Artykuły w czasopismach na temat „Above Poverty Line (APL)”

Public Distribution System is a welfare program through which highly subsidize food and non-food grains are allocate to the identified households. As such under this program the beneficiaries are identified into four categories viz; Above Poverty Line (APL), Below Poverty Line (BPL), Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY) and Annapurna. Rice is one of the staple food grains of Arunachal Pradesh. Therefore, present paper ponders only on per capita monthly off-take of subsidized rice from the Public Distribution System program in Arunachal Pradesh.

Introduction: Underdeveloped and developing countries are unable to provide essential healthcare to all of their inhabitants, and those who remain uninsured are at a huge risk of financial hardship. It’s never easy to divide limited resources. Method: This study attempts to examine that, If urban poors, a vulnerable section of the society is protected against catastrophic health expenditure. Is there any deepening of poverty among urban poor of the city of Jaipur due to catastrophic health expenditure? 426 households in Jaipur’s urban slums were surveyed. Results: The incidences of Catastrophic Health Expenditure were 8.1% among urban slum households. The mean positive overshoot was 33%. Poverty increased by 1% at National Poverty Line and by 2.6% at International Poverty Line estimates. The increase in the normalised mean positive poverty gap from 29.8% to 45.3% suggests that the existing poor are becoming more impoverished. There was a significant association between increasing health spending and household cuts in food and apparel spending, at p = 0.0001 and p = 0.05, respectively. Conclusion: The results show a huge disparity between poverty estimates based on national poverty standards (2.8%) and international poverty standards (37.1%) indicating the necessity for developing sensitive poverty criteria. It is also vital to make an evidence-based decision on whether to employ assurance, insurance, or a combination of the two healthcare delivery systems. The assurance approach might expand accessibility while also lowering healthcare expenditures for the entire community. Rather than creating two distinct insurance or assurance systems, the government should pool its resources and efforts into one.

This article examines the role of household poverty in shaping rural female labour supply using the unique panel dataset of India Human Development Survey. The results using Vella and Verbeek’s two-step panel estimation reveal the presence of a backward-sloping labour supply curve for rural women from below poverty line households, and an upward-sloping labour supply for rural women from above poverty line (APL) households. This implies the existence of ‘forced’ or ‘need-based’ participation among poor women and justifies why they work long hours in poorly paid hazardous jobs. The article also finds horizontal labour supply among agriculture wage workers and for Adivasi and Dalit rural women to some extent, reflecting limited job options, and surplus unskilled labour who are unable to demand higher wages for their labour supply. On the other hand, when categorised by occupation type, the downward-sloping labour supply for rural women from APL households indicates the dominance of the income effect over the substitution effect, and the socio-cultural factors that gain strength as income levels increase. JEL Classification: J220, R21, J16, R230, I32

The present study attempts to determine the access to clean water and sanitation essential for sustaining health. It attempts to identify socio-economic factors which influence access to clean water within the community. The absence of water-on- premises in a water abundant area of West Bengal, India showcases some of the challenges in progressing on Sustainable Development Goal-3.Eight villages were included in the study and a total of 597 households were enrolled for the study from 8000 households in the villages. The study includes descriptive analysis of water access and sanitation parameters, and regression analysis of socio-economic determinants of exposure. The results reveal that nearly half of the respondents belonged to Above Poverty Line (APL) while 42.71% were under Below Poverty Line (BPL). Although majority of the household had access to an improved source of water for drinking, 77.89 % of the households were using pond water for bathing, washing clothes, utensils and toilet and nearly 37% of households did not have any toilet facility. Regression analysis of use of pond water indicates that people living in mud huts (kutcha houses) and from religious minority groups were more likely to use ponds for washing utensils, clothes, bathing and defecated in open fields and use unimproved sources for drinking water. The study asserts the need to develop community level preventive measures such as access to clean water for personal and domestic use and sanitation facilities to protect health.

This research explores income patterns and determinants of rural poverty in Sindh province. The Data were collected from 300 households from two districts i.e. Khairpur, and Thatta of Sindh Pakistan by using the simple random technique; a structural questionnaire was design as an instrument tool for measuring the poverty determinants and income patterns. The households are classified into three groups i.e. A, B and C. Group A and B are below subsistence holding and group C is related to subsistence holding and, all the households were engaged in farm production . It was revealed that the average size of farm A group is 7.2 acres but the grower cultivates average area 4.5 acres and the remaining 2.7 acres are not cultivated by them due to deficiency of water. In the same way, the grower of group B cultivates 7.475 acres instead of 11.5 acres and grower of C group cultivates 16.56 acres in place of 27.6 acres. The surveyed data of district Khairpur describes that the average size of farm of group A is 7.47 acres but each grower average cultivates 4.78 acres and the remaining 2.69 acres are uncultivated. Similarly, the grower of B group cultivates 7.462 acres instead of 11.9 acres and the grower of C group brings 17.4 acres under cultivation in place of 29 acres. The surveyed data of both districts clearly indicate that the income of all growers is low because they do not bring all land under cultivation. The surveyed data has further pointed out that 50% households are below the official poverty line, 33.33% households are just above poverty line and 16.67% well above official poverty line. The group C is in a better position to provide health, education etc facilities to their family members.

The present paper focuses on identification of relative “poverty line” and a threshold of high poverty risks. The paper also studies key poverty factors in contemporary Russia. It demonstrates that the relative approach to poverty which is widely used in Western countries is applicable in Russia too. However, the relative poverty thresholds set at 0.5 and 0.75 medians per capita family income identify quite different groups of the poor. The threshold of 0.5 median income indicates deep poverty happened mostly to the unemployed workforce. The relative poverty threshold equal to 0.75 median income identifies the poverty of the elderly who are not considered as the poor by the absolute approach because pensions of Russians have been recently equalized to the subsistence level. Above all, the paper provides econometric estimates of socio-economic determinants of both absolute and relative poverty. It was revealed that the relative deep poverty of the working population was primarily caused by “bad” jobs rather than by “bad” human capital. Absolute poverty of workers is more or less determined by both factors.

Purpose of the study: This paper endeavours to re-examine the socio-economic factors influencing empowerment among married women in rural India over two points of time, 2005 and 2012. It examines the interplay of the work status of rural married women and the poverty status of their household in influencing empowerment. Methodology: The study uses the nationally representative multi-topic India Human Development Survey (IHDS). IHDS panel data has been utilized to assess the entry and exit from a workforce of rural married women, to define the components of empowerment among rural married women and analyze the socio-economic factors influencing the empowerment among rural married women. Main Findings: The outcomes show the increase in the overall empowerment rates in spite of their mobility constraints seem to have badly risen during the period 2005-2012, especially in the context of deteriorating work input among rural women. Moreover, working rural married women from BPL (Below Poverty Line) rural households are less likely to be empowered as compared to working rural married women from APL (Above Poverty Line) households. Applications of this study: The rural female work participation rate is declining in the phase of rising economic growth and education. In this context, their empowerment would not only benefit their personal lives but also impact their economic lives, thus contribute to the country`s GDP. This makes it vital to analyze as to what comprises their empowerment in the first place so that it can be promoted through various schemes. Novelty/Originality of this study: Women’s economic empowerment and their participation in work are essential to bringing in the fullest demographic dividend for inclusive economic escalation and sustainable development in India. Thus, empowerment which may not necessarily be implied by employment is conditioned upon the poverty status of the household. However, the empowerment of rural married women is facilitated by higher education of self, husband and other family members.

Having clear picture on food security status and its major determinants helps policy makers and planners to introduce new policies that enhance food security. The study was aimed to evaluate the impact of policies, strategies and institution on food security and poverty status of the vegetables farmers in Gezira State with reference to the Blue Nile farmers. To achieve these objectives stratified random sampling technique was used to select the respondents from five localities lays along Blue Nile, so 150 farming households were interviewed. Food security Policy and strategy were collected by the mean of questionnaire targeting key line institutions. Poverty indices were calculated using expenditure as welfare indicator,Gini coefficient was applied. The results showed that the majority 75% of the respondents were above expenditure poverty line (7196)SDG. Moreover, the results showed that the poverty gap index was equal to five percent. Kamlin, Medani, East Gezira reported the higher expenditure distance from the poverty line (6 percent). The severity of poverty in the state is estimated to be two percent, likewise the severity of poverty in East Gezira was found to have a higher percentage (three percent). According to Gini coefficient the income distribution estimated at 0.46 while that for expenditure distribution is estimated at 0.31, these results showed a higher degree of inequality. The results showed that the poorest 20% of the population earned 0.06% of the total income while the richest 20% earned 45% of the total income. About 50.7% from the respondents use borrowing from others as one of their coping strategies. About 78%of policy makers said that there was organized team from all institutions dealing with food security and nutrition issue, all policy makers in the state said there was strategy concerning the food security and nutrition issues. The study recommended that the cash transfer needed to lift the poor out of poverty that each poor person needs five percent of the value of the poverty line.

The study aimed at assessing the contribution of VUP in poverty reduction especially in Kigabiro sector. This study has general objective which is to assess the contribution of Vision 2020 Umurenge programme on poverty reduction supported by three specific objectives which are to assess the contribution of public works on poverty reduction, to determine the contribution of financial services on poverty reduction, and also to evaluate the contribution of direct support services on poverty reduction especially in Kigabiro sector located in Rwamagana district, Eastern province. Internationally, poverty can describe different things in different part of the world to different people, but it can be defined as when people are not able to afford basic needs. USA has come a long way in addressing the problem, but progress seems to have slowed despite the recent years of economic recovery. In Africa, hundred millions of people in the poorer countries are worries only with survival and elementary needs and average poverty rate for sub-Saharan Africa stands at about 41 percent, and of the world’s 28 poorest countries, 27 are in sub-Saharan Africa all with a poverty rate above 30 percent. Referring to Rwanda, because may people in Rwanda live in rural area, they also live-in poverty line which is so hard for GoR to answer each Rwandan’s problem but poverty alleviation program has been established in order to reduce gap of lower bad living condition of Rwandans due to genocide took place in 1994 against Tutsi. In 1994 the poverty rate was 78%, in year of 2000 poverty rate was 60.4%, 2011 poverty rate was 44.9%. 2014 poverty rate was 39.1% and in 2020 poverty rate was 20%. So, even if the poverty rate mentioned above are decreasing, poverty rate of 20% in 2020 is still high meaning that many people are in the poverty which is the main problem in this studies.

