppato per la simulazione della diagnostica BES e per l’analisi dei dati raccolti dalla diagnostica stessa. Segue la verifica delle simulazioni di dBES con i risultati del codice BBC-NI e con i dati delle diagnostiche BES negli esperimenti BATMAN, MANITU ed ELISE. • Il capitolo 3 presenta il design delle diagnostiche BES per gli esperimenti NIO, SPIDER e MITICA, realizzato con il supporto del codice dBES. • Il capitolo 4 presenta le attività sperimentali svolte per caratterizzare la strumentazione disponibile per le diagnostiche BES e optical emission spectroscopy in NIO1, SPIDER e MITICA; viene illustrata anche la progettazione di alcune componenti delle diagnostiche. • Nel capitolo 5 vengono sintetizzati e discussi i risultati presentati nella tesi. Seguono infine la lista degli articoli pubblicati e delle note tecniche scritte durante il dottorato

The high intensity accelerators are one of the world-wide leading edge research in the beam dynamics studies. The upgrades of the existing accelerator LINAC4, FERMILAB, FAIR and the new applications on the neutron technologies such as ESS, IFMIF, MUNES, both for science research, medical treatment and material testing require an increase knowledge in the high intensity beams treatment. One of the most difficult part to be treated and which represent the first obstacle in increasing the beam intensity in the accelerators, is the injector part: the large number of charge particles at low energy forms a strongly interacting system, subjected to the Coulombian interaction. The situation further complicates due to the presence of different species which produces a plasma-like behavior of the beam. On the behalf of the INFN-LNL team, I participated to the commissioning of the high intensity injector (source and low energy transfer line) of the IFMIF/EVEDA project. Via experiments and simulation model developments I contributed to the study of the beam behavior in this specific framework. In particular I upgrade the emittance measurement routine in order to manage correctly the artifacts; I develop and benchmark with measurements self-consistent simulation models of the LEBT and extraction transfer line, which includes the secondary electron from residual gas and from metal due to collisions; I design a modification of medium and high energy line in order to test the CW steady state of the longest radio frequency quadrupole in the world, an in-kind contribution of INFN. All the development routines and experience will give important contributions for the next high intensity facilities. The first chapter presents the motivation of the IFMIF project and the main characteristics required by the accelerator. The main challenges of such accelerator are also listed. The second chapter introduces the main concepts of the beam dynamics of space-charge which will be used in the thesis. The third chapter presents the IFMIF/EVEDA project, with a description of the main elements; particular focus is made onto the source, the low energy beam transfer line and on the radio frequency quadrupole. Scaling law derivation for the extracted beam with contaminants is shown. The commissioning phases are introduced, each with its specific challenges. The fourth chapter presents the modification of the emittance analysis routine which can manage the ghost infested signal of the IFMIF/EVEDA emittancemeter. The fifth and the sixth chapters contains the simulation models developed to estimate the space-charge beam behavior under neutralization regime: the model with constant neutralization and the one with the full secondary plasma evolution are presented and benchmarked with the measurements. In the fifth chapter the measurements refers to 60−55 mA proton beam at 50 keV, while for the sixth chapter the beam considered is composed of 140−135 mA deuteron beam at 100 keV. In these chapters, the variation of the radio frequency quadrupole beam input characteristics with respect to the electromagnetic plasma confinement of the low energy transfer line is studied. The original contribution in these simulations is given by the emitted secondary electron from metal, which as some effects on the space charge compensation process, on the emittance value. Deep study of the multispecies distributions and behavior was performed. The four chapter defines, for the experimental proton point considered, the solenoid variations where searching the maximum radio frequency quadrupole transmission. The output beam behavior of this one is studied in commissioning perspective. In thesixth chapter, after testing the radio frequency quadrupole transmission with the secondary plasma model (also said dynamic neutralization model) with a realistic beam distribution, the simulations of the extraction system are presented. The benchmark with the measurements are also performed. The seventh chapter presents the design of the modification of the medium and high energy transfer sections of the accelerator in order to allow the test of the CW of the radio frequency quadrupole, bypassing the superconductive cavities. Extensive simulations of the system robustness to the errors are explored. The last chapter reports the conclusions.
Gli acceleratori ad alta intensità sono oggetto di ricerche all'avanguardia a livello mondiale nel campo degli studi di dinamica di fascio. Gli upgrade degli acceleratori esistenti LINAC4, FERMILAB, FAIR e le nuove applicazioni che utilizzano fasci di neutroni come ESS, IFMIF, MUNES, sia per la ricerca scientifica sia per cure mediche che per le prove sui materiali, richiedono un aumento delle conoscenze nella trattazione dei fasci ad alta intensità. Una delle parti più difficili da trattare è la parte dell'iniettore: le particelle dei fasci ad alta intensità a bassa energia sono sottoposte ad una forte interazione coulombiana. La situazione si complica ulteriormente a causa della possible presenza di diverse specie, le quali producono un comportamento plasma-like del fascio. Per conto del team INFN-LNL, ho partecipato al collaudo dell'iniettore (sorgente e linea di trasferimento a bassa energia) del progetto IFMIF / EVEDA. Tramite esperimenti e sviluppi del modello di simulazione, ho contribuito allo studio del comportamento del fascio in questo quadro specifico. In particolare, ho migliorato la routine di misura di emittenza al fine di gestire correttamente gli artefatti generati dai fasci ad alta intensità; ho sviluppato e confrontato con misure di fascio i modelli auto-consistenti di simulazione della linea di trasferimento e dell'estrazione, includendo gli elettroni secondari generati (a causa di interazioni con il fascio) sia dal gas residuo che dal metallo; ho studiato una modifica della line a media ed alta energia, in modo tale da testare il regime CW del quadrupolo a radio-frequenza (il più lungo al mondo), contributo al progetto dell'INFN. Tutti gli studi che ho effettuato e l'esperienza acquisita rappresentano un contributo importante per le prossime facility ad alta intensità. Il primo capitolo presenta la motivazione del progetto IFMIF e le principali caratteristiche richieste dall'acceleratore. Sono elencate anche le principali sfide di tale acceleratore. Il secondo capitolo introduce i concetti principali della dinamica di fascio in regime di space-charge. Il terzo capitolo presenta il progetto IFMIF/EVEDA, con una descrizione degli elementi principali dell'acceleratore; particolare attenzione è rivolta alla sorgente, la linea di trasferimento del fascio di bassa energia e del quadrupolo a radiofrequenza. La derivazione di una fromula teorica per scalare l'ottica del fascio estratto, in presenza di contaminati, viene presentata e succesivamente validata. Vengono introdotte le fasi del collaudo, ognuna con le sue specifiche sfide. Il quarto capitolo presenta la modifica ed implementazione della routine di analisi delle emittanze, la quale può gestire il segnale ottenuto con presenza di artefatti. Il quinto ed il sesto capitolo contengono i modelli di simulazione sviluppati per stimare la carica spaziale ed il comportamento del fascio in regime di neutralizzazione di space-charge: il modello con neutralizzazione costante e quello con l'evoluzione del plasma secondario vengono presentati e confrontati con le misure. Nel quinto capitolo, le misure di riferimento riguardano un fascio protonico di 60-55 mA a 50 keV, mentre nel sesto capitolo il fascio considerato è composto da deutoni di 140-135 mA a 100 keV. In questi capitoli è studiata la variazione del comportamento del fascio all'input dell'RFQ, rispetto al confinamento elettromagnetico del plasma nella linea di trasferimento a bassa energia di trasferimento. Il contributo originale in queste simulazioni è dato dall'inclusione dell'effetto degli elettroni secondari emessi dal metallo, il quale agisce direttamente sulla compensazione della carica spaziale. Viene inoltre presentato uno studio approfondito delle distribuzioni e dei comportamenti delle diverse specie presenti nella line durante il processo di neutralizzazione. Il capitolo quattro definisce, per il fascio protonico sperimentale considerato, le variazioni dei solenoidi per ottenere la massima trasmissione attraverso l'RFQ. Il comportamento del fascio in uscita dall'RFQ è stato anche esso studiato. Nel sesto capitolo, dopo aver testato la trasmissione dell'RFQ con la distribuzione di fascio ottenuta dal modello di neutralizzazione dinamica, vengono presentate le simulazioni del sistema di estrazione. Il settimo capitolo presenta il design della modifica delle line di trasferimento a media e alta energia dell'acceleratore, in modo tale da consentire il test del regime CW RFQ. I risultati di estese simulazioni Montecarlo, ottenute per stimare la robustezza del design rispetto agli errori meccanici e magnetici, sono inoltre incluse. L'ultimo capitolo riporta le conclusioni.

