Rozprawy doktorskie na temat „3D Structural geological modelling”

3D geological modelling is becoming an effective tool for communication and development of geological understanding. This is due to increased computer performance and availability of improved geological modelling software. 3D geological modelling technology has reached the stage where it can be implemented in regionally extensive and geologically complex settings, with the ability to achieve geological insight beyond what could otherwise have been gained through 2D investigations alone. Insight includes better constrained fault and horizon topologies, refined fold geometries, improved understanding of tectonic processes, and characterization of deformational events. By integrating field observations, aeromagnetic maps, and 3D modelling techniques in the northern Labrador Trough, a regionally extensive and structurally complex geological environment, regional faults geometries and topological relationships were refined. Additionally, a new fault, the Ujaralialuk Fault, and two shear zones were interpreted. During modelling, several challenges were identified, including higher computational costs for regionally extensive models, sparse 3D constraints, algorithmic limitations related to complex geometries, and the large investment of time and effort required to produce a single model solution. A benefit of this investigation is that new insight was also gained for a greenfields region which may assist future exploration efforts. Developing 3D models in challenging environments allows for better definition of future workflow requirements, algorithm enhancements, and knowledge integration. These are needed to achieve a geologically reasonable modelling standard and gain insight for poorly constrained geological settings.

Spatial ability and the skill to visualize objects is necessary for earth scientist, especially structural geologist. For this reason, undergraduate students within earth science needs to learn this skills, and how is the best way to teach this skills. To implement 3D thinking in undergraduate teaching, three strategies are presented. The first one is to separate and combine objects, which includes to see geological differences and categorize them. Secondly, visualize objects, both many and single ones and see which ones who are connected. Third and lastly is still and moving objects which involves geological processes. It is important to give students time to develop their spatial abilities and help them during the learning process. Another aspect to this is the path of information within the human brain when visualizing an object. The result shows that the process starts with the human eye which perceive the object and its attributes, then the geniculate nucleus sorts the information and directs it toward the visual primary cortex located in the occipital lobe. The primary visual cortex then send the information though the ventral- and dorsal steam which produces a visualization. Aspects which can affect the spatial ability may be earlier experiences, age and the way each person perceive the object. These factors effects how hard humans think the process of visualization is. The questionnaire showed that 3D models help students to visualize and should be used more in undergraduate teaching.
Förmågan att visualisera objekt och förstå dem är nödvändig för en geovetare, speciellt inom strukturgeologi. Därför är det viktigt att studenter på kandidatprogram i geovetenskap får tillfälle att lära sig den förmågan. För att implementera 3D-tänkande i undervisningen har tre strategier tagits fram. Den första är att separera och kombinera objekt, vilket inkluderar att se geologiska skillnader och kategorisera dem. Den andra är att visualisera ett eller flera objekt och se vilka som är kopplade till varandra. Den tredje är att se objekt som är i stilla eller i rörelse, vilket involverar geologiska processer. Det är viktigt att ge studenterna tid för att utveckla sin spatiala förmåga och att hjälpa dem under utvecklingen. Arbetet syftar också till att ta reda på hur visuell information bearbetas av den mänskliga hjärnan. Först bearbetas informationen av ögat, sen till geniculate nucleus som sorterar informationen och skickar den till det primära visuella cortex som ligger i occipital-loben. Därefter processas informationen av ventrala och dorsala stammen och det är här som en visualisering produceras. Faktorer så som ålder, tidigare erfarenheter och hur ögat uppfattar objekten påverkar hur visualiseringen blir och hur svårt individen uppfattar processen. Enkätundersökningen visade på att 3D-modeller hjälper studenter att visualisera och borde användas mer i undervisning på kandidatnivå.