This study aimed to investigate and analyze: the demographic characteristics, prosperity levels, and factors affecting the prosperity level among the plasma palm oil farmers during the new normal era. This study was conducted in a palm oil plantation area, Kembayan, Sanggau Regency, West Borneo from August to July 2020. Primary data were collected using a questionnaire that directly distributed to the partisipants. The level of prosperity was measured by the prosperous family indicators from the National Population Planning and Family Board and poverty line indicators from the National Statistical Institute. A descriptive quantitative, descriptive qualitative, and multinomial logit regression analysis applied to address the study’s objectives. Findings revealed that 51%, 23%, 17%, 8%, and 1% of the farmer’s family were classified into the prosperous family level III plus, prosperous family level III, prosperous family level II, prosperous family level I, and pre-prosperous family category, respectively. According to poverty line indicators, all farmer’s state of living were placed above the line of poverty. These findings signified that palm oil businesses in the state border area were providing sufficient amount of revenue for the farmers during the new normal era. The variabel of age, total plantation land area, and income were associated with the farmer’s family prosperity level.

Poverty as a social problem will never escape the attention and discussion of Islamic teachings. Islam explores some of the most urgent main themes of empowerment and community involvement in eradicating their poverty. The Qur'an as the main source of Islamic teachings echoed a moral call for social justice in the economy to be upheld against people living below the poverty line. Efforts to alleviate poverty, one of the main focuses in Islam is the doctrine of weak economic empowerment of the people. Islam considers human resources personally to be the main agent in empowering the people's economy. Furthermore, Islam also sees that poverty alleviation is the collective responsibility of society so that the effort of economic empowerment of the poor becomes the collective obligation of all elements of society, especially poverty caused by social structure. It takes synergy between elements of society both government, ulama and society itself as subject and object of change. Some of the above empowerment models can be divided into two groups; Structural and cultural measures. Structural measures are more emphasized to the special institutions that handle them to run well, while cultural steps are emphasized on individuals, both individuals who are expected to be one of the subjects of poverty alleviation and empowerment of the poor and the poor and who became its object

Abstract: This article focuses on the role of the National Awakening Party (PKB) in the local parliament. This research concludes that the role of PKB of DPRD in Sumenep is committed by the spirit of fighting poverty and encouraging the grass root people-based APBD. These spirits are appropriate with the principle of maslahah (benefit) and ‘adl (justice). In line with the above conclusion, it is expected to the readers to be able to do more researches on the role of the National Awakening Party (PKB) in the local parliament. So that the further research will be able to fight the poverty of the grass root people based on the will of Siyasah Jinayah.Keywords: Candidate, individual, regional election, Islamic political jurisprudence

The list of seventeen global Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) for the period up to 2030 is presented in an official document of the UN General Assembly. All countries, including Ukraine, are trying to reach them. To this end, the National Report «Sustainable Development Goals: Ukraine» was prepared, which, taking into account the peculiarities of national development, highlights the results of adaptation of global CSWs, including those related to ensuring access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy sources. To overcome the problems associated with access of certain categories of consumers to the most important energy services of adequate quality at affordable prices, the transactions of the Third and Fourth Energy Packages of the EU set general provisions for all EU Member States on overcoming energy poverty. They set common goals for all EU member states to form the institutional framework for tackling energy poverty consumers, and for each Member State, it is provided the independent development of institutional frameworks for identifying consumers below energy poverty and implementing measures to tackle it. Given the above the purpose of the study is to analyze the experience of individual EU member states in the formation of these principles, especially the development of norms, rules, missions (roles) of public administration to implement public administration activities to identify consumers outside the energy poverty. The study found that Italy and Ireland have now established basic rules and regulations for identifying consumers who are below the poverty line. Appropriate methodologies and criteria have been developed, in particular regarding the expediency of taking into account informal norms, as well as the organizations that are working to address these issues have been identified. At the same time, in Greece and Latvia, the need to form an institutional framework for identifying consumers who are below the poverty line is only normatively declared. Due to the fact that about a quarter of households in Ukraine did not have enough funds to maintain a sufficiently warm temperature in their homes during the heating season, the institutional framework for identifying consumers below the energy poverty line is not currently formed. At the same time, only institutional principles are being formed, which relate to the identification of vulnerable consumers of energy resources, as well as their protection. Therefore, given the common goals for all EU member states to form the institutional framework for overcoming energy poverty, and separately for each Member State it is provided the independent formation of institutional frameworks relating to the identification of consumers below the energy poverty, this issue is relevant for Ukraine.

Poverty consists of two types: monetary poverty and multi-dimensional poverty. Monetary poverty is measured by determining whether income of a person falls below the poverty line while multidimensional poverty is measured using a method where it measures whether a person satisfies a set of specified basic needs. In 2010, the Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative (OPHI) in collaboration with the United Nation’s Development Program’s Human Development Report Office developed the Global Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) to measure multidimensional poverty under certain assumptions. Applying the Equal Weighting System by taking unit as the household, to compute MPI is one of the important assumptions which needs to be improved. The aim of this study is to propose an unequal weighting system taking unit as the individual to address the research problem of applying the equal weighting system taking the unit as the household. This study makes a significant contribution by offering a comprehensive exploration of the multidimensional poverty situation in Sri Lanka, both at the national level and within individual districts. The methodology applied in obtaining MPI is the Alkire -Foster Methodology based on Counting Approach. In the context of the Sri Lankan socio-cultural background, a more accurate national MPI was obtained by selecting indicators together with an unequal weighting structure. The Household Income and Expenditure survey – 2016 data were obtained from the Department of Census and Statistics, Sri Lanka for the analysis. This study reveals variations in the weighting system across dimensions and indicators, challenging the equal weighting approach adopted by the OPHI. Furthermore, it highlights that 68.7% of the population aged 10 or above in Sri Lanka experience multidimensional poverty. This would enable policy makers to have more accurate national and regional MPIs to implement efficient poverty reduction strategies covering all the districts in the country.

In less than ten years, India has launched colossal biometric databases. One among them is related to the first ‘free’ health coverage scheme offered by the government of India: the Rashtriya Swasthya Bima Yojna (RSBY). Based on a public–private partnership between government and private companies, RSBY national scheme was launched in 2008, as a first step towards universal health coverage in a country where households endorse 70% of health expenses. The first phase of RSBY offers to cover ₹30,000 ($600) of inpatient expenses per year for five members of a below poverty line household and is now piloted in several Indian States to include outpatient expenses and above poverty line families too. RSBY relies exclusively on a centralised digital artefact to function, made visible by the ‘RSBY Smart Card’, a chip enabled plastic card containing personal data of individual and their family counting and conditioning the granting of health services to them; thus, no smart card means no health coverage. Till date 120 million Indians have been registered in the RSBY database. This article analyses how health accessibility is crafted under the RSBY scheme by questioning two central dimensions of this data-driven digital health scheme: the smart card technology and the public–private partnership, whereas RSBY scheme promises health coverage for all, its digital infrastructures may complicate access to health services, and reveal new patterns of exclusion of individuals. Thus, we will detail how smartcards technologies and private providers condition access to health care in India.

Sudan and Malaysia have shown some socio-economic similarities especially when it comes to the issue of addressing poverty. After independence, almost half of the entire population of both countries were living under poverty line. The successive national governments in both countries have embarked on eliminating the extreme poverty. The aim of this paper is to highlight the policies and programmes adopted and implemented by policymakers in both countries in addressing poverty. The overall objective is to uncover the secret of the success and constraints faced both countries in addressing poverty. To achieve such objective, the paper based mainly on a desk review of recent documents and review of some recent researches' result. The paper has come out with that the similarities between both countries manifested itself in that both are classified as Muslim countries, have an agricultural background, inherited the same legacy as been colonized by British, their communities consist of various ethnic groups and minorities with sharp spatial and ethnic inequalities in income and social class. Despite these, Malaysia has succeeded in reducing poverty from over fifty 52.4% in 1970 to around one per cent 1.2 % in 2015, while less progress has been made in side of Sudan. Moreover, unlike Sudan, Malaysia has managed to achieve the MDGs goals in halving a head before the time determined, while Sudan has long way and it seems impossible to fulfil such objective even after 2015. Our findings have shown that, formulated home-grown policies, rejecting imposed policies by international institutions (World Bank), availability and accessibility of up to date poverty data, ability to implement policies and above all the political will are the main drivers behind the secret of success in the side of Malaysia and vice versa for Sudan. Sudan like other countries has to follow the Malaysia model if the decision makers are serious in eliminating poverty. This paper may contribute to the on-going discussion on poverty and open rooms for more comparative study between nations. Comparative study will help the planners in formulating rational policy, benefitting from exchanging ideas and learning from each.

Since there were no visible developmental changes in the BiH during the last two decades, so neither its population felt the benefits that were persistently offered to them through many preelection and election campaigns by political representatives,yet. But in the long run, "hope dies last". Unfortunately, the promised neoliberal society led BiH, as more or less all transition countries in the region and beyond, on the edge of poverty. Truly, a small number of those "worldly-wise, felt the benefits of "neoliberal capitalism" quiet well, because they took everything that could have been taken - robbed legally. Society has been brought on the brink of disaster: all promising production capacities were destroyed - their workers are left to fend for themselves by walking along the streets and demanding their rights. Many privatizations without any results and without the responsibility of originator were being implemented. All domestic banks were more or less destroyed and some foreign banks appeared and they further impoverish/deplete already impoverished population by giving them loans with high interest rates, and it is normal for them to gain amounts to the parent headquarters. Authorities are changed sometimes but they are working by the same matrix - they are competing who will borrow more. On the other hand, those citizens, who persistently choose irresponsible and inefficient politicians, bear some responsibility. What is the perspective of a society that has more pensioners than workers? What perspective do young and educated people have, who fill in the lists of unemployed people in the employment bureau for decades and more? All things mentioned above, and the facts that are not mentioned, are the cause for alarm, because the number of unemployed people in BiH is increasing every day. This phenomenon is witnessed by the words so called "the poverty line", more widespread in everyday jargon, instead of some preferable words that would speak of progress, prosperity and happier life of the population in BiH.

The study assessed the effect of maize production on poverty reduction among maize farmers in Makurdi Local Government Area of Benue State, Nigeria using a multi-stage sampling technique to select 100 maize farmers as respondents. Data for the study were analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistics. The result of the factors influencing production of maize in the study area revealed that farming experience (0.052) significant at 1%, off-farm income (1.35) significant at 1%, soil type (0.346) significant at 5%, rain-fed and irrigation (0.334) significant at 10% and season (0.60) significant at 1% were all positive and statistically significant which implied that they have influence on the production of maize. Most (67.0%) of the maize farmers are males with the mean age of 41.76 years. It was further revealed that most (60.0%) maize farmers in the study area are above the poverty line. On the effect of maize production to poverty reduction, the coefficient of increased income (1.05017) and improved standard of living (0.83657) were positive and significant at 10% level of probability poverty reduction among maize farmers. Contribution of maize production to income generation among maize farmers revealed that source of food (82.0%) is the major contributor to income generation in the study area. The study concluded that increased income and improved standard of living as the result of maize production reduced poverty among the maize farmers. It was therefore recommended that Government should provide irrigation, improved yield and disease resistant varieties to farmers to enhance maize production in the area.

Background: The cultural beliefs, food taboos play a key role on women and child health in India. Those food practices and taboos directly impact on women and children health. Moreover, these are one of the causes for malnutrition in women and child; sometimes it also leads to death.Methods: The methodology of this study is qualitative study. The primary data collected in Srikakulam and Visakhapatnam districts of Andhra Pradesh, through in-depth-interviews with the help of semi structured interview guides. The selection of the informants is based on simple random selection.Results: All informants are women and they all are home makers only. They not do participant any income generation activities. Seventy five percentages (75%) of the informants are lives in below poverty line, and twenty five percentages (25%) of women are in above poverty line.Conclusions: The cultural beliefs and practices play a role in the distribution of nutrition messages to the community. Those beliefs are affecting to the pregnant women and on their infants. It’s also affects to the community. Many of these beliefs and practices have been passed down for generations.

We propose a methodology for estimating the cost of the basic needs and applying it on the data for Lithuania in a decade after the EU accession (2006-2016). The basic food costs account for the minimal nutrition requirements, while the cost of other needs is estimated in relative terms, taking actual consumption patterns in the population into account. A reduction in the cost of the basic needs for additional members of the household is accounted for by a specially constructed consumption-based equivalence scale estimated on the HBS data. We show that the cost of the basic needs in Lithuania is close to the relative at-risk-of-poverty line (at 60% of the median equivalized disposable income) for a single adult but exceeds it for larger households. The share of people with income below the basic needs’ cost was above the relative at-risk-of-poverty levels in the EU-SILC data for all years, except of 2016. Albeit, the actual level might be lower due to the under-reporting of shadow income in the EU-SILC. Ability to meet basic needs and related absolute poverty indicators shows anti-cyclical dynamics in times of the economic growth and recession. Children are consistently the most deprived group of the Lithuanian population when it comes to meeting the basic needs. The official absolute poverty indicator used in Lithuania under-estimates the cost of the basic needs for households with more than one member.

The use of information technology can accelerate the Sustainable Development Goals. Research on the use of information technology to reduce poverty, especially in Indonesia, is still very limited. Amid the issue of many conventional retail closings and a decline in people's purchasing power, e-commerce with the help of e-banking can survive in the market. Therefore, research is needed on the opportunity to use these three services from the demand side, namely households as the largest contributor to GDP. In this study using Susenas March 2017 data from BPS and logistic regression methods. The number of samples in this study was 926,218 individuals. The results showed that individuals with working characteristics, young age, owning cell phones, university graduates, using computers, living in Java and urban areas, and having per capita expenditure above the poverty line in urban districts have a greater chance of becoming users of all three services. Although the gap in users of the three services cannot be avoided, policies are needed to provide adequate and equitable infrastructure and increase digital literacy.

SUMMARYSustainable intensification (SI) of agriculture is the predominant objective for agricultural research and extension worldwide. Researchers and policymakers consider SI to be essential to avoid global hunger, improve human nutrition and reduce rural poverty while avoiding all manner of environmental disasters. To achieve these global public goods requires a large number of rural households – ‘small farmers’ – in less developed countries to improve their agriculture. Household size and farm size from 11,789 households in 15 countries from sub-Saharan Africa were used to calculate an intensification benefit index (IBI) that reflects how much a household will benefit if intensification occurs. IBI is defined as the increase in personal daily income (cents/person/day) as returns to land (dollars/hectare/year) increase. Actual net farm income from 160 rural households in each of three countries was compared with their IBI values to explore the gap between potential intensification and current smallholder farm performance. Fifty percent of all households had IBI values less than 0.075 cents/dollar, 70% less than 0.125 cents/dollar and 90% less than 0.225 cents/dollar. Returns of $1000/ha/year would result in fewer than 15% of households crossing a $2/person/day poverty line; $2500/ha/year would be required to lift 50% of the sample above the line; and even with $4000/ha/year, more than 30% of households would remain below the line. Since mean net returns from three sub-sampled sites were only $78, $83 and $424/ha/year the gap between potential- and actual performance is large but, theoretically, amenable to closure through adoption of improved technologies. However, surveys have shown that the available technologies would struggle to bridge the gap completely for rural households with small farms. For many small farms, the gains from adopting improved technologies are unlikely by themselves to lift them out of poverty and so might not be as attractive as scientists would wish.

Economically disadvantaged coastal communities face severe damage and casualties, which can be attributed to storm surges. Excessive amounts of inundation should be considered to a similar level to wind speeds and heavy rains that communities commonly prepare for amidst a hurricane event. Marginalized residents, such as residents of color, disabled residents, elderly residents, and residents occupying low-income housing, suffer from storm surge events. Coastal resiliency plans are bottlenecked by factors, such as residential stability, ability to relocate, and insurance coverage, all of which are inequitably constrained for marginalized communities. This exploratory study reviews the previous literature on wireless emergency alert (WEA) equity critiques and spatial analysis of the WEAs sent to coastal Virginia communities. Two research questions are explored in this paper: (1) How does the previous literature critique equity in wireless emergency alerts? (2) How many households are below the poverty line in areas where storm surge warnings have been sent? To improve the utilization of WEAs for the protection of low-income community members, there is evidence to support the increase in the frequency of message delivery and improving the call-to-action text. This paper sets the stage for future policy analyses and message design experimentation on emergency communication in coastal regions.

Executive Summary Catastrophic health expenses result in impoverishment of a large number of people every year in India. This often forces the resource-poor households to forego treatment due to lack of affordability. Providing quality health care to all at an affordable cost is a policy commitment for India as it is a signatory of the Alma Ata Declaration. The Government of India is working towards providing universal health coverage through its National Health Policy. As part of universalization of health care, the government had launched a publicly financed health insurance scheme, Rashtriya Swasthya Bima Yojana (RSBY), to provide affordable and quality health services. The present study dealt with understanding the impact of the scheme for improving health care-seeking and reducing burden of health expenditure among resource-poor families through a matched controlled cross-sectional study. The study tried to assess whether RSBY had improved care-seeking and reduced incidences of catastrophic health expenditure (CHE) and health expenditure-induced poverty among the insured population and also tried to explore whether the benefits were equitable. It was conducted in purposively selected two blocks of Ranchi district in Jharkhand with 1,643 households below poverty line (BPL). Both enrolled and non-enrolled households were selected randomly for the study after matching with some key matching criteria. It was found that RSBY neither increased in-facility treatment (hospitalization) nor reduced the likelihood of CHE among the enrolled households. More importantly, it significantly increased the incidence of health expenditure-induced poverty among the households who were above the poverty line before incurring any health expenditure. From equity perspective, care-seeking was much lower among the economically weaker households compared to the better-off households. Similarly, incidences of CHE and health expenditure-induced poverty were also found to be higher among the weaker sections. The study shows that RSBY did not achieve its objective of improving care-seeking and providing financial security to the enrolled households, and more importantly to the economically weaker sections of the society. Other studies have also found that one of the factors for high out-of-pocket expenditure in health is a weak public health delivery system which forces people to seek care from private providers. Hence, it is important for the policymakers to critically evaluate whether such insurance models will actually ensure better financial security for the households from excessive health expenditure and whether strengthening the existing public health delivery system would be a better option.

In today's world economy, financial crises have been quite rampant and have been a source of greater misery, deprivation and poverty among a growing number of countries [Wolfensehn (1998)]. Some of the major causes of this state of affairs especially in Pakistan lie in rising debt servicing liabilities, receding donor assistance and growing saving-investment and import-export gaps [UN (1997)]. To the extent that the above situation can be ameliorated considerably by emphasis on domestic production especially in agriculture, this paper looks at possibilities of increasing the production of oil-crops for eliminating edible oil imports. It must be noted that self-reliance in edible oil is not important in its own right but would also be consistent with more judicious use of domestic resources, greater food security, enhanced welfare of consumers and producers and above all saving of scarce foreign exchange resources [Goldman (1975) and Mellor and Johnston (1984)]. In line with the above, the paper has the following outline. Section 2 reviews edible oil situation in the country. The factors underlying the growing edible oil deficit are highlighted in Section 3. In Section 4 discussion is centred on policy alternatives for attainment of self-sufficiency in edible oils through local production. The final Section 5 summarises the conclusions of the paper.

During the last 15 years the entire Western Balkan region has undergone dramatic changes. With the fall of the Berlin wall and the disintegration of the former Yugoslavia, new states were formed and transition started, although in some countries it was quite delayed. Simultaneously, during the nineties, much of the region experienced wars and destruction, waves of refugees, internal displacement of population, devastation of the economy, demolition of institutions and impoverishment of citizens. Absolute poverty, determined through the estimation of household consumption at which families, after paying for essential non-food expenditures just attain minimal nutritional needs, in almost all of the Western Balkans is still relatively high, and is not showing significant tendencies of decreasing. A large concentration of the population and households just above the poverty line additionally demonstrates the challenges faced by the entire region while undergoing the transition process. In some countries extreme poverty, meaning that not even basic food needs can be met, has been registered. On the other hand, relative poverty, defined as the share of those who are excluded from the minimum acceptable way of life in states in which they live, is not particularly high. Due to the relatively high standard of living in the past and high expectations of the population that living standards would increase in a relatively short period of time, the subjective perception of poverty in the entire region is very much present. Groups that stand out as especially vulnerable and excluded are the unemployed, dependents and the less educated. At the level of the household, in some countries households with many children and elderly households are particularly vulnerable. The poorest often live in the rural areas and in the underdeveloped regions. In addition, especially vulnerable groups, who cannot even be completely covered by standard surveys, but are poor and socially excluded by many indices are the Roma, refugees and IDPs and persons with disabilities. Concurrently undergoing transition, post conflict reconciliation and reconstruction and striving to pursue their European Union future, the Western Balkan countries face many challenges. One of the greatest challenges is to focus on programs and activities that will lead to equitable and sustained economic growth that will also benefit the vulnerable groups. Almost all Western Balkan countries, through their national plans and programs, have marked employment growth and job creation as the most important single mechanism for exiting poverty. The second priority may be an increase of education coverage and improving the quality of education, although reduction of poverty and social exclusion presupposes improvement in the areas of developing appropriate social safety nets, health care systems, securing adequate housing, participation in decision making and protection of human rights. Bearing in mind the commitment of the Western Balkan countries to meet the globally agreed goals manifested in the MDGs, their efforts to proceed with anti-poverty strategies and aspirations in terms of EU accession, it is of the utmost importance to explore the synergies between these agendas to ensure that the processes reinforce each other.

Data from the Census Bureau's Annual Report on Poverty show that 37.4 million Americans—two million more than the previous year—had no health insurance during 1992. The proportion of people with no health insurance also increased from 14.1 percent in 1991 to 14.7 percent in 1992. This is the largest annual increase—both in the number of people and the proportion of the population lacking health care coverage—since 1987, the first year for which comparable data are available. In 1987, the Census data show, 31 million people—12.9 percent of the population—were not covered by health insurance. Both the number of people and the proportion of the population without health insurance have increased each year since 1987. Not all of the changes from one year to the next were statistically significant. Between 1991 and 1992, however, the increases both in the number of people without insurance and the proportion of the population lacking insurance were statistically significant. The Bureau reported that 36.9 million Americans were poor in 1992, which represented the largest number of poor people in 30 years. Among the poor, 28.5 percent had no health insurance in 1992. Lack of insurance was not limited to the poor, however. Of those without insurance in 1992, more than 70 percent were above the poverty line.

Purpose – The purpose of this research is to examine consumers’ perceptions of corporate social responsibility (CSR) and to explore the impact of CSR on consumers’ support in Indonesia. Design/methodology/approach – A convenience sample of respondents in Yogyakarta, Indonesia, was collected. The final sample consisted of 254 surveys. Findings – The findings confirmed the applicability of Carroll’s (1979) categorization of CSRs to consumers in Indonesia but challenged the order of importance of these responsibilities. In addition, the results clearly indicated that perceptions of legal and philanthropic responsibilities significantly explained consumers’ support for responsible businesses. The results will assist managers operating in the developing countries, especially Indonesia. Research limitations/implications – The sample was taken from one city (i.e. Yogyakarta) in Indonesia and may not represent all Indonesians, as it is a culturally diverse country. Thus, this limits the generalizability of the findings. Practical implications – For businesses operating in Indonesia, it is important to focus on being a company that follows the regulatory system and supports various philanthropic activities such as poverty reduction, especially when half of the population in Indonesia lives just above the national poverty line. It has been shown that inoculation communication strategy will reduce perceived hypocrisy and mitigate its negative consequences. Originality/value – The study examined consumers in Indonesia, the world’s fourth most populous nation. The results will provide some insights for multinationals operating in Indonesia.

The article sheds light on various approaches that seek to determine how widespread poverty and life on a low income are in Ukraine nowadays. As a social phenomenon, poverty has traditionally been associated with destitution and living below the subsistence level set by the government. However, the author holds the view that life on a low income not only means living near or below the poverty line. There is another part of Ukraine’s population that should also be considered needy — those whose income is less than twice as the subsistence level, and most of them are also subject to socio-economic deprivation. Drawing upon the findings of a social survey conducted by the Institute of Sociology of the NAS of Ukraine in 2019, the paper analyses the standard of living among different income groups. Particular attention is given to consumption patterns and social well-being of respondents in the lower income brackets. From the data, it can be inferred that living conditions of many Ukrainians are inadequate to sustain and develop human potential; furthermore, the low-income households have literally to struggle every day to make ends meet. The author brings into focus the main macroeconomic factors contributing to this situation and its adverse effect on the nation’s social potential. Some of the most common social consequences of living on a low income have been identified, such as limited consumption, a person’s dissatisfaction with life and his/her position in society. The above-mentioned survey also provides the estimates of how much the current subsistence level (with regard to Ukraine) should be. Having been made by different socio-demographic and occupational groups of Ukraine’s population, these estimates are a useful source of information — given that subsistence level is considered the basic social standard. According to the survey, all these figures are at variance with the official subsistence level, which is noticeably lower, and this indicates that the current subsistence level needs an upward revision. Today, the overall socio-economic situation in Ukraine is unfavourable for neoliberal economic reforms initiated by the government. Since these policies are primarily designed to reduce the role of state in managing the economy and implementing social welfare programmes, following this path will inevitably result in the entrenchment of mass poverty and in a major loss of Ukraine’s human potential, as well as labour force. The author argues that tackling the country’s chronic low income problem is only possible if a new strategy for socio-economic development is adopted, where social welfare is prioritised.

Background Financial hardship (of health care) is a global and a national priority area. All people should be protected from financial hardship to ensure inclusive better health outcome. However, financial hardship of healthcare has not been well studied in Ethiopia in general and in Debre Tabor town in particular. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the incidence of financial hardship of healthcare and associated factors among households in Debre Tabor town. Methods Community based cross sectional study was conducted, from May 24/2022 to June 17/2022, on 423 (selected through simple random sampling) households. Financial hardship was measured through catastrophic (using 10% threshold level) and impoverishing (using $1.90 poverty line) health expenditures. Patient perspective bottom up and prevalence based costing approach were used. Indirect cost was estimated through human capital approach. Bi-variable and multiple logistic regressions were used. Results The response rate was 95%. The mean household annual healthcare expenditure was Ethiopian birr 12050.64 ($227.37). About 37.1% (95%CI: 32, 42%) of the households spend catastrophic health expenditure with a 10% threshold level and 10.4% of households were impoverished with $1.90 per day poverty line. Being old, with age above 60, (AOR: 4.21, CI: 1.23, 14.45), being non-insured (AOR: 2.19, CI: 1.04, 4.62), chronically ill (AOR: 7.20, CI: 3.64, 14.26), seeking traditional healthcare (AOR: 2.63, CI: 1.37. 5.05) and being socially unsupported (AOR: 2.77, CI: 1.25, 6.17) were statistically significant factors for catastrophic health expenditure. Conclusion The study showed that significant number of households was not yet protected from financial hardship of healthcare. The financial hardship of health care is stronger among the less privileged populations: non-insured, the chronically diseased, the elder and socially unsupported. Therefore, financial risk protection strategies should be strengthened by the concerned bodies.

This paper aims to portray the overall picture of poverty in the world and mentions the key solution to overcome poverty from a critical perspective. The data and figures were quoted from a number of researchers and organizations in the field of poverty around the world. Simultaneously, the information strengthens the correlations among poverty and lack of education. Only appropriate philosophies of education can improve the country’s socio-economic conditions and contribute to effective solutions to worldwide poverty. In the 21st century, despite the rapid development of science and technology with a series of inventions brought into the world to make life more comfortable, human poverty remains a global problem, especially in developing countries. Poverty, according to Lister (2004), is reflected by the state of “low living standards and/or inability to participate fully in society because of lack of material resources” (p.7). The impact and serious consequences of poverty on multiple aspects of human life have been realized by different organizations and researchers from different contexts (Fraser, 2000; Lister, 2004; Lipman, 2004; Lister, 2008). This paper will indicate some of the concepts and research results on poverty. Figures and causes of poverty, and some solutions from education as a key breaker to poverty will also be discussed. Creating a universal definition of poverty is not simple (Nyasulu, 2010). There are conflicts among different groups of people defining poverty, based on different views and fields. Some writers, according to Nyasulu, tend to connect poverty with social problems, while others focus on political or other causes. However, the reality of poverty needs to be considered from different sides and ways; for that reason, the diversity of definitions assigned to poverty can help form the basis on which interventions are drawn (Ife and Tesoriero, 2006). For instance, in dealing with poverty issues, it is essential to intervene politically; economic intervention is very necessary to any definition of this matter. A political definition necessitates political interventions in dealing with poverty, and economic definitions inevitably lead to economic interventions. Similarly, Księżopolski (1999) uses several models to show the perspectives on poverty as marginal, motivation and socialist. These models look at poverty and solutions from different angles. Socialists, for example, emphasize the responsibilities of social organization. The state manages the micro levels and distributes the shares of national gross resources, at the same time fighting to maintain the narrow gap among classes. In his book, Księżopolski (1999) also emphasizes the changes and new values of charity funds or financial aid from churches or organizations recognized by the Poor Law. Speaking specifically, in the new stages poverty has been recognized differently, and support is also delivered in limited categories related to more specific and visible objectives, with the aim of helping the poor change their own status for sustainable improvement. Three ways of categorizing the poor and locating them in the appropriate places are (1) the powerless, (2) who is willing to work and (3) who is dodging work. Basically, poverty is determined not to belong to any specific cultures or politics; otherwise, it refers to the situation in which people’s earnings cannot support their minimum living standard (Rowntree, 1910). Human living standard is defined in Alfredsson & Eide’s work (1999) as follows: “Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself and his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care and necessary social services, and the right to security in the event of unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond his control.” (p. 524). In addition, poverty is measured by Global Hunger Index (GHI), which is calculated by the International Food Policy Institute (IFPRI) every year. The GHI measures hunger not only globally, but also by country and region. To have the figures multi-dimensionally, the GHI is based on three indicators: 1. Undernourishment: the proportion of the undernourished as a percentage of the population (reflecting the share of the population with insufficient calorie intake). 2. Child underweight: the proportion of children under age 5 who are underweight (low weight for their age, reflecting wasting, stunted growth or both), which is one indicator of child under-nutrition. 3. Child mortality: the mortality rate of children under 5 (partially reflecting the fatal synergy of inadequate dietary intake and unhealthy environments). Apart from the individual aspects and the above measurement based on nutrition, which help partly imagine poverty, poverty is more complicated, not just being closely related to human physical life but badly affecting spiritual life. According to Jones and Novak (1999 cited in Lister, 2008), poverty not only characterizes the precarious financial situation but also makes people self-deprecating. Poverty turns itself into the roots of shame, guilt, humiliation and resistance. It leads the poor to the end of the road, and they will never call for help except in the worst situations. Education can help people escape poverty or make it worse. In fact, inequality in education has stolen opportunity for fighting poverty from people in many places around the world, in both developed and developing countries (Lipman, 2004). Lipman confirms: “Students need an education that instills a sense of hope and possibility that they can make a difference in their own family, school, and community and in the broader national and global community while it prepare them for multiple life choices.” (p.181) Bradshaw (2005) synthesizes five main causes of poverty: (1) individual deficiencies, (2) cultural belief systems that support subcultures of poverty, (3) economic, political and social distortions or discrimination, (4) geographical disparities and (5) cumulative and cyclical interdependencies. The researcher suggests the most appropriate solution corresponding with each cause. This reflects the diverse causes of poverty; otherwise, poverty easily happens because of social and political issues. From the literature review, it can be said that poverty comes from complex causes and reasons, and is not a problem of any single individual or country. Poverty has brought about serious consequences and needs to be dealt with by many methods and collective effort of many countries and organizations. This paper will focus on representing some alarming figures on poverty, problems of poverty and then the education as a key breaker to poverty. According to a statistics in 2012 on poverty from the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), nearly half the world's population lives below the poverty line, of which is less than $1.25 a day . In a statistics in 2015, of every 1,000 children, 93 do not live to age 5 , and about 448 million babies are stillborn each year . Poverty in the world is happening alarmingly. According to a World Bank study, the risk of poverty continues to increase on a global scale and, of the 2009 slowdown in economic growth, which led to higher prices for fuel and food, further pushed 53 million people into poverty in addition to almost 155 million in 2008. From 1990 to 2009, the average GHI in the world decreased by nearly one-fifth. Many countries had success in solving the problem of child nutrition; however, the mortality rate of children under 5 and the proportion of undernourished people are still high. From 2011 to 2013, the number of hungry people in the world was estimated at 842 million, down 17 percent compared with the period 1990 to 1992, according to a report released by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) titled “The State of Food Insecurity in the World 2013” . Although poverty in some African countries had been improved in this stage, sub-Saharan Africa still maintained an area with high the highest percentage of hungry people in the world. The consequences and big problems resulting from poverty are terrible in the extreme. The following will illustrate the overall picture under the issues of health, unemployment, education and society and politics ➢ Health issues: According a report by Manos Unidas, a non- government organization (NGO) in Spain , poverty kills more than 30,000 children under age 5 worldwide every day, and 11 million children die each year because of poverty. Currently, 42 million people are living with HIV, 39 million of them in developing countries. The Manos Unidas report also shows that 15 million children globally have been orphaned because of AIDS. Scientists predict that by 2020 a number of African countries will have lost a quarter of their population to this disease. Simultaneously, chronic drought and lack of clean water have not only hindered economic development but also caused disastrous consequences of serious diseases across Africa. In fact, only 58 percent of Africans have access to clean water; as a result, the average life expectancy in Africa is the lowest in the world, just 45 years old (Bui, 2010). ➢ Unemployment issues: According to the United Nations, the youth unemployment rate in Africa is the highest in the world: 25.6 percent in the Middle East and North Africa. Unemployment with growth rates of 10 percent a year is one of the key issues causing poverty in African and negatively affecting programs and development plans. Total African debt amounts to $425 billion (Bui, 2010). In addition, joblessness caused by the global economic downturn pushed more than 140 million people in Asia into extreme poverty in 2009, the International Labor Organization (ILO) warned in a report titled The Fallout in Asia, prepared for the High-Level Regional Forum on Responding to the Economic Crisis in Asia and the Pacific, in Manila from Feb. 18 to 20, 2009 . Surprisingly, this situation also happens in developed countries. About 12.5 million people in the United Kingdom (accounting for 20 percent of the population) are living below the poverty line, and in 2005, 35 million people in the United States could not live without charity. At present, 620 million people in Asia are living on less than $1 per day; half of them are in India and China, two countries whose economies are considered to be growing. ➢ Education issues: Going to school is one of the basic needs of human beings, but poor people cannot achieve it. Globally, 130 million children do not attend school, 55 percent of them girls, and 82 million children have lost their childhoods by marrying too soon (Bui, 2010). Similarly, two-thirds of the 759 million illiterate people in total are women. Specifically, the illiteracy rate in Africa keeps increasing, accounting for about 40 percent of the African population at age 15 and over 50 percent of women at age 25. The number of illiterate people in the six countries with the highest number of illiterate people in the world - China, India, Indonesia, Brazil, Bangladesh and Egypt - reached 510 million, accounting for 70 percent of total global illiteracy. ➢ Social and political issues: Poverty leads to a number of social problems and instability in political systems of countries around the world. Actually, 246 million children are underage labors, including 72 million under age 10. Simultaneously, according to an estimate by the United Nations (UN), about 100 million children worldwide are living on the streets. For years, Africa has suffered a chronic refugee problem, with more than 7 million refugees currently and over 200 million people without homes because of a series of internal conflicts and civil wars. Poverty threatens stability and development; it also directly influences human development. Solving the problems caused by poverty takes a lot of time and resources, but afterward they can focus on developing their societies. Poverty has become a global issue with political significance of particular importance. It is a potential cause of political and social instability, even leading to violence and war not only within a country, but also in the whole world. Poverty and injustice together have raised fierce conflicts in international relations; if these conflicts are not satisfactorily resolved by peaceful means, war will inevitably break out. Obviously, poverty plus lack of understanding lead to disastrous consequences such as population growth, depletion of water resources, energy scarcity, pollution, food shortages and serious diseases (especially HIV/AIDS), which are not easy to control; simultaneously, poverty plus injustice will cause international crimes such as terrorism, drug and human trafficking, and money laundering. Among recognizable four issues above which reflected the serious consequences of poverty, the third ones, education, if being prioritized in intervention over other issues in the fighting against poverty is believed to bring more effectiveness in resolving the problems from the roots. In fact, human being with the possibility of being educated resulted from their distinctive linguistic ability makes them differential from other beings species on the earth (Barrow and Woods 2006, p.22). With education, human can be aware and more critical with their situations, they are aimed with abilities to deal with social problems as well as adversity for a better life; however, inequality in education has stolen opportunity for fighting poverty from unprivileged people (Lipman, 2004). An appropriate education can help increase chances for human to deal with all of the issues related to poverty; simultaneously it can narrow the unexpected side-effect of making poverty worse. A number of philosophies from ancient Greek to contemporary era focus on the aspect of education with their own epistemology, for example, idealism of Plato encouraged students to be truth seekers and pragmatism of Dewey enhanced the individual needs of students (Gutex, 1997). Education, more later on, especially critical pedagogy focuses on developing people independently and critically which is essential for poor people to have ability of being aware of what they are facing and then to have equivalent solutions for their problems. In other words, critical pedagogy helps people emancipate themselves and from that they can contribute to transform the situations or society they live in. In this sense, in his most influential work titled “Pedagogy of the Oppressed” (1972), Paulo Freire carried out his critical pedagogy by building up a community network of peasants- the marginalized and unprivileged party in his context, aiming at awakening their awareness about who they are and their roles in society at that time. To do so, he involved the peasants into a problem-posing education which was different from the traditional model of banking education with the technique of dialogue. Dialogue wasn’t just simply for people to learn about each other; but it was for figuring out the same voice; more importantly, for cooperation to build a social network for changing society. The peasants in such an educational community would be relieved from stressfulness and the feeling of being outsiders when all of them could discuss and exchange ideas with each other about the issues from their “praxis”. Praxis which was derived from what people act and linked to some values in their social lives, was defined by Freire as “reflection and action upon the world in order to transform it” (p.50). Critical pedagogy dialogical approach in Pedagogy of the Oppressed of Freire seems to be one of the helpful ways for solving poverty for its close connection to the nature of equality. It doesn’t require any highly intellectual teachers who lead the process; instead, everything happens naturally and the answers are identified by the emancipation of the learners themselves. It can be said that the effectiveness of this pedagogy for people to escape poverty comes from its direct impact on human critical consciousness; from that, learners would be fully aware of their current situations and self- figure out the appropriate solutions for their own. In addition, equality which was one of the essences making learners in critical pedagogy intellectually emancipate was reflected via the work titled “The Ignorant Schoolmaster” by Jacques Rancière (1991). In this work, the teacher and students seemed to be equal in terms of the knowledge. The explicator- teacher Joseph Jacotot employed the interrogative approach which was discovered to be universal because “he taught what he didn’t know”. Obviously, this teacher taught French to Flemish students while he couldn’t speak his students’ language. The ignorance which was not used in the literal sense but a metaphor showed that learners can absolutely realize their capacity for self-emancipation without the traditional teaching of transmission of knowledge from teachers. Regarding this, Rancière (1991, p.17) stated “that every common person might conceive his human dignity, take the measure of his intellectual capacity, and decide how to use it”. This education is so meaningful for poor people by being able to evoking their courageousness to develop themselves when they always try to stay away from the community due the fact that poverty is the roots of shame, guilt, humiliation and resistance (Novak, 1999). The contribution of critical pedagogy to solving poverty by changing the consciousness of people from their immanence is summarized by Freire’s argument in his “Pedagogy of Indignation” as follows: “It is certain that men and women can change the world for the better, can make it less unjust, but they can do so from starting point of concrete reality they “come upon” in their generation. They cannot do it on the basis of reveries, false dreams, or pure illusion”. (p.31) To sum up, education could be an extremely helpful way of solving poverty regarding the possibilities from the applications of studies in critical pedagogy for educational and social issues. Therefore, among the world issues, poverty could be possibly resolved in accordance with the indigenous people’s understanding of their praxis, their actions, cognitive transformation, and the solutions with emancipation in terms of the following keynotes: First, because the poor are powerless, they usually fall into the states of self-deprecation, shame, guilt and humiliation, as previously mentioned. In other words, they usually build a barrier between themselves and society, or they resist changing their status. Therefore, approaching them is not a simple matter; it requires much time and the contributions of psychologists and sociologists in learning about their aspirations, as well as evoking and nurturing the will and capacities of individuals, then providing people with chances to carry out their own potential for overcoming obstacles in life. Second, poverty happens easily in remote areas not endowed with favorable conditions for development. People there haven’t had a lot of access to modern civilization; nor do they earn a lot of money for a better life. Low literacy, together with the lack of healthy forms of entertainment and despair about life without exit, easily lead people into drug addiction, gambling and alcoholism. In other words, the vicious circle of poverty and powerlessness usually leads the poor to a dead end. Above all, they are lonely and need to be listened to, shared with and led to escape from their states. Community meetings for exchanging ideas, communicating and immediate intervening, along with appropriate forms of entertainment, should be held frequently to meet the expectations of the poor, direct them to appropriate jobs and, step by step, change their favorite habits of entertainment. Last but not least, poor people should be encouraged to participate in social forums where they can both raise their voices about their situations and make valuable suggestions for dealing with their poverty. Children from poor families should be completely exempted from school fees to encourage them to go to school, and curriculum should also focus on raising community awareness of poverty issues through extracurricular and volunteer activities, such as meeting and talking with the community, helping poor people with odd jobs, or simply spending time listening to them. Not a matter of any individual country, poverty has become a major problem, a threat to the survival, stability and development of the world and humanity. Globalization has become a bridge linking countries; for that reason, instability in any country can directly and deeply affect the stability of others. The international community has been joining hands to solve poverty; many anti-poverty organizations, including FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization), BecA (the Biosciences eastern and central Africa), UN-REDD (the United Nations Programme on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation), BRAC (Building Resources Across Communities), UNDP (United Nations Development Programme), WHO (World Health Organization) and Manos Unidas, operate both regionally and internationally, making some achievements by reducing the number of hungry people, estimated 842 million in the period 1990 to 1992, by 17 percent in 2011- to 2013 . The diverse methods used to deal with poverty have invested billions of dollars in education, health and healing. The Millennium Development Goals set by UNDP put forward eight solutions for addressing issues related to poverty holistically: 1) Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger. 2) Achieve universal primary education. 3) Promote gender equality and empower women. 4) Reduce child mortality. 5) Improve maternal health. 6) Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases. 7) Ensure environmental sustainability. 8) Develop a global partnership for development. Although all of the mentioned solutions carried out directly by countries and organizations not only focus on the roots of poverty but break its circle, it is recognized that the solutions do not emphasize the role of the poor themselves which a critical pedagogy does. More than anyone, the poor should have a sense of their poverty so that they can become responsible for their own fate and actively fight poverty instead of waiting for help. It is not different from the cores of critical theory in solving educational and political issues that the poor should be aware and conscious about their situation and reflected context. It is required a critical transformation from their own praxis which would allow them to go through a process of learning, sharing, solving problems, and leading to social movements. This is similar to the method of giving poor people fish hooks rather than giving them fish. The government and people of any country understand better than anyone else clearly the strengths and characteristics of their homelands. It follows that they can efficiently contribute to causing poverty, preventing the return of poverty, and solving consequences of the poverty in their countries by many ways, especially a critical pedagogy; and indirectly narrow the scale of poverty in the world. In a word, the wars against poverty take time, money, energy and human resources, and they are absolutely not simple to end. Again, the poor and the challenged should be educated to be fully aware of their situation to that they can overcome poverty themselves. They need to be respected and receive sharing from the community. All forms of discrimination should be condemned and excluded from human society. When whole communities join hands in solving this universal problem, the endless circle of poverty can be addressed definitely someday. More importantly, every country should be responsible for finding appropriate ways to overcome poverty before receiving supports from other countries as well as the poor self-conscious responsibilities about themselves before receiving supports from the others, but the methods leading them to emancipation for their own transformation and later the social change.

At the moment, two mechanisms for protecting human rights can be distinguished in Ukraine: an appeal to the European Court of Human Rights at the international level and an appeal to the Commissioner for Human Rights at the national level. Therewith, the activity of the ombudsman constitutes the state’s performance of its obligations at the international level to ensure the national mechanism for the protection of human rights. In Ukraine, the Ombudsman acts according to the model of the classic parliamentary Commissioner for Human Rights. In addition, along with the parliamentary Commissioner for Human Rights, which has a constitutional status, there are government commissioners (“quasi-ombudsmen”) in Ukraine, whose activities do not have a special status and can be terminated at the will of the government at any time. Considering the above, the purpose of this study lies in a comprehensive analysis of modern challenges to international security and the impact of these factors on the observance of human rights in Ukraine (using the methods of both international law and classical legal methodology), as well as studying the role of the ombudsman in this process. The analysis allowed to conclude that the causes of human rights violations lie not only in the country’s problems, but are also the consequences of global processes. A huge challenge to the rights and freedoms in Ukraine is the intensifying poverty of the population, which in itself is a violation of human rights and allows to exercise all other rights. Furthermore, the hostilities in the Donbas region led to gross, massive, and systematic violations of human rights: residents of the front-line territories were faced with two challenges at once – the danger that arises due to the impossibility of ensuring security in the immediate vicinity of the war zone and the increasing risks of poverty

Background: Sarcopenia is a condition common in the elderly characterized by progressive and generalized loss of skeletal muscle mass and strength leading to poor quality of life. According to a working definition proposed by the European Working Group on Sarcopenia in Older People (EWGSOP), the criteria for a diagnosis of sarcopenia is based on documentation of low muscle mass with either poor muscle strength or low physical performance. The objective of the present study was to determine the prevalence of sarcopenia in the rural elderly population of South India. Methods: We conducted a cross-sectional survey of 240 elderly people, 60 years and above, 118 men and 122 women, in rural areas of Dakshina Kannada district. We measured their height, weight, gait speed (using an 8-feet walk test) and muscle strength (using a handgrip dynamometer). Appendicular skeletal mass was calculated using height and weight adjusted for sex and Asian people using the Lee formula. Results: Sarcopenia was found in 34 (14.2%) participants. Of all those having sarcopenia, 27 (79.4%) were ≤75 years, 30 (88.2%) were women, 27 (79.4%) were married, 23 (67.6%) had below poverty line status. Conclusions: The prevalence of sarcopenia found in the present study was 14.2% in an elderly population more than 60 years of age and was found to be more in women. Large-scale multi-centric community-based surveys will help determine the actual burden of sarcopenia in India.

Thyroid dysfunction in pregnancy, especially hidden, may lead on to increased morbidities both in mothers and the foetuses. With this in mind, we conducted a study of estimating Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) levels in the first trimester of asymptomatic antenatal mothers. In this 680-sample sized study, we measured TSH values after noting down, age, weight, religion, occupation and type of diet. The mean TSH value is 2.36 (0.02 to 31.67) mIU/ml. the incidence of subclinical hypothyroidism was 9.1 % whereas it was 2.9% in hyperthyroidism. All parturients with subclinical thyroid dysfunction were given appropriate treatment. The Hindus and Muslims constituted the majority. There was no difference between TSH values among both religions. Around 95 % were vegetarians, and the value of TSH was similar in parturients with either type of eating habits. A significantly higher level of thyroid dysfunction is noted in working women even though the sample is less. These values correspond to an affording community above the poverty line. We suggest more vigilant screening at the village antenatal care level to decrease thyroid-associated fetal and maternal morbidities. We also suggest that routine TSH screening rather than targeted testing of thyroid disorders should be made mandatory even in Government institutions.

This study examines the "Economic Impact of Craftsmen Statue on Community Base Tourism Development in Tohpati village Klungkung Bali". The core concept of economic problems is the imbalance between unlimited human needs and the means of satisfying the needs of a limited number. Economics should not be emphasized through the point, but it should be emphasized as an approach to explain human behavior (Gary Becker). The economic system is a means used to regulate all economic activities in society whether done by the government or private in order to achieve prosperity and prosperity together. The Economic system can be divided into three namely: a First capitalist economic system that is all economic activity submitted to the market. Second, the communist economic system is all things governed by the government. The third is a mixed economic system that is a combination of the two economic systems above (capitalist and communist). Indonesia should adopt a mixed economic system because firstly, Indonesia is an emerging country, where market failures often occur due to uneven information or accessibility to transportation and communication facilities. The second is that there are still many Indonesian people are below the poverty line. Thirdly most Indonesians have businesses that are still classified into small and medium enterprises that still can not compete perfectly with a bigger business.

The Congolese hydrocarbons sector is one of the key areas of the national economy and constitutes one of the main resources for financing the state budget. However, the uncontrolled exploitation of hydrocarbons can have consequences on the environment as a whole, which is a natural resource essential to human life and to terrestrial and marine biodiversity. To this end, the first principle of the Stockholm Declaration adopted by the 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment states that “Man has a fundamental right to freedom, equality and adequate conditions of life, in an environment of a quality that permits a life of dignity and well-being. He has a solemn duty to protect and improve the environment for present and future generations”. From the above, the protection of the environment is part of the international commitments of States to promote, in particular, sustainable development. In the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), on the other hand, the lack of an adequate policy on hydrocarbon exploitation and environmental protection has enormous repercussions and unfortunate consequences on the entire Congolese population despite the absolute poverty that the latter is already experiencing. This paper awaits the implementation of adequate proposals to enable policy makers to know where to start in order to ensure sound hydrocarbon governance and sustainable environmental protection in the DRC. It is also a question of demonstrating that sound governance of hydrocarbons and environmental protection requires, in particular, the participation and efforts of everyone: first of all a political will, then a strong involvement of the public authorities, of the companies which invest in the hydrocarbons sector, and a change in the mentalities of the citizens for the integral and sustainable development of the DRC in line with its hydrocarbon potential.

Vector control with long-lasting insecticide treated nets (LLINs) has been identified as a major component of malaria prevention and control. The study examined present status of awareness, ownership, and utilization of LLINs in malaria high-risk areas of Ekiti State, Nigeria. Data were obtained from 352 copies of semistructured interviewer-guided questionnaire distributed to participants of each household in the four Local Government Areas (LGAs) of Ekiti State, where malaria is endemic after mass distribution of LLINs. Findings in this study showed that awareness was high (91.8%) in the Local Government Areas (LGAs) with mass media contributing largely (44.3%) to awareness. Also, LLINs ownership was found to be high (71.3%) with 72.9% of the nets being supplied by the government. Of the owners of LLINs, usage rate was observed to be 67.6%. Multivariate analysis result showed that statistically significant sociodemographic characteristics of respondents predicting the usage of LLINs included age greater than 50 years (p value = 0.008), female gender (χ2 = 8.2014, p value = 0.004), being married (χ2 = 24.721, p value <0.001), civil servants (χ2 = 12.739, p value = 0.005), and average income above poverty line (χ2 = 13.576, p value = 0.004). The study concluded that although not all households surveyed owned LLINs, nevertheless, the level of usage of LLINs among net-owning households was high. The study recommended continuous free distribution, periodic household survey, and expanding public knowledge on the benefits of LLINs usage especially through social media.

The article addresses the issue of social injustice by stressing on the need for social action through state initiatives for uplifting the underprivileged segments of society. 1 It is argued that while human insecurity impacts all classes of people, it is asymmetrically distributed across South Asian societies where the resource-deprived remain more vulnerable than the more privileged members of the society. Evidences show that market forces remain one of the most important drivers of insecurity. While the ruling elite has attempted to address problems of human insecurity through various welfare palliatives ranging from feeding the vulnerable to providing shelter and subsistence income support, it is the modern welfare state that remains capable of undertaking the most institutionalised public policies to address the more fundamental sources of human insecurity. The author argues that challenging human insecurity remains a more relevant response to the conditions of human deprivation than the more conventional policy objective of moving households above a given poverty line. To that end, social protection programmes need to move beyond the protection of individual risks to address more substantive market-driven risks which originate from the structural injustices of society. A body of ideas has been outlined to reduce vulnerabilities which can provide the basis for further debate. Individual countries in South Asia may draw on these ideas to calibrate their agendas for structural change to the specific institutional arrangements and underlying political economy of their respective societies.

In 2017, the Malaysian government through Malaysian Palm Oil Board (MPOB) has stipulated that all oil palm growers in Malaysia must obtain Malaysian Sustainable Palm Oil (MSPO) certification to ensure the sustainability of the palm oil industry in Malaysia. To help oil palm growers, especially independent smallholders, the government offers various incentives such as financial support and advisory services to them to ensure that they obtain MSPO certification. If this certification is not met, they will not be able to sell palm oil to the mills. Malaysia's Prime Minister declared mandatory MSPO certification implementation, and all oil palm grower were granted a grace period until 31 December 2019. However, according to the most recent data, only 31 percent of independent smallholders were certified as of December 2020. The impact of not having MSPO certification is significant, resulting in poor quality of life and remaining below the poverty line among independent smallholders. Based on the facts stated above, it is crucial to identify the factors that contribute to independent smallholders' low degree of certified ownership. Previous research has mostly focused on the factors that influence MSPO certification ownership among organized smallholders (See Shahida et al.(2018) and Begum et al. (2018)) and there is still a scarcity of research on independent smallholders. Ni et.al. (2016) revealed that awareness of MSPO is weak among independent smallholders where 97.5% of the survey respondent do not know about sustainable palm oil and 86.7% do not know about MSPO certification. This study further notes that the most important factors reported for the implementation of MSPO are the perceived advantages of the certification and policy support for the implementation of MSPO certification. Therefore, this study focuses on the independent smallholders and will look at how awareness, sustainability practices, and socio-demographic characteristics influence certification or non-certification among independent smallholders. Keywords: MSPO certification, Independent smallholders, Sustainability, Palm oil industry

Background: With India enacting the Mental Health Care Act (MHCA; No. 10 of 2017a), Psychiatric Advance Directives (PADs) have been legalised and have become binding orders for psychiatrists treating patients. There is a paucity of research into acceptability of PADs in Indian mental health care, likely due to a lack of awareness. There are no educational measures about PADs provided for in this Act. Facilitators and facilitation methods have not been elaborated upon as well. Aim: The aim of this study is (a) to develop/evaluate the effectiveness of a structured Education-cum-Assessment Tool (EAT) in providing information regarding PADs and (b) to evaluate modes of facilitation required by patients to complete PADs. Methods: A tool was developed as per provisions regarding PADs in the Mental Health Care Bill of 2013. This tool was administered to patients ( n = 100), purposively sampled from the adult psychiatry review out-patient department (OPD). Patients were evaluated on retention of information, completion of PADs, modes of facilitation and time taken to write one. Results: Mean years of education was 8.28 (±5.74) years and mean duration of illness was 8.30 (±7.04) years. In all, 65% had Below-Poverty Line (BPL) status. All participants completed valid PADs in an average of 15 minutes. About 93% required facilitation via assistance in writing and reminding. The mean EAT scores implied above 70% retention but did not relate to types of facilitation. Conclusions: EAT scores can be used as an approximate measure of the patient’s ability to understand and retain information which is a part of decisional capacity. Types of facilitation can help in understanding patient’s ability to communicate their choices. Service providers may find EAT a time-effective tool for uniformly educating service users regarding PADs and indirectly assessing competence.

Introduction: This community-based cross-sectional epidemiological study was performed to assess the awareness and attitude of youths toward AIDS in a rural area of West Bengal in India. Methods: Study population included 190 individuals (15–24 years). Data were collected using a semistructured, pretested questionnaire and analyzed using SPSS version 17 by logistic regression model. Results: It was revealed that older youths and particularly men compared to women had more comprehensive knowledge of AIDS than adolescents. Education, media exposure, marriage, and possessing above poverty level (APL) status, all had stronger positive association with youths (more in men) having comprehensive knowledge of AIDS. Older, never married youths, and particularly men were more likely than adolescents to have accepting attitudes toward people living with HIV/AIDS. Education, media exposure, and not having below poverty level card, all had stronger positive association with youths having accepting attitudes toward women than toward men. Surprisingly among the male APL population, this association was negative. Conclusion: Educational and socioeconomic setbacks should be overcome in order to impose a better and justified attitude toward HIV/AIDS. Improved health conditions, proper counseling, and knowledge are essential to break the barriers of communication and ignorance toward HIV/AIDS in these parts of the developing countries.

Issue: Mar-Apr 2021 After the erstwhile Planning Commission released the poverty estimates for India for the year 2011-12 in July 2013, a debate ensued on whether the impressive poverty reduction was not due to an excessively low poverty line set by the commission. Utilizing unit-level data from NSS consumer expenditure surveys of years 1993-94, 2004-05 and 2011-12, this research presents empirical evidence that puts to rest any doubts that India’s poverty reduction is an artifact of a low poverty line. We show that even when the poverty line is set at expenditure levels higher than the Tendulkar poverty line by 25, 50, 75 and 100 percent, the broad trends in poverty reduction captured by the Tendulkar poverty line continue to be valid. Our estimates also show that the absolute number of individuals lifted out of poverty between 1993-94 and 2011-12 was in fact slightly larger when the poverty line is 25 percent above the Tendulkar line. Even though it is difficult to match this remarkable decline at progressively higher poverty lines, we show that the gains remain large even as we push the poverty line to a level twice the Tendulkar line and is reflective of a very broad-based growth during this period.

This study examines the "Economic Impact of Craftsmen Statue on Community Base Tourism Development in Tohpati village Klungkung Bali". The core concept of economic problems is the imbalance between unlimited human needs and the means of satisfying the needs of a limited number. Economics should not be emphasized through the point, but it should be emphasized as an approach to explain human behavior (Gary Becker). The economic system is a means used to regulate all economic activities in society whether done by the government or private in order to achieve prosperity and prosperity together. The Economic system can be divided into three namely: a First capitalist economic system that is all economic activity submitted to the market. Second, the communist economic system is all things governed by the government. The third is a mixed economic system that is a combination of the two economic systems above (capitalist and communist). Indonesia should adopt a mixed economic system because firstly, Indonesia is an emerging country, where market failures often occur due to uneven information or accessibility to transportation and communication facilities. The second is that there are still many Indonesian people are below the poverty line. Thirdly most Indonesians have businesses that are still classified into small and medium enterprises that still can not compete perfectly with a bigger business. In addition, in a mixed economic system also required the role of government in overseeing the development of the economy that runs in the country of Indonesia, in order to create prosperity in public life. To implement a mixed economic system it must be applied in a real way in the community environment so that the economic system in a country becomes smooth, balanced, and make more prosperous for all parties involved. Community Base Tourism as a model of tourism development today because community involvement including maintenance is something that must be applied. Tohpati village community adherents of the traditional economy inevitably have to deal with the values ​​of novelty in the global economic order. Economic development that takes place in a country brings impact, both positive and negative. Positive impact: increased foreign exchange earnings, expanding or accelerating business opportunities, increasing national income, increasing tax revenues, expanding employment opportunities, promoting growth in development that has natural potential. Negative impact: land prices skyrocket, in tourism centers expensive food prices, biological resources become damaged, the occurrence of urbanization. The circulation of drugs, prostitution is difficult to monitor.

Purpose – This study aims to explore the effect of mass media exposure on women contraceptive adoption. The intent was to show how factors affected contraceptive use, such as education, standards of living, etc., behave differently across the poverty line. Design/methodology/approach – Logistic regression was used to test the effect of exposure of various mass media on contraceptive adoption. Indian Human Development Survey (2005) was used for the analysis. Analysis was performed to compare results across the poverty line. Findings – Television exposure was found to be significant, and it had a strong effect on the likelihood that the family uses contraceptives. Newspaper readership was found significant above the poverty line and insignificant below. Research limitations/implications – The present study only analyzes cross-sectional data. A longitudinal study would be better suited to determine how these factors affect contraceptive use over time. Practical implications – The findings of this study can be useful in designing more effective media mix for the communications aimed at increasing contraceptive use in India. Social implications – The findings show the divide between the population segments above and below the poverty line. Low education levels, affordability issues and son preferences are the major factors deterring contraceptive use at this level. Originality/value – This is the first study to separately study the population samples across the poverty line. Compared to previous studies which focuses heavily on one media, this analysis includes other media variables and focuses on a variation of these factors across the poverty line.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to study the socio-economic condition of indigenous households involved in the production of palm oil and natural rubber in Peninsular Malaysia. Design/methodology/approach Discriminant analysis is used in this study. Findings This study finds that 49.70 percent of natural rubber plantation owners and 37.3 percent of the palm oil plantation owners live under the national poverty line. Discriminant analysis shows that natural rubber plantation size has a significant difference between income below the poverty line and above the poverty line. But palm oil plantation size is not significantly different between income below and above the poverty line, mainly because small-scale palm oil farms receive help from the government and other agencies. This study also finds that the majority of indigenous people do not have ownership rights to their land. Practical implications This study suggests that small-scale plantation holders should be provided with training to upgrade their skills to increase productivity. Furthermore, finding an appropriate land ownership model helps to understand the fundamental issue of poverty among the small-scale plantation holder of indigenous people in Peninsular Malaysia. Originality/value Primary data are used in this study. The results show different scenarios than the existing studies.

ObjectiveTo determine the prevalence and associated factors of self-care behaviours among people with hypertension in the Kathmandu district of Nepal.DesignCross-sectional study.SettingMunicipalities of Kathmandu district, Nepal.ParticipantsWe enrolled 375 adults aged ≥18 years with a minimum 1-year duration of hypertension using multistage sampling.Outcome measuresWe used the Hypertension Self-care Activity Level Effects to assess self-care behaviours and collected data through face-to-face interviews. We conducted univariate and multivariable logistic regression analyses to determine the factors associated with self-care behaviours. The results were summarised as crude and adjusted ORs (AORs) with 95% CIs.ResultsThe adherence to antihypertensive medication, Dietary Approach to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet, physical activity, weight management, alcohol moderation, and non-smoking were 61.3%, 9.3%, 59.2%, 14.1%, 90.9%, and 72.8%, respectively. Secondary or higher education (AOR: 4.42, 95% CI: 1.11 to 17.62), Brahmin and Chhetri ethnic groups (AOR: 3.30, 95% CI: 1.26 to 8.59) and good to very good perceived health (AOR: 3.96, 95% CI: 1.60 to 9.79) were positively associated with DASH diet adherence. Males (AOR: 2.05, 95% CI: 1.19 to 3.55) had higher odds of physical activity. Brahmin and Chhetri ethnic groups (AOR: 3.44, 95% CI: 1.63 to 7.26) and secondary or higher education (AOR: 4.70, 95% CI: 1.62 to 13.63) were correlates of weight management. Secondary or higher education (AOR: 2.47, 95% CI: 1.16 to 5.29), body mass index ≥25 kg/m2(AOR: 1.83, 95% CI: 1.04 to 3.22) and income above the poverty line (AOR: 2.24, 95% CI: 1.08 to 4.63) were positively associated with non-smoking. Furthermore, Brahmin and Chhetri ethnic groups (AOR: 4.51, 95% CI: 1.64 to 12.40), males (AOR: 0.17, 95% CI: 0.06 to 0.50) and primary education (AOR: 0.26, 95% CI: 0.08 to 0.85) were associated with alcohol moderation.ConclusionThe adherence to the DASH diet and weight management was particularly low. Healthcare providers and policymakers should focus on improving self-care by designing simple and affordable interventions for all patients with hypertension.

This study focuses on how relationships among constructs representing (1) consumer trust in market-related institutions (CTMRI), (2) distrust for individuals (DFI), and (3) subjective quality of life (QOL) differ across groups separated by the poverty line in a developing country (Turkey). A comparison of models across the two groups using multisample confirmatory factor analysis indicates that there is a correlation only between CTMRI and QOL for consumers below the poverty line (r = .43); there are no correlations between any of the three constructs for consumers above the poverty line. Accordingly, there is a unique relationship between QOL and CTMRI among financially constrained consumers in a developing country. Below the poverty line, consumers with lower trust in market-related institutions tend to report lower QOL, while those with higher trust in market-related institutions tend to report higher QOL.

This research paper is concerned with poverty and factor responsible behind it in Africa continent. The World Bank is the main source for global information on poverty and extreme poverty today and it sets the International Poverty Line. The poverty line was revised in 2015—since then, a person is considered to be in extreme poverty if they live on less than 1.90 international dollars (int.-$) per day. This poverty measurement is based on the monetary value of a person's consumption. Income measures, on the other hand, are only used for countries in which reliable consumption measures are not available. It is important to note that the International Poverty Line is extremely low. Indeed, 'extreme poverty' is an adequate term for those living under this low threshold. Focusing on extreme poverty is important precisely because it captures those most in need. However, it is also important to point out that living conditions well above the International Poverty Line can still be characterized by poverty and hardship. Accordingly, in this entry we will also discuss the global distribution of people below poverty lines that are higher than the International Poverty Line of 1.90 int.-$. Poverty in Africa refers to the lack of basic human needs faced by certain people in African society. African nations typically fall toward the bottom of any list measuring small size economic activity, such as income per capita or GDP per capita, despite a wealth of natural resources. . In 1820, the average European worker earned about three times what the average African did. Now, the average European earns twenty times what the average African does. Key Words: Poverty, GDP, Africa, India, Global perspective

The progress in reducing the level of poverty after the global crisis lacked behind the process of improving economic indicators in some countries and there are countries where the level of poverty even increased. The paper highlights gaps in poverty levels among different groups of population according to age, gender, and education. It examines poverty trends in US and other OECD countries, covering changes from the global crisis period; the approaches to determining poverty line, including official and supplemental poverty measure which in addition to government cash benefits takes into account non-cash benefits and taxes. Working poor, whose income remains under poverty line, while they are working, are of special attention. Among the main factors that can lower a worker’s ability to earn an income above the poverty threshold – low level of education, long periods of unemployment, part-time employment. It is pointed that the benefits of globalization are not reaching those who are in poverty and government policies often fail to respond to their needs.