Although the Maxwell equations govern the propagation of EM waves at all frequencies, the methods required to generate, direct, analyse and detect radiation differ from band to band. This thesis is concerned with the development and demonstration of 'Quasi-optical' techniques for millimetre wavelengths, which involve the propagation of Gaussian profiled beams a few wavelengths across, and the realization of a general circuit approach to mm-wave measurement. Gaussian beam-mode analysis, which is used in later chapters to understand propagation of quasi-optical beams, is reviewed in chapter 1. Chapter 2 outlines the design, manufacture and testing of corrugated feed horns which generate fundamental Gaussian beam-modes. The design and manufacture of lenses which control the spreading of the beams and directional couplers which provide desirable signal processing functions in quasi-optical circuits is discussed in chapter 3. Chapter 4 traces the development of a Faraday isolator which operates in free-space and can suppress unwanted reflections in quasi-optical circuits. Chapter 5 discusses a reusable circuit board upon which systems can be easily and quickly constructed. A null reflectometer built using quasi-optical components is outlined in chapter 6 and reflection measurements from lenses and horns presented. Chapter 7 describes a corrugated feed horn/lens antenna used in a balloon-borne nw-wave cosmic background experiment. Finally, Chapter 8 demonstrates the use of quasi-optical components in a 115 GHz receiver circuit.

This thesis presents the work completed on the evaluation of the expanded web beam concept. The research focussed on investigating methods for expanding the web of a standard pultruded GFRP I-beam to achieve improved mechanical performance whilst achieving an overall saving on mass. The 14 (102 x 102 x 6.4mm) beam was chosen as the standard beam from which the beams were constructed and the mechanical performance of the larger 18 (203 x 203 x 9.5mm) beam as the target for the modified beams. Three designs were proposed and two full-scale beams were built and tested. Of the three designs proposed, one used Quickstep manufactured sandwich panels and another metal connectors fabricated by a Selective Laser Melting facility. All the designs were analysed using theoretical closed form solutions and ANSYS FE software. A tension coupon testing programme was carried out in support of these analyses. The two full-scale beams were tested, together with an 18 beam, in three-point bending and lateral-torsional buckling. The slender nature of the expanded web beams meant that lateral bracing was required for the lateral buckling testing. Of the two modified beams the one that performed the best achieved, 85% of the deflection limit load and 71% of the lateral- torsional buckling load of the 18 beam for an overall mass saving of 38%.

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Dissertacao (Mestrado)
IPEN/D
Instituto de Pesquisas Energeticas e Nucleares - IPEN/CNEN-SP

The aim of this research is to better understand the behaviour of pulsed discharges and electron dynamics for the purpose of tailoring the plasma properties for neutral beam etching (NBE) applications. A capacitively coupled plasma formed in a research system was used for a study of pulsed tailoring in an electropositive plasma. A combination of high time resolved optical diagnostics, plasma imaging and optical emission spectroscopy, and hairpin probe measurements were used to study the electron density and the energy distribution function during the ignition phase of a repetitively pulsed plasma. Two different waveforms were used to modulate the envelope of the input RF -voltages in order to control the ignition phase, by changing the increase rate of the electron density and evolution of the electron energy distribution function (EEDF). The results of this study indicate that the increase rate of the electron density and the EEDF, during operation, can be influenced and even controlled to some extent by pulse tailoring. Electron densities of the order of 1016 m- 3 were obtained, and EEDFs of a highly non-:'1axwellian nature were characterised during the ignition phase. Also, the ignition timescales were controlled by applying pulse tailoring from a few microseconds (typically 2 μs) to a few tens of microseconds (80 μs) for the different input waveforms. An inductively coupled plasma in an industrial plasma etching tool was used to study pulse tailoring in electropositive and electronegative discharges. The same environment was used to create a source to from energetic negative ions which could then be extracted and neutralised. Similar diagnostic techniques, as those used in the research source, in addition to RF-probes were used to characterise the inductive source. Optical emission spectrascopy and electron density measurements showed. that the plasmas, almost instantaneously, ignite in the H-mode. The EEDFs were characterised by a Maxwellian distribution with an electron temperature ranging between 1.2 up to 1.6 eV, and electron densities of the order 1018 m- 3 were measured, depending on the operating conditions. This source was also used for preliminary NBE studies. Neutralisation efficiencies ranging between 70% and 95% were measured, and etch rates of 25 and 30 nm/ min were found

A recurring theme in my research is that mathematical matrix methods may be used in a wide variety of physics and engineering applications. Transfer matrix techniques are conceptually and mathematically simple, and they encourage a systems approach. Once one is familiar with one transfer matrix method, it is straightforward to learn another, even if it is from a completely different branch of science. Thus it is useful to overview these methods, and this has been done here. Of special interest are the applications of these methods to laser optics, and matrix theorems concerning multipass optical systems and periodic optical systems have been generalized here to include, for example, the effect of misalignment on the performance of an optical system. In addition, a transfer matrix technique known as generalized beam method has been derived to treat misalignment effects in complex optical systems. Previous theories used numerical or ad hoc analytical solutions to a complicated diffraction integral. The generalized beam matrix formalism was also extended to higher-order beam modes of lasers and used to study mode discrimination in lasers with misaligned complex optical elements.

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Dissertacao (Mestrado)
IPEN/D
Instituto de Pesquisas Energeticas e Nucleares - IPEN/CNEN-SP

Laser beam welding has been widely applied in different industrial sectors due to its unique advantages. However, there are still challenges, such as beam positioning in T-joint welding, and gap bridging in butt joint welding,especially in the case of varying gap width along a joint. It is expected that enabling more advanced control to a welding system, and obtaining more in-depth process knowledge could help to solve these issues. The aim of this work is to address such welding issues by a laser beam shaping technology using a novel deformable mirror together with computer vision methods and also to increase knowledge about the benefits and limitations with this approach. Beam shaping in this work was realized by a novel deformable mirror system integrated into an industrial processing optics. Together with a wave front sensor, a controlled adaptive beam shaping system was formed with a response time of 10 ms. The processes were monitored by a coaxial camera with selected filters and passive or active illumination. Conduction mode autogenous bead-on-plate welding and butt joint welding experiments have been used to understand the effect of beam shaping on the melt pool geometry. Circular Gaussian, and elliptical Gaussian shapes elongated transverse to and along the welding direction were studied. In-process melt pool images and cross section micrographs of the weld seams/beads were analyzed. The results showed that the melt pool geometry can be significantly modified by beam shaping using the deformable mirror. T-joint welding with different beam offset deviations relative to the center of the joint line was conducted to study the potential of using machine learning to track the process state. The results showed that machine learning can reach sufficient detection and estimation performance, which could also be used for on-line control. In addition, in-process and multidimensional data were accurately acquired using computer vision methods. These data reveal weaknesses of current thermo-fluid simulation model, which in turn can help to better understand and control laser beam welding. The obtained results in this work shows a huge potential in using the proposed methods to solve relevant challenges in laser beam welding.
Lasersvetsning används i stor utsträckning i olika industrisektorer på grund av dess unika fördelar. Det finns emellertid fortfarande utmaningar, såsom rätt positionering av laserstrålen vid genomträngningssvetsning av T-fogar och hantering av varierande spaltbredd längs fogen vid svetsning av stumfogar. Sådana problem förväntas kunna lösas med avancerade metoder för automatisering, metoder som också förväntas ge fördjupade kunskaper om processen. Syftet med detta arbete är att ta itu med dessa problem med hjälp av en teknik för lasereffektens fördelning på arbetsstycket, s.k. beam shaping. Det sker med hjälp av en ny typ av i realtid deformerbar spegel tillsammans med bildbehandling av kamerabilder från processen. För- och nackdelar med detta tillvägagångssätt undersöks.Beam shaping åstadkoms med hjälp av ny typ av deformerbart spegelsystem som integreras i en industriell processoptik. Tillsammans med en vågfrontsensor bildas ett adaptivt system för beam shaping med en svarstid på 10 ms. Processen övervakas av en kamera linjerad koaxialt med laserstrålen. För att kunna ta bilder av svetspunkten belyses den med ljus av lämplig våglängd, och kameran är försedd med ett motsvarande optiskt filter. Försök har utförts med svetsning utan tillsatsmaterial, direkt på plåtar, svetsning utan s.k. nyckelhål, för att förstå effekten av beam shaping på svetssmältans geometri. Gauss fördelade cirkulära och elliptiska former, långsträckta både tvärs och längs svetsriktningen har studerats. Bilder från svetssmältan har analyserats och även mikrostrukturen i tvärsnitt från de svetsade plåtarna. Resultaten visar att svetssmältans geometri kan modifieras signifikant genom beam shaping med hjälp av det deformerbara spegelsystemet. Genomträngningssvetsning av T-fogar med avvikelser relativt foglinjens centrum genomfördes för att studera potentialen i att använda maskininlärning för att fånga processens tillstånd. Resultaten visade att maskininlärning kan nå tillräcklig prestanda för detektering och skattning av denna avvikelse. Något som också kan användas för återkopplad styrning. Flerdimensionell processdata har samlats i realtid och analyserats med hjälp av bildbehandlingsmetoder.  Dessa data avslöjar brister i nuvarande simuleringsmodeller,vilket i sin tur hjälper till med att bättre förstå och styra lasersvetsning.Resultaten från detta arbete uppvisar en god potential i att använda de föreslagna metoderna för att lösa relevanta utmaningar inom lasersvetsning.

Till licentiatuppsats hör 2 inskickade artiklar, som visas inte nu.

Kolliderare är en typ av partikelaccelerator som används till att kollidera subatomiska partiklar och är viktiga för utförandet av experiment i partikel- och kärnfysik. Laddade partiklar accelereras och hålls i separata omloppsbanor med dipol- och kvadrupolmagneter, och deras banor korsar varandra minst en gång. De laddade partiklar som åker i en omloppsbana kan generaliseras till en laddad partikelstråle. Dessa strålar propagerar åt motsatta håll, och när dessa kolliderar rakt in i varandra, är laddningarna så tätt fördelade att dess elektriska fält påverkar partiklarna i den motgående strålen. Denna så kallade beam-beam effekt begränsar prestandan på kolliderare, och det är därför av intresse att kunna beskriva denna effekt med en såprecis modell som möjligt. I denna rapport testas en modell av beam-beam effekten som baserar sig på en modell som beskrevs av M. A. Furman, K. Y. Ng och A. W. Chao i rapporten "A Symplectic Model of Coherent Beam-Beam Quadrupole Modes"från 1988, men med en ändring på hur de elektriska fälten påverkar de laddade partiklarna. Denna modell testas därefter mot Furmans modell, och den nya modellen utvärderas. Den nya modellen ger stabilare strålningsspridningar under inverkan av beam-beam effekten jämfört med Furmans modell.

In this thesis, transverse vibration of a cracked beam on an elastic foundation and the effect of crack and foundation parameters on transverse vibration natural frequencies are studied. Analytical formulations are derived for a beam with rectangular cross section. The crack is an open type edge crack placed in the medium of the beam and it is uniform along the width of the beam. The cracked beam rests on an elastic foundation. The beam is modeled by two different beam theories, which are Euler-Bernoulli beam theory and Timoshenko beam theory. The effect of the crack is considered by representing the crack by rotational springs. The compliance of the spring that represents the crack is obtained by using fracture mechanics theories. Different foundation models are discussed
these models are Winkler Foundation, Pasternak Foundation, and generalized foundation. The equations of motion are derived by applying Newton'
s 2nd law on an infinitesimal beam element. Non-dimensional parameters are introduced into equations of motion. The beam is separated into pieces at the crack location. By applying the compatibility conditions at the crack location and boundary conditions, characteristic equation whose roots give the non-dimensional natural frequencies is obtained. Numerical solutions are done for a beam with square cross sectional area. The effects of crack ratio, crack location and foundation parameters on transverse vibration natural frequencies are presented. It is observed that existence of crack reduces the natural frequencies. Also the elastic foundation increases the stiffness of the system thus the natural frequencies. The natural frequencies are also affected by the location of the crack.

The purpose of this study is to analyze the foundation beam linked between two shear walls in the presence of lateral loads. Mat foundation with shear walls is one of the most commonly used reinforced concrete structural systems to resist the lateral load. When two independent walls are connected with a link beam, also known as the coupling beam, the overturning resistance of the building is largely increased. However, the coupling beams are relatively weaker structures and can develop larger stresses. When there is a mat foundation, or pile cap in case of pile foundation, the part of the foundation which is right below the coupling beam where no shear wall is present, will also get large stresses due to the highly rigid nature of adjacent shear walls. Most of the lateral deformations are imposed only on the coupling beams and foundation beam. There is not much literature or design procedure found in books and codes to mitigate the high risks associated with the foundation beam between shear walls on its design vulnerability. This thesis is focused on the risks associated with exceptionally high forces on the foundation beam due to earthquake forces.

[EN] The Compact Linear Collider (CLIC) is an electron-positron collider conceived for the study of High-Energy Physics in the TeV center of mass energy region, is based on a two-beam operation principle: instead of using active elements (klystrons), the necessary RF power to accelerate the Main Beam (MB) is obtained from the deceleration of a high-current, moderate energy Drive Beam (DB) in the so-called Power Extraction and Transfer Structures (PETS). These structures emit an RF signal of about 130 MW power at 12 GHz. As this frequency is above the cut-o ff frequency of the fundamental mode for the specified beam pipe dimensions (7.6 GHz), the inference propagates from the PETS to the neighboring devices, including the Beam Position Monitors (BPM). According to the CLIC Conceptual Design Report (CDR), an ef ficient beam position monitoring system for the CLIC DB decelerator needs to meet the following requirements: - It should be as simple and economic as possible, as 41580 units are required, amounting to 75% of all CLIC BPMs. - The signal processing scheme should not be a ffected by the PETS interference. This rules out processing the signals at the beam bunching frequency (12 GHz). - The resulting position signal should detect changes in the beam position whose duration is 10 ns or longer. - The required spatial resolution is 2 um for a 23 mm diameter vacuum pipe. - Wide dynamic range: the electronic acquisition system must be able to process signals with extreme levels, induced by either very high (100 A) or very low (3 A) current beams. This PhD thesis describes the electromagnetic and mechanical design of the first prototype BPM developed for the CLIC Drive Beam and its characterization tests in laboratory and with beam. The first two chapters introduce the CLIC project and review the state-of-the-art beam position monitoring techniques. Chapter 3 presents the design of the BPM. The stripline technology has been selected, as it is the only one among the most commonly used BPM techniques to present a suitable frequency response to filter out the RF interference caused by the PETS. Choosing an appropriate length for the electrodes, it is possible to tune one the periodic notches in the stripline frequency response to 12 GHz. The influence of di erent electromagnetic and geometrical aspects is also studied, such as beam coupling impedance or the ratio between longitudinal and transverse dimensions. The design of the electronic acquisition system is presented in Chapter 4, considering the project requirements in terms of resolution (2 u m), accuracy (20 um) and time resolution (10 ns). Due to the high amount of units required, the number of electronics components has been minimized. As the designed signal processing scheme is based on charge integration, it can be adapted to di erent stripline pick-ups by simply modifying the attenuator settings according to the required output signal levels. The laboratory characterization tests of the prototype stripline BPM, in the low and the high frequency ranges, performed with a thin wire and a coaxial waveguide, respectively, are described in Chapter 5. The measurement results are compared with the theoretical estimation and the electromagnetic field simulations. In addition, the high-frequency test reveals that the first prototype stripline BPM does not provide su cient suppression of the 12 GHz PETS RF interference. An additional study proposed several modifications and guidelines for a second prototype stripline BPM. Finally, Chapter 6 presents the beam tests of the prototype stripline BPM at the CLIC Test Facility 3 (CTF3) in the Test Beam Line (TBL), a scaled version of the CLIC Drive Beam decelerator. Two types of tests were performed: linearity/sensivity and resolution. These results are compared to the ones in the laboratory characterization tests. An upper bound of the resolution is estimated performing a Singular Value Decomposition (SVD) analysis.
[ES] El Colisionador Lineal Compacto (Compact Linear Collider, CLIC), un colisionador de electrones y positrones concebido en el CERN para el estudio de la Física de Altas Energías en la región de los TeV, se basa en un principio de funcionamiento de doble haz: en lugar de emplear elementos activos (klystrons) para proporcionar la potencia RF requerida para acelerar el haz principal (Main Beam, MB), ésta se obtiene de la deceleración de un haz secundario (Drive Beam, DB), de alta corriente y energía moderada, en las llamadas estructuras de extracción y transferencia de potencia (Power Extraction and Transfer Structures, PETS). Estas estructuras emiten una señal interferente RF de más de 130 MW de potencia a 12 GHz, que, por estar localizada en una frecuencia superior a la de corte del modo fundamental en el tubo de vacío del haz (7.6 GHz), se propaga por éste hacia los dispositivos adyacentes, entre los cuales se encuentran los sistemas de monitorización de la posición (Beam Position Monitor, BPM). De acuerdo con el informe conceptual de diseño de CLIC (Conceptual Design Report, CDR) , un sistema eficiente de monitorización de la posición del haz en el decelerador del haz secundario deberá cumplir los siguientes requisitos: - Debe ser lo más sencillo y económico posible, ya que se precisan 41580 unidades: el 75% de todos los BPMs de CLIC. - El procesado de señal en el sistema de adquisición deberá ser inmune a la interferencia generada en las PETS. Esto excluye la solución habitual de procesar las señales del BPM a la frecuencia de pulsado del haz (12 GHz). - La señal de posición resultante del procesado debe ser capaz de detectar cambios en la posición del haz de duración igual o mayor a 10 ns (resolución temporal). - La resolución espacial requerida es de 2 um para un tubo de vacío de 23 mm de diámetro, con una calibración precisa. - Amplio rango dinámico: el sistema electrónico de adquisición del BPM debe poder resistir los altos valores de señal provocados por los casos de desviación extrema del haz nominal (se contempla una desviación máxima de la mitad del radio del tubo), así como detectar las señales inducidas por las configuraciones de haz con menor carga de todas las previstas, cuyos niveles serán muy débiles.
[CAT] El Col·lisionador Lineal Compacte (Compact Linear Collider, CLIC), un col·lisionador d'electrons i positrons concebut per l'estudi de la Física d'Altes Energies a la regió dels TeV (energía del centre de massa), es basa en un principi de funcionament de doble feix:en lloc de fer servir elements actius (klystrons) per proporcionar la potència RF requerida per accelerar el feix principal (Main Beam, MB), aquesta s'obtè de la desacceleració d'un feix secundari (Drive Beam, DB), d'alt corrent i energia moderada, a les anomenades estructures d'extracció i transferència de potència (Power Extraction and Transfer Structures, PETS). Aquestes estructures emeten una senyal interferent RF de més de 130 MW de potència a 12 GHz, que, pel fet d'estar localitzada a una freqüència superior a la de tall del mode fonamental al tub de buit del feix (7.6 GHz), es propaga a través d'aquest fins els dispositius adjacents, entre els quals trobem els sistemes de monitorització de la posició (Beam Position Monitor, BPM). D'acord amb l'informe conceptual de disseny de CLIC (Conceptual Design Report, CDR), un sistema eficient de monitorització de la posició del feix al desaccelerador del feix secundari haurà de complir els següents requisits: ¿ - Ha de ser el més senzill i econòmic possible, ja que es necessiten 41580 unitats: el 75% de tots els BPMs de CLIC. ¿ - El processat de la senyal al sistema d'adquisició haurà de ser inmune a la interferència generada als PETS. Això exclou la solució habitual de processar les senyals del BPM a la freqüència de pulsacions del feix (12 GHz). ¿- La senyal de posició resultant del processat ha de ser capaç de detectar canvis a la posició del feix de durada igual o més gran que 10 ns (resolució temporal). ¿- La resolució espaial necessària és de 2 um per a un tub de buit de 23 mm de diàmetre. ¿- Ampli rang dinàmic: el sistema electrònic d'adquisició del BPM ha de poder processar senyals amb nivells extrems, induïdes per feixos de molt alt (100 A) i molt baix (3 A) corrent.
Benot Morell, A. (2016). Beam position monitoring in the clic drive beam decelerator using stripline technology [Tesis doctoral no publicada]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/64067
TESIS

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Oregon, 2005.
Typescript. Includes vita and abstract. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 81-83). Also available for download via the World Wide Web; free to University of Oregon users.

This work assesses the performance of reflector antennas under adaptive control. In this study, a conventional reflector antenna is given adaptive control by placing additional feeds in the reflector focal plane. The antenna effectively becomes a Multiple Beam Antenna (MBA). This configuration has received far less attention than the Sidelobe Canceller which achieves spatial discrimination by placing low gain elements in the periphery of the reflector. The applications that motivate this work involve rotating radar antennas subject to main beam interference or multiple targets that must be resolved within a 3-db beamwidth. The possibility of the interference being correlated with the wanted signal is also considered. Within the context of these applications the assessment addresses: The basic (main-beam and sidelobe) cancellation performance of this type of antenna. The influence of beam characteristics such as crossover levels, gain, sidelobe levels, etc. in performance. The Control Laws that avoid cancellation of a wanted signal while rejecting interference even if knowledge in signal direction is only approximate. Algorithms to solve adaptively the above Control Laws at speeds consistent with rotating antennas and rapidly changing interference. The use of the beamformer output to generate a reference signal to avoid cancellation of the wanted signal. An algorithm, so far used in the frequency domain, applied in this work to the space domain with the purpose of avoiding cancellation of the wanted signal in the presence of correlated interference such as multipath. The construction of an experimental antenna is also undertaken and it is demonstrated that adaptive nulling is readily achieved in practice.

The purpose of this research has been to investigate the mechanisms and develop techniques for electron beam induced chemistry. Applications for electron beam chemistry include repair and fabrication of lithographic masks, integrated circuit repair and rewiring, nanofabrication of functional nanoscale tools and scanned probe microscopy tips and damage free transmission electron microscope sample preparation. The use of hydrocarbon contamination as a precursor has been investigated and complex three dimensional nanostructures have been successfully fabricated. Accelerating voltage and scan speed can be used to control the morphology of the deposits. The development and implementation of an internal precursor reservoir and introduction device that is transferable to various scanning electron microscope and focused ion beam instruments has been performed. The effects of beam and scan parameters on the deposition efficiency of carbon structures utilizing a phenanthrene precursor has been investigated. Deposition efficiency is maximized for low beam current, large scan areas exposed for short times using the experimental conditions in this work. However, the use of a focused ion beam provides a significantly higher deposition efficiency (over 45 times) than that of an electron beam.

Introduction The Los Alamos Isotope Production Facility (IPF) is actively engaged in the development of isotope production technologies that can utilize its 100 MeV proton beam. Characterization of the proton beam energy and current is vital for optimizing isotope production and accurately conducting research at the IPF. Motivation In order to monitor beam intensity during research irradiations, aluminum foils are interspersed in experimental stacks. A theoretical yield of 22Na from 27Al(p,x)22Na reactions is cal-culated using MCNP6 (Monte Carlo N-Particle), TRIM (Transport of Ions in Matter), and Andersen & Ziegler (A&Z) [1] computational models. For some recent experiments, experimentally measured activities did not match computational predictions. This discrepancy motivated further experimental investigations including a direct time-of-flight measurement of the proton beam energy upstream of the target stack. The Isotope Production Program now tracks the beam energy and current by a complement of experimental and computational methods described below. Material and Methods A stacked-foil activation technique, utilizing aluminum monitor foils [2] in conjunction with a direct time-of-flight measurement helps define the current and energy of the proton beam. Theoretical yields of 22Na activity generated in the Al monitor foils are compared with experimental measurements. Additionally, MCNP, TRIM, and A&Z computational simulations are compared with one another and with experimental data. Experimental Approach Thin foils (0.254mm) of high purity aluminum are encapsulated in kapton tape and stacked with Tb foils in between aluminum degraders. Following irradiation, the Al foils are assayed using γ-spectroscopy on calibrated HPGe detectors in the Chemistry Division countroom at LANL. We use the well-characterized 27Al(p,x)22Na energy dependent production cross section [3] to calculate a predicted yield of 22Na in each foil. Details of the experimental activity determination and associated uncertainties have been addressed previously [4]. The nominally stated beam parameters are 100 MeV and 100–120 nA for the foil stack irradiation experiments. Time-of-flight measurements performed in the month of January 2014 revealed beam energy of 99.1 ± 0.5 MeV. Computational Simulations Andersen & Zeigler (A&Z) is a deterministic method and also the simplest of the three com-putational methods considered. While the mean energy degradation can be calculated using the A&Z formalism, the beam current attenuation cannot. Consequentially, A&Z will also lack the ability to account for a broadening in the beam energy that a stochastic method affords. Additionally, A&Z does not account for nuclear recoil or contributions from secondary interactions. TRIM uses a stochastic based method to calculate the stopping range of incident particles applying Bethe-Block formalisms. TRIM, like A&Z, does not include contributions from nuclear recoil or contributions from secondary interactions. Computationally, TRIM is a very expensive code to run. TRIM is able to calculate a broadening in the energy of the beam; however, beam attenuation predictions are much less reliable. TRIM determines the overall beam attenuation in the whole stack to be less than one percent, whereas 7–10 % is expected. MCNP6 is arguably the most sophisticated approach to modeling the physics of the experiment. It also uses a stochastic procedure for calculation, adopting the Cascade-Exciton Model (CEM03) to track particles. The physics card is enabled in the MCNP input to track light ion recoils. Contributions from neutron and proton secondary particle interactions are included, although their contribution is minimal. For both MCNP and TRIM, the proton beam is simulated as a pencil beam. To find the current, an F4 volumetric tally of proton flux from MCNP simulation is matched to the experimental current for the first foil in the stack. Subsequent foil currents are calculated relative to the first foil based on MCNP predictions for beam attenuation. The equation used for calculating the current from the experi-mental activity is [5]: where: is the cross section for the process, [mbarns] is the atomic mass of the target [amu] is the is the number of product nuclei pre-sent at End-of-Bombardment is the average beam current, [μA] is the density of the target material, [g/cc] is the target thickness, [cm] is the decay constant, [s−1] is the irradiation time, [s] For each foil in the experimental stack, we also have a statistically driven broadening of the incident energy. The beam energy is modeled as a Gaussian distribution, with the tallies for each energy bin determining the parameters of the fit. TABLE 1 and FIG. 3 summarize the mean energy and standard deviation of the energy for each aluminum monitor foil. To address the energy distribution, we calculate an effective or weighted cross-section. It is especially important to account for energy broadening in regions where the associated excitation function varies rapidly. In the excitation function, we see a strong variation in the energy range from 30–65 MeV, the energy region cov-ered by the last 3 foils in the stack. Cross section weighting also accounts for the mean energy variation within each foil. The excitation function will overlay the Gaussian shaped flux distribution, giving rise to a lateral distribution where incrementally weighted values of the cross section are determined by the flux tally of the corresponding energy bin. With the effective cross section and the current at each of the foils, it is straight-forward to calculate the number of 22Na atoms created and the activity of each foil using the previously stated equation. Results and Conclusion The general trend in the amount of activity produced follows the shape of the excitation func-tion for the 27Al(p,x)22Na reaction. Small shifts in the incident energy upstream trickle down to produce much more pronounced shifts in the energy range of foils towards the back of the foil stack. The characteristic “rolling over” of the activity seen in the experimental foils indicates that the 6th foil must be in the energy region below 45 MeV, where the peak of the excitation function occurs. Conservatively, computational simulations are able to accurately determine the proton beam’s energy for an energy range from 100 to 50 MeV. As the beam degrades below 50 MeV, computa-tional simulations diverge from experimentally observed energies by over-predicting the energy. This observation has been noted in past studies [6,7] that compare the stacked foil technique with stopping-power based calculations. A complement of experimental and computational predictions allows for energy determinations at several points within target stacks. While this study focuses on an Al-Tb foil stack, the analysis of a similar Al-Th foil stack resulted in the same conclusions. Although we do not have a concurrent time-of-flight energy measurement at the time of the foil stack experiments, it is reasonable to assume that the energy at the time of the stacked foil experiments was also lower than the assumed energy of 100 MeV. Computational simulations developed in this work firmly support this assumption. Various computational models are able to predict with good agreement the energy as a function of depth for complex foil stack geometries. Their predictions diverge as the beam energy distribution broadens and statistical uncertainties propagate. A careful inspection of the codes reveals that these discrepancies likely originate from minute differences between the cross sections and stopping power tables that MCNP and TRIM/A&Z use respectively.

The work described in this thesis is concerned with two main areas of investigation. The first involves the measurement and characterisation of the fluorescence of various doped glasses when excited by a pulsed ultra-violet laser beam, with a view to finding a material which acts as a suitable ultra-violet to visible image converter. A system is described, based on a glass fluorescer, which writes the beam profile of a single-shot KrF laser directly into computer memory and hence permits powerful image processing, and measurements to be made on the laser beam profile. The system was developed primarily for the spatial profiling of 'Sprite', Europe's largest ultra-violet laser, and is currently in routine use at the Rutherford Appleton Laboratory for this purpose.

This thesis develops techniques for the design and analysis of controllers to achieve sub-micron accuracy on the position of electron beams for the optimal performance of synchrotrons. The techniques have been applied to Diamond Light Source, the UK's national synchrotron facility. Electron beam motion in synchrotrons is considered as a large-scale, two-dimensional process and by using basis functions, controllable modes of the process are identified which are independent and allow the design to be approached in terms of a family of single-input, single-output transfer functions. This thesis develops techniques for the design and analysis of controllers to achieve sub-micron accuracy on the position of electron beams for the optimal performance of synchrotrons. The techniques have been applied to Diamond Light Source, the UK's national synchrotron facility. Electron beam motion in synchrotrons is considered as a large-scale, two-dimensional process and by using basis functions, controllable modes of the process are identified which are independent and allow the design to be approached in terms of a family of single-input, single-output transfer functions. In this thesis, loop shaping concepts for dynamical systems are applied to the two-dimensional frequency domain to meet closed loop specifications. Spatial uncertainties are modelled by complex Fourier matrices and the closed loop robust stability, in the presence of spatial uncertainties is analysed within an Integral Quadratic Constraint framework. Two extensions to the unconstrained, single-actuator array controller design are considered. The first being anti-windup augmentation to give satisfactory performance when rate limit constraints are imposed on the actuators and the second being a strategy to account for two arrays of actuators with different dynamics. The resulting control schemes offer both stability and performance guarantees within structures that are feasible for online computation in real time.

Trabalho apresentado à Universidade Fernando Pessoa como parte dos requisitos para obtenção do grau de Mestre em Medicina Dentária
A imagiologia como uma área de interesse à qual se recorre frequentemente em Medicina Dentária, tem vindo a evoluir muito nos últimos anos apresentando novas tecnologias. A Tomografia Computorizada de Feixe Cónico (CBCT) é uma dessas tecnologias mais recentes, que possibilita a visualização de imagens em três dimensões das estruturas dentárias e das estruturas ósseas adjacentes. Situações como identificação de canais radiculares “anormais” em quantidade e morfologia, detecção de fracturas radiculares verticais, avaliação do processo de recuperação pós tratamento, poderão ser melhor e mais facilmente identificadas e tratadas com esta nova opção imagiológica. O objectivo deste trabalho é analisar o uso da CBCT em Endodontia. Para isso recorreu-se a uma pesquisa na base de dados online PubMed e Scielo, limitando a pesquisa a publicações feitas após o ano 2008 inclusivé, de onde resultou a selecção de 42 artigos. Com a realização deste trabalho foi possível concluir que o uso CBCT em Endodontia é de facto uma mais-valia, constituindo uma excelente ferramenta de diagnóstico. Imaging, as an area of interest which is frequently used by dentistry, has evolved in recent years featuring new technologies. Cone Beam Computed Tomography (CBCT) is one of these newer technologies, which enables the visualization of three-dimensional images of dental structures and adjacent bone tissue. Situations as identification of abnormal number and morphology of root canals, detection of vertical root fractures, evaluation of healing process after treatment, may be better and more easily identified and dealt with this new imaging option. The aim of this study, is to analyze the use of CBCT in Endodontics. Online search was performed on PubMed and Scielo database, limiting the search to publications made after the year 2008 inclusive. This resulted in the selection of 42 articles. With this study, it was concluded that the use of CBCT in Endodontics is indeed a great asset, making it an excellent diagnosis tool.

Thesis (MTech (Civil Engineering))--Cape Technikon, Cape Town, 2003
South Africa is experiencing great movements of people from rural areas to towns mainly because of the need to find work. Accommodation is limited and expensive, forcing many to live in informal homes. The municipalities, in an attempt to accommodate as much as they can, provide small plots, which basically can only accommodate a house and a very small garden. This country like other countries of the world has also embarked on numerous low-cost housing schemes to accommodate the homeless. Because of economic realities and because high-rise options are not considered acceptable, the most practical solution has resulted in large-scale low-density urban and suburban housing developments. Low-pitched metal-sheet roofs are provided because they are the most cost-effective. Lack of space within the homes and tiny surround-gardens are major problems to residents seriously limiting lifestyle. Other problems associated with these developments concern environmentally intrusive effects, the need for better security and other social concerns, and storm water runoff. This thesis discusses a usable flat urban and suburban roofing for existing and new houses by means of a system known as 'C-beam'. A usable greened concrete flat roof replaces the traditional pitched metal-sheet. The new roof provides sitting space for family members and is used to grow plants in pots. A construction manual is to be developed by which the constructors will build the roofing without the use of cranes and other expensive sophisticated construction machinery. The house owner can construct their own flooring/roofing; that is, the process will provide additional jobs, and hence positively affect economy. The manual includes the means of effective control by municipal authorities to ensure adequate and safe standards. Greening of the roofs will not only provide the potential for growing food from the plants, but it will also improve the environment of the area, including the reduction of storm water run-off, by retaining some water in the soil on rooftops.

This thesis primarily deals with accuracy obtainable when using IBA (Ion Beam Analysis) techniques to characterize materials. RBS (Rutherford Backscattering Spectrometry) is the main technique used, together with EBS (Elastic Backscattering Spectrometry), ERDA (Elastic Recoil Detection Analysis) and NRA (Nuclear Reaction Analysis). An exhaustive literature review on these analytical methods is made in connection with accuracy issues such as stopping powers and multiple scattering. The experimental set-ups and procedures are described, with emphasis laid on critical aspects of work where the highest accuracy is required. The instrumentation for dosimetry on ion implanters is first estabhshed at the 1% level for high-dose heavy implants in silicon. A new parameterisation of He stopping power in Si is used, and this latter material, via the surface yield, is used as a calibration standard. A precision (standard uncertainty) in the determination of implantation doses by RBS is conclusively demonstrated at 1.5%. The IBA DataFurnace code is validated for such accurate analysis, which can now be made routinely and rapidly. The certified Sb sample IRMM-302/BAM-L001, which has a certification of 0.6% traceable to the international standard of weight in Paris, is measured, and more importantly this measurement demonstrates the reliability of the stopping power parameterisation at 1.4%. Using conventional ERDA, the H dose of an amorphised Si wafer, implanted with 6-keV H+ ions, is found to be 57.8(1.0)x1015 at/cm2, which is a 1.8% standard uncertainty. The estimated combined uncertainty of this measurement is ~6%, and this mainly comes from the determination of the ERDA solid angle by using standard Kapton. The Kapton composition is carefully determined using RBS. The RBS solid angle is obtained using the amorphised silicon surface yield as a calibration standard as in the dosimetry analysis mentioned above. The ERDA H absolute dose obtained is compared with the results from other participants from all over the world in a Round Robin exercise, which includes measurements by using both He-ERDA and HI-ERDA (Heavy Ion-ERDA) together using various detectors. The results from each participant are given and compared. The overall absolute dose obtained of the implant is 57.0(1.2)x1015 H/cm2, and this represents an inter-lab reproducibility of 2.2% (standard uncertainty). Unstable surface hydrogen contamination was observed, and this surface peak was resolved by some of the methods. This implant can now be used as a standard for quantitative analysis of hydrogen. Low-fluorine content SiO2:F films are analysed by RBS for absolute fluorine concentration determination. Prior to the RBS analysis, the uniformity of the films and stability of F under beam irradiation is investigated. Because the RBS is not very sensitive to F and the F signal has a large matrix background, an internally consistent method of data handling, which enables the relative collected charge to be determined very precisely for the spectra from different samples, is developed. This method has as a parameter the F content, which is then extracted iteratively. A F concentration of 10 at% is determined with an estimated uncertainty of 10% (one percentage point, i.e. 10 +/- 1%). The O stopping powers are found to be the main factor governing the accuracy of the absolute determination of the F content. All the other uncertainties add up to only ~1%. The elemental composition of residual deposits from an ion implanter is thoroughly investigated using several complementary analytical methods, namely, RBS, BBS and NRA. Preliminary SEM/EDAX results are used as a guide. Depth profiles of such non-homogeneous, non-fiat and brittle samples are obtained, which give an indication of the concentration of each element present. From this complete IBA elemental study, some unprecedented light is brought on both the history of the implanter and the way in which these deposits are formed. Such an investigation is essential for a better understanding and the development/miniaturisation of semiconductors as it impressively pushes the boundaries of accuracy obtainable in IBA material characterisation.

This thesis reports on the techniques used in the growth and doping of Si-MBE layers prepared in a commercial molecular beam growth system and in the evaluation of their electrical and crystallographic properties. A number of technological problems associated with flux monitoring, the flaking of excess Si deposits and the use of closed-cycle He cryopumps during system bakeout were addressed. The electrical and crystallographic qualities of the undoped and doped Sl-MBE materials were assessed using preferential defect etching, four-point probe and Hall measurements, electrochemical CV profiling. Auger electron surface analysis, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), secondary ion mass spectroscopy (SIMS) analysis, spreading resistance measurement, and photoluminescence. The basic material grown was found to be of high quality and comparable to the Si-MBE material grown in other laboratories. Two electrically active contaminants, boron and phosphorus, were identified in our materials. The boron contamination was observed to occur at the substrate/epitaxial interface where the presence of an oxide layer prior to growth was apparently critical for its accumulation. Two new techniques in co-evaporatIve doping in Si-MBE are reported. The use of co-evaporated boron doping was Investigated enabling the growth of Sl-MBE material with bulk-like mobilities and carrier concentrations up to 1x10(to the power of 20) cm(to the power of -3) and giving excellent dopant profile control over a range of growth temperatures. The second technique called Potential Enhanced Doping (PED) involves applying a substrate potential during layer growth which enhances Sb dopant incorporation coefficient by up to a factor of 1000. Doping transitions were obtained by stepping the substrate potential. Using the PED technique, a maximum Sb dopant concentration of 2-3x10(to the power of 19) cm(to the power of -3) at 850°C and dopant transitions as abrupt as 200A/decade were achieved. Possible mechanisms for the observed PED effect are presented.

Hadronic matter makes about 14% of the known universe. The remaining 86% is Dark Matter (DM). Since it does not interact with the ordinary matter via electromagnetic force, DM is not visible and, to date, it escaped detection. The search for DM is one of the hottest topic in modern physics. Despite the increasing number of astrophysical and cosmological observations proving the existence, so far no particle physics experiment has detected DM yet. In a popular class of models, DM is composed of particles with mass in the MeV-GeV range, interacting with the Standard Model via a new force, mediated by a massive vector boson, the Dark Photon or A'. BDX (Beam Dump eXperiment) is an approved experiment searching for DM in the Dark Photon theoretical scenario. The experiment makes use of CEBAF (Continuous Electron Beam Accelerator Facility) 11 GeV electron beam impinging on the Jefferson Lab (Jlab) Hall-A beam-dump. The interaction of the energetic electrons in the beam-dump may lead to the production of Dark Photons through a bremsstrahlung-like radiative process. Subsequently, the A's decay to DM particle-antiparticle pairs, which travel almost unaltered through the length of the dump. A ~ 1 cubic meter detector made of CsI(Tl) (Thallium doped Cesium Iodide) crystals is located in the trajectory of the DM beam, 20 m downstream of the beam-dump. A fraction of the DM particles scatter off atomic electrons in the detector giving rise to a detectable electromagnetic shower of approximately 100 MeV. Thanks to the cosmic background suppression and the high intensity of the electron beam (up to 65 μA at 11 GeV), BDX will be able, with a 280 days run, to exceed by up to two orders of magnitude the sensitivity of current competitor experiments. A primary concern for BDX is in the estimation of beam related backgrounds from penetrating particles such as muons and neutrinos produced in the electron beam dump. A hodoscope detector, called BDX-HODO was placed downstream of the dump to measure the rates of these beam related processes and validate the necessary Monte Carlo simulations. Currently, the BDX collaboration is focused on the deployment and operation of a small detector, called BDX-MINI, built to perform a preliminary physics measurement searching for LDM at JLab. This test will pave the way to the realization of the full BDX experiment. This thesis is focused on the following topics: the muon flux measurement behind Jlab Hall A beam-dump with BDX-HODO, the evaluation of the BDX experiment reach, including an optimization study for the detector, the construction, commissioning and sensitivity estimate of the BDX-mini detector and the evaluation of the secondary positrons contribution to the sensitivity of BDX and other electron-beam thick-target experiments searching for DM in the Dark Photon paradigm.

Abstract: Growing needs of communication, demands a higher data transmission rate in 5G NR. In the 3rd generation partnership project (3GPP), frames are used to schedule the data to be transferred between the cellular base station (gNB) and user equipment (UE). These frames are further divided into slots and a fixed number of slots are used for uplink and downlink. In downlink, several slots are being utilized for CSI-RS report, containing the best narrow beams and their power (RSRP). In this thesis, cell downlink capacity is improved by using supervised learning algorithms. The narrow beam is selected using machine learning, no longer using the scheduled slots in downlink, these slots are further utilized in data transmission, resulting in improved cell capacity. Supervised learning algorithms namely, Support Vector Machines (SVM), K-nearest Neighbor (k-NN), and Logistic Regression (LR) are compared, collecting the data using the 5G simulator at Ericsson AB, Lund and training them to classic narrow beams. The SVM algorithm is found to outperform other algorithms with an accuracy of 78.5% plus 19.6% of neighbor beam selection. The accuracy of the algorithm varies depending on the scenario and the quantity of training data used. Plugging-in the SVM algorithm into the simulator, the average throughput of multiple users (2, 5, 10,20, 30, and 40) is collected varying different user speeds (1m/s, 5m/s, and 10m/s) and different SSB intervals (20ms and 40ms). For 40ms SSB interval, 40 users, and user speed 10m/s, the average gain in throughput is found to be 46.6%. Similarly, for 20msSSB interval, 30 users, and user speed 10m/s, the average throughput gain is 21.15%. Keywords: 5G NR, 3GPP, Beamforming, Supervised learning, Machine learning, SVM, and Multi-class classification (MCC).  Aim and Objective: The goal of this thesis study is to investigate the usage of machine learning algorithms for optimizing the beam tracking process. Machine learning algorithms can be used to make beam tracking more intelligent, robust, and less resource-demanding. Different machine learning methods are explored to find the best possible beam for a user, and the performance of the algorithm is then compared with the baseline(3GPP) algorithm to find the most suitable algorithm. The machine learning algorithms are trained by using as input, the beam selection result of the baseline algorithm. Then, a moving UE is utilized to extract the measurements. Finally, each algorithm is evaluated with respect to the performance of the baseline algorithm. The best performing algorithm is plugged into the Ericsson simulator to select the best narrow beam and is used to collect the KPIs. Finally, the gain in total throughput is evaluated for a different number of users, moving with different speeds. Methodology: SLR and Experiment is conducted. Results: The three algorithms which are SVM, k-NN, and Logistic Regression were trained to classify 12 different classes, using the same data, to be able to make fair comparisons of their performances. Here, the results are divided into several sections. Firstly, the shortlisted algorithms are compared using a 10-fold cross-validation technique. Secondly, performances of single UE and multiple UE scenarios are shown separately. The best performance of each algorithm is presented in the form of a confusion matrix, showing the number of classified narrow beams. The X-axis in the matrix represents the labels classified by machine learning algorithms and Y-axis represents the true label (selected as per 3GPP algorithm).  Conclusion: In this thesis, the usage of a machine learning algorithm for selecting a narrow beam inside a wide beam is examined. Three different algorithms were considered namely, Support Vector Machines (SVM), k-Nearest Neighbor (kNN), and Logistic Regression(LR) using SLR methodology. Out of which the SVM algorithm is found to perform best, with an accuracy of 78.5% when tested offline. This algorithm is plugged into the Ericsson simulator and tested to perform acceptably with an accuracy of 78.3%and 19.6% of times the UE selects a neighbor narrow beam. Side lobes that exist in a beam tend to mislead the machine learning model, resulting in misclassification. Thus, most of the inaccurate narrow beam classification is found to be inside lobes. Using SVM has improved the average downlink throughput significantly in multiple users scenario, by not using CSI-RS measurements in the shared channel. This leads to more availability of slots for data transmission. Therefore, an increase of29.40% in average downlink throughput for 40ms CSI-RS reporting interval and 40UEs is found compared to baseline algorithm also, an increase of 21.15% in average downlink throughput for 20ms CSI-RS reporting interval and 30 UEs scenario. Average downlink throughput increment was greater for 20ms interval, compared to40ms CSI-RS reporting interval. This proves that frequent use of machine learning updating the narrow beam leads to better throughput. Hence, the increased capacity of the cell. Finally, all the aims and objectives in the study are achieved and the research questions mentioned in the thesis are answered and justified.

Der Kompakte Linearbeschleuniger CLIC, ist ein Konzept für einen zukünftigen Elektron– Positron Beschleuniger mit einer Schwerpunktsenergie von 3 TeV. Die hohen Ladungsdichten, verursacht durch kleine Strahlgrößen, und die hohe Strahlenergie am CLIC, führen zur Produktion einer großen Menge von Teilchen durch Strahl-Strahl-Wechselwirkungen. Ein großer Teil dieser Teilchen wird den Detektor ohne Wechselwirkung verlassen, aber eine signifikante Menge Energie wird dennoch im Vorwärtsbereich des Detektors deponiert. Dadurch werden Sekundärteilchen erzeugt, von denen Einige Untergrund im Detektor verursachen werden. Es werden auch einige Teilchen mit inhärent großem Polarwinkel erzeugt, die direkt Untergrund in den Spurdetektoren und Kalorimetern verursachen können. Die Hauptursache von Untergrund im Detektor, entweder direkt oder durch Sekundärteilchen, sind inkohärente e+e− Paare und Teilchen aus hadronischen Zwei-Photon Ereignissen. Die Untergrund- und Strahlungspegel im Detektor müssen bestimmt werden, um zu untersuchen, ob ein Detektor mit den Untergrundbedingungen bei CLIC zurechtkommen kann. Mit Hilfe von Simulation der inkohärenten Paare in dem auf GEANT4 basierendem Programm MOKKA, wird die Geometrie eines auf Detektors für CLIC optimiert um den Untergrund im Vertexdetektor zu minimieren. In diesem optimiertem Detektor werden die Untergrund- und Strahlungspegel durch inkohärente e+e− Paare und hadronischen Zwei-Photon Ereignissen bestimmt. Des Weiteren wird die Möglichkeit untersucht, ob Schauer von hochenergetischen Elektron bei kleinen Polarwinkeln im BeamCal zu identifizieren sind.
The high charge density—due to small beam sizes—and the high energy of the proposed CLIC concept for a linear electron–positron collider with a centre-of-mass energy of up to 3 TeV lead to the production of a large number of particles through beam-beam interactions at the interaction point during every bunch crossing (BX). A large fraction of these particles safely leaves the detector. A still significant amount of energy will be deposited in the forward region nonetheless, which will produce secondary particles able to cause background in the detector. Furthermore, some particles will be created with large polar angles and directly cause background in the tracking detectors and calorimeters. The main sources of background in the detector, either directly or indirectly, are the incoherent e+e− pairs and the particles from gamma gamma to hadron events. The background and radiation levels in the detector have to be estimated, to study if a detector is feasible, that can handle the Compact Linear Collider (CLIC) background conditions. Based on full detector simulations of incoherent e+e− pairs with the GEANT4 based MOKKA program, the detector geometry of a CLIC detector is optimised to minimise the background in the vertex detector. Following the optimisation of the geometry, the background and radiation levels for incoherent pairs and gamma gamma to hadron events are estimated. The possibility of identifying high energy electron showers with the most forward calorimeter, the BeamCal, is investigated.

ITER is the first reactor-scale scientific experiment that aims to demonstrate the scientific and the technological feasibility of fusion energy. It is based on the tokamak concept of magnetic confinement, in which the fuel, a mixture of deuterium and tritium heated to temperatures in excess of 150 million degrees Celsius, is contained in a toroidal vacuum chamber. Among the systems used to reach such high temperature range, a fundamental role is played by the injection of intense beams of neutral particles into the plasma, which is consequently heated by collisions. This process is realized by means of two Neutral Beam Injectors (NBIs), capable of delivering to the plasma a power of 16.7 MW each. These devices are mainly composed of a negative deuterium ion source, an electrostatic accelerator where a 40 A beam of negative deuterons will be accelerated to 1 MV and a neutralizer which converts part of the beam into high energy neutrals able to penetrate the high magnetic field confining the ITER plasma. The ITER requirements for these devices have never been simultaneously achieved so far in a full scale, full performance device and therefore a neutral beam test facility is being constructed at Consorzio RFX in Padova. The research activity presented in this thesis work is in the framework of the development of the negative ion source (SPIDER) and full injector (MITICA) prototypes for the ITER neutral beam. In particular, it is focused on two main topics: particle transport studies inside the MITICA accelerator and the development of a tomographic beam diagnostic. A proper modeling of the particle transport inside the MITICA accelerator, considering the main processes that generate secondary particles relevant for the evaluation of the heat loads on the accelerator grids is essential for the thermo-mechanical analysis and the mechanical design of the accelerator. For this reason an upgrade of the relativistic particle tracking code called EAMCC has been undertaken and the simulations performed for evaluating the thermal power deposited on the MITICA accelerator grids are presented in the first part of the present thesis work. For the first time, an entire source called NIO1 installed at RFX and made of nine beamlets has been simulated in EAMCC considering multi-beamlet effects which were neglected earlier and discarding the axis-symmetry hypothesis of the electric fields imposed by the original version of the code. Results obtained, also presented in the first part, will be used for benchmarking the modifications introduced in the code. The second part of the thesis is dedicated to beam tomography, an important diagnostic for the assessment of the density profile of the beam. A tomography code based on algebraic reconstruction techniques has been developed and numerically tested. Beam emissivity profiles considered for testing the code are calculated by the upgraded version of EAMCC. The tomography code has been developed with the aim of realizing a versatile instrument, applicable to linear accelerators as well as to a tokamak and without adding any hypotheses about the beam characteristics or the emissivity in a particular region of the tomography plane, not to limit the capability of the code of detecting irregularities in the beam profiles. The effects of the instrumental noise on tomography reconstructions have also been studied and, in order to reduce its impact, different filtering techniques have been considered both in the frequency and in the spatial domain, demonstrating the feasibility to filter out the effect of the noise by post-processing the reconstructed image of the beam
ITER (International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor) è un reattore sperimentale a fusione termonucleare basato sulla configurazione magnetica tokamak e volto a dimostrare la possibilità di sfruttare l’energia da fusione per la generazione di elettricità. Il combustibile nucleare costituito da una miscela di deuterio e trizio, portato a temperature eccedenti i 150 milioni di gradi centigradi, è confinato in una camera di forma toroidale per mezzo di campi magnetici. Tra i sistemi usati per riscaldare il combustibile nucleare, l’iniezione di neutri riveste un ruolo fondamentale. Essa consiste nella iniezione di nuclei di deuterio ad alta energia (1 MeV) che scaldano il combustibile gassoso altamente ionizzato (denominato plasma) a seguito delle collisioni con lo stesso. In ITER sono previsti due iniettori di neutri (NBIs), ciascuno in grado di immettere nel plasma una potenza di 16,7 MW. Tali iniettori sono essenzialmente costituiti da una sorgente di ioni negativi di deuterio, un acceleratore elettrostatico dove un fascio di 40 A di tali ioni viene accelerato fino a raggiungere l’energia di 1 MeV e un neutralizzatore nel quale una parte del fascio viene convertita in particelle neutre ad alta energia che possono penetrare gli intensi campi magnetici usati per confinare il plasma: il sistema dovrà operare continuativamente per un’ora. Le prestazioni richieste per tali iniettori di neutri non sono mai state raggiunte fino ad ora simultaneamente in un unico esperimento e su tale scala. Si è reso pertanto necessario lo studio e lo sviluppo di un prototipo di iniettore, affidato al Consorzio RFX di Padova. Il progetto prevede lo studio e la realizzazione della sorgente di ioni dell’ITER NBI (SPIDER) e successivamente la costruzione del prototipo dell’intero iniettore (MITICA). La mia attività di ricerca, presentata in questa tesi, si inserisce in tale contesto e più in particolare è incentrata sullo studio del trasporto di particelle all’interno di acceleratori lineari finalizzato al calcolo della potenza termica depositata nelle griglie dell’acceleratore di MITICA e sullo sviluppo di una diagnostica tomografica per fasci di particelle. Un appropriato modello fisico, il più realistico possibile, dei fascetti di particelle che compongono il fascio di MITICA è fondamentale per l’analisi termo-meccanica e per il progetto meccanico dell’acceleratore. A tale scopo, sono state eseguite delle modifiche al codice di calcolo EAMCC usato per simulare i processi di creazione di cariche secondarie che generano notevoli carichi termici sulle griglie dell’acceleratore. La versione modificata del codice è stata utilizzata per lo studio del trasporto di cariche nell’acceleratore di MITICA e per il calcolo dei carichi termici, come illustrato nella prima parte della tesi. Inoltre, per la prima volta, l’intera sorgente chiamata NIO1 installata a RFX e costituita da nove fascetti di ioni negativi di idrogeno è stata simulata con EAMCC, considerando effetti fino ad ora non simulati, come l’interazione tra fascetti vicini, ed eliminando l’ipotesi semplificativa di campi elettrici assial-simmetrici. I risultati delle simulazioni su NIO1 verranno usati in futuro per la validazione sperimentale delle modifiche introdotte in EAMCC e sono sintetizzati sempre nella prima parte del presente lavoro di tesi. La seconda parte è invece dedicata alla tomografia del fascio che rappresenta una diagnostica importante per la misura del profilo di densità delle particelle e consente di valutare il grado di uniformità dello stesso, un requisito fondamentale per l’iniettore di neutri. In tale ambito è stato sviluppato un codice tomografico basato su diverse tecniche di ricostruzione algebriche, più indicate rispetto a tecniche basate sulla trasformata di Radon nel caso in cui il numero di rivelatori disponibile sia molto inferiore rispetto al numero di pixel del profilo ricostruito. Tale codice è stato testato su NIO1 e su MITICA con risultati promettenti. Non essendo disponibile alcuna misura sperimentale dell’emissione dei fasci di particelle, grazie alle modifiche introdotte in EAMCC è stato possibile calcolare il profilo di emissività di fotoni del fascio usato poi per il test del codice tomografico. E’ stato inoltre studiato il ruolo del rumore strumentale e il suo impatto sulle ricostruzioni tomograficche. Sono state considerate tecniche di filtraggio sia nel dominio delle frequenze spaziali sia in quello spaziale e in particolare, una tecnica usata per filtrare le immagini radar è stata adattata al caso tomografico e implementata nel codice dimostrando la possibilità di limitare fortemente l’effetto negativo del rumore sulla tomografia del fascio

The research developed in the framework of this PhD thesis is a theoretical, numerical and experimental study of light beam shaping (spatial filtering, beam collimation and focusing) in the visible frequency range using photonic crystal structures. Photonic crystals (PhCs) are materials with periodic, spatially modulated refractive index on the wavelength scale. They are primarily known for their chromatic dispersion properties. However, they can also modify the spatial dispersion, which allows managing the spatial properties of the monochromatic light beams. In the first part of my thesis we experimentally show that particular spatial dispersion modification in PhCs can lead to spatial (angular) filtering of light beams. The study is focused on the spatial filtering efficiency improvement by introducing chirp (the variation of longitudinal period of the structure) in the crystal structure. Additionally, to enhance the effect, we consider different geometries and materials. The work presented in this PhD thesis brings closer to reality the creation of a new generation spatial filters for micro-photonic circuits and micro-devices. The second part of the study is devoted to the theoretical, numerical and experimental analysis of the formation of negative spatial dispersion in PhCs, which gives rise to collimation and focusing effects behind the PhCs. The ideas developed in my PhD also work in lossy systems, in particular in metallic PhCs. The simulation results for metallic PhCs are presented, in which both effects- spatial filtering and beam focusing, are shown.
La recerca desenvolupada en el marc d'aquesta tesi doctoral és un estudi teòric, numèric i experimental de la modificació de la forma de feixos de llum (filtratge espacial, col·limació i focalització) en el rang visible de freqüències utilitzant estructures de cristall fotònic. Els cristalls fotònics (CFs) són materials amb una modulació periòdica de l'índex de refracció en l'escala de la longitud d'ona, i són principalment coneguts per les seves propietats relacionades amb la dispersió temporal. Tot i això, la dispersió espacial també pot ser modificada mitjançant CFs, fet que permet controlar les propietats espacials de feixos monocromàtics de llum. En la primera part de la tesi, mostrem experimentalment el fet que certes modificacions de la dispersió espacial en CFs poden donar lloc a filtratge espacial (angular) de feixos de llum. L'estudi es focalitza en la millora de l'eficiència del filtratge espacial mitjançant la introducció de "chirp" (la variació del període longitudinal de l'estructura) en el CF. A més, per tal d'incrementar l'efecte considerem diferents estructures i materials. El treball presentat en aquesta tesi doctoral acosta a la realitat la creació d'una nova generació de filtres espacials per a circuits micro-fotònics i micro-dispositius. La segona part d'aquest estudi se centra en l'anàlisi teòric, numèric i experimental de la formació de dispersió espacial negativa en CFs, la gual dóna lloc a efectes de col·limació i focalització un cop travessat el CF. Les idees desenvolupades en aquesta tesi doctoral també són aplicables a sistemes amb pèrdues, en particular a CFs metàl·lics. Els resultats de les simulacions mostren l'existència d'ambdós efectes, filtratge espacial i focalització, en CFs metàl·lics.