Les systèmes actuels utilisés pour construire des modèles géologiques structuraux 3D offrent des solutions performantes pour les représentations géométriques, mais reposent souvent sur les interprétations des experts et le formalisme mathématique en place. L'un des principaux verrous scientifiques réside dans l'incapacité de ces systèmes à s’impliquer dans le processus d’interprétation, en raison de l’utilisation tacite des connaissances par les experts. Cela entraîne des difficultés dans le partage et l'intégration des connaissances au sein des systèmes, ainsi qu'une complexité accrue pour reproduire et communiquer les modèles. Ce travail de recherche explore une approche innovante de modélisation, axée sur la notion d'interprétation et l'utilisation explicite des connaissances. Deux contributions majeures sont proposées : un formalisme pour l’interprétation et un cadre ontologique pour formaliser les connaissances mobilisées par les experts durant le processus de modélisation
Current systems used to build 3D structural geological models offer essential solutions for geometric representations, but often rely on expert interpretations and the existing mathematical formalism. One of the scientific challenges is the inability of these systems to be deeply involved in the interpretation process due to the tacit use of knowledge by experts. This leads to problems of sharing and integrating knowledge in systems, as well as issues in reproducing and communicating models. This research explores an innovative modeling approach, centered on the notion of interpretation and the explicit use of knowledge. In this context, two major contributions are proposed: an interpretation formalism supported by a prototype algorithm, and an ontological framework to formalize the knowledge used by experts during the modeling process

La modélisation des structures géologiques est une étape cruciale de la construction de géomodèles. Elles conditionnent la répartition spatiale des propriétés du sous-sol et la connexion des différents volumes rocheux qui le constituent. Cependant, les données disponibles s'avèrent incomplètes et incertaines. A cela s'ajoute une incertitude sur les phénomènes géologiques ayant conduit à la formation des structures modélisées. De multiples interprétations sont donc généralement possibles. Les méthodes classiques de modélisation des structures reposent principalement sur une approche géométrique, statique et déterministe. En d'autres termes, l'approche consiste à déterminer la meilleure représentation possible des structures en se fondant sur des critères qui portent principalement sur la géométrie actuelle des structures, comme la minimisation de leur courbure, et sur leur compatibilité avec les données dans leur état actuel. L'histoire tectonique des structures n'est prise en compte que de manière indirecte par le modélisateur et la compatibilité cinématique et mécanique du modèle structural reste complexe à évaluer. Cette thèse explore différentes méthodes de modélisations permettant de mieux prendre en compte l'histoire tectonique des structures. Trois approches complémentaires sont développées. La première propose un opérateur cinématique représentant les déplacements associés aux failles. Il tire son originalité du système de coordonnées curvilinéaires utilisé pour décrire l'espace de la faille et de l'intégration progressive des déplacements permettant de contrôler leur évolution. La seconde approche propose un outil de déformation pseudo-mécanique permettant l'édition interactive des modèles structuraux et la simulation approchée de l'histoire tectonique qui leur est associée. Il repose sur un algorithme de déformation original, basé sur des éléments rigides, issu du domaine de l'infographie. Enfin, une troisième approche permet de répercuter l'historique de déformation sur le système de coordonnées utilisé pour la simulation des propriétés du sous-sol. Nous montrons comment ce système peut être construit grâce à la restauration des structures. Cette approche permet de modéliser les propriétés du sous-sol en s'appuyant sur des paléodistances compatibles avec l'ensemble des hypothèses structurales, cinématiques et mécaniques établies lors de la construction de l'histoire tectonique du géomodèle. Ces différentes approches ouvrent des portes prometteuses dans la prise en compte des aspects historiques, cinématiques et mécanique dans la modélisation des structures et des propriétés du sous-sol. Elles s'attachent à accroître la compatibilité des géomodèles et à simplifier la paramétrisation des déformations géologiques afin de faciliter la résolution de problèmes structuraux par des approches inverses
The main approaches to the modelling of geological structures are mainly geometrical, static and deterministic. In other terms, their geometry and connections are determined by applying criteria based on the compatibility with available data in their current state. The evolution of the geological structures is only integrated indirectly by the modeller and the kinematical and mechanical compatibility of the produced models remain difficult to assess. This thesis explores different methods which aim at better including the evolution of geological structures in the modelling process. Three complementary approaches are developed. First, a kinematical fault operator based on a 3D curvilinear fault frame is presented. It aims at progressively deforming the structures surrounding faults. The second approach is based on a pseudo-mechanical deformation tool inspired form computer graphics, based on rigid elements. It is used to interactively editing the structures and approximately simulate their deformation history. The last proposal is to compute the paleo-geographical coordinates from the restoration of geological structures. This way, the heterogeneities are characterised based on paleo-geographic distances which are compatible with the structural, kinematical and mechanical hypotheses specified when building the geological model. These different contributions open numerous perspectives to better take into account the evolution of the geological structures when modelling the subsurface and its heterogeneities. They help us to increase the compatibility of geomodels and simplify the parameterization of geological deformation to facilitate the characterisation of geological structures by inverse approaches

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2015.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This study investigates the crustal structure, and assesses the qualitative and quantitative impacts of crust-mantle dynamics on subsidence pattern, past and present-day thermal field and petroleum system evolution at the southern South African continental margin through the application of a multi-disciplinary and multi-scale geo-modelling procedure involving both conceptual and numerical approaches. The modelling procedure becomes particularly important as this margin documents a complex interaction of extension and strike-slip tectonics during its Mesozoic continental rifting processes. Located on the southern shelf of South Africa, the Western Bredasdorp Basin (WBB) constitutes the focus of this study and represents the western section of the larger Bredasdorp sub-basin, which is the westernmost of the southern offshore sub-basins. To understand the margin with respect to its present-day structure, isostatic state and thermal field, a combined approach of isostatic, 3D gravity and 3D thermal modelling was performed by integrating potential field, seismic and well data. Complimenting the resulting configuration and thermal field of the latter by measured present-day temperature, vitrinite reflectance and source potential data, basin-scale burial and thermal history and timing of source rock maturation, petroleum generation, expulsion, migration and accumulation were forwardly simulated using a 3D basin modelling technique. This hierarchical modelling workflow enables geologic assumptions and their associated uncertainties to be well constrained and better quantified, particularly in three dimensions. At present-day, the deep crust of the WBB is characterised by a tripartite density structure (i.e. prerift metasediments underlain by upper and lower crustal domains) depicting a strong thinning that is restricted to a narrow E-W striking zone. The configuration of the radiogenic crystalline crust as well as the conductivity contrasts between the deep crust and the shallow sedimentary cover significantly control the present-day thermal field of the study area. In all respects, this present-day configuration reflects typical characteristics of basin evolution in a strike-slip setting. For instance, the orientations of the deep crust and fault-controlled basin-fill are spatially inconsistent, thereby indicating different extension kinematics typical of transtensional pull-apart mechanisms. As such, syn-rift subsidence is quite rapid and short-lived, and isostatic equilibrium is not achieved, particularly at the Moho level. Accompanied syn-rift rapid subsidence and a heat flow peak led to petroleum preservation in the basin since the Early Cretaceous. Two additional post-rift thermal anomalies related to the Late Cretaceous hotspot mechanism and Miocene margin uplift in Southern Africa succeeded the syn-rift control on maturation. This thermal maturity of the five mature source rocks culminated in four main generation and three main accumulation phases which characterise the total petroleum systems of the WBB. The Campanian, Eocene and Miocene uplift scenarios episodically halted source maturation and caused tertiary migration of previously trapped petroleum. Petroleum loss related to the spill point of each trap configuration additionally occurs during the Late Cretaceous-Paleocene and Oligocene-Early Miocene. The timing and extent of migration dynamics are most sensitive to the geological scenario that combined faulting, intrusive seal bypass system and facies heterogeneity. In fact, for models that do not incorporate facies heterogeneity, predicted past and present-day seafloor leakage of petroleum is largely underestimated. This complex interplay of generation and migration mechanisms has significant implications for charging of petroleum accumulations by multiple source rocks. Due to early maturation and late stage tertiary migration, the syn-rift source rocks particularly Mid Hauterivian and Late Hauterivian source intervals significantly control the extent of petroleum accumulation and loss in the basin. Lastly, the modelled 3D crustal configuration and Mezosoic to Cenozoic thermal regime of the WBB dispute classic uniform lithospheric stretching for the southern South African continental margin. Rather, this PhD thesis confirms that differential thinning of the lithosphere related to a transtensional pull-apart mechanism is the most appropriate for accurately predicting the evolution of basin and petroleum systems of the margin. Also, the presented 3D models currently represent the most advanced insights, and thus have clear implications for assessing associated risks in basin and prospect evaluation of the margin as well as other similar continental margins around the world.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie studie ondersoek die korsstruktuur en evalueer die kwalitatiewe en kwantitatiewe impakte van kors-mantel-dinamika op insinkingspatroon, die termiese veld en petroleumstels evolusie aan die suidelike Suid-Afrikaanse kontinentale grens, in die hede en die verlede, deur die toepassing van ’n multidissiplinêre en multiskaal-geomodelleringsprosedure wat beide konseptuele en numeriese benaderings behels. Die modelleringsprosedure veral is belangrik aangesien hierdie kontinentale grens ’n komplekse interaksie van uitbreidings- en strekkingsparallelle tektoniek gedurende die Mesosoïese vastelandskeurprosesse daarvan dokumenteer. Omdat dit op die suidelike platvorm van Suid-Afrika geleë is, maak die Westelike Bredasdorp Kom (WBK) die fokus van hierdie studie uit, en verteenwoordig dit die westelike deel van die groter Bredasdrop-subkom, wat die verste wes is van die suidelike aflandige subkomme. Om die grens met betrekking tot sy huidige struktuur, isostatiese staat en termiese veld te verstaan, is ’n kombinasie benadering bestaande uit isostatiese, 3D-gravitasie- en 3D- termiese modellering gebruik deur potensiëleveld-, seismiese en boorgatdata te integreer Ondersteunend totot die gevolglike konfigurasie en termiese veld van die laasgenoemde deur middel van hedendaagse temperatuur, soos gemeet, vitriniet-refleksiekoëffisiënt en bronpotensiaal data, komskaal-begrawing en termiese geskiedenis en tydsberekening van brongesteentematurasie, is petroleumgenerasie, -uitwerping, -migrasie en -akkumulasie in die toekoms gesimuleer deur gebruik te maak van ’n 3D-kommodelleringstegniek. Hierdie hierargiese modelleringswerkvloei maak dit moontlik om geologiese aannames en hulle geassosieerde onsekerhede goed aan bande te lê en beter te kwantifiseer, veral in drie dimensies. In die hede word die diep kors van die WBK gekarakteriseer deur ’n drieledige digtheidstruktuur (met ander woorde voorrift-metasedimente onderlê deur bo- en benedekors domeine) wat dui op ’n baie wesenlike verdunning, beperk tot ’n dun O-W-strekkingsone. Die konfigurasie van die radiogeniese kristallyne kors, sowel as die konduktiwiteitskontraste tussen die diep kors en die vlak sedimentêre dekking, beheer grotendeels die hedendaagse termiese veld van die studiearea. Hierdie hedendaagse konfigurasie weerspieël in alle opsigte tipiese eienskappe van kom-evolusie in ’n skuifskeur omgewing. Byvoorbeeld, Die oriëntasies van die diep kors en verskuiwingbeheerde komsedimentasie byvoorbeeld is ruimtelik inkonsekwent en dui daardeur op verskillende ekstensiekinematika, tipies van transtensionale tensiemeganisme. As sulks, is sin-rift-versakking taamlik vinnig en kortstondig, en word isostatiese ekwilibrium nie by die Moho-vlak, in die besonder, bereik nie. Samehangende sin-rift vinnige versakking en hittevloeihoogtepunt het gelei tot petroleum behoud in die kom sedert die vroeë Kryt. Twee bykomende post-rift termiese anomalieë wat verband hou met die laat Kryt-“hotspot” meganisme en die Mioseense kontinentale grensopheffing in Suidelike Afrika het die sin-rift-beheer met maturasie opgevolg. Hierdie termiese maturiteit van die vyf gematureerde brongesteentes het in vier hoofgenerasie- en drie hoofakkumulasie fases, wat die totaliteit van die petroleumstelsels van die WBK karakteriseer, gekulmineer. Die Campaniese, Eoseense en Mioseense opheffings senarios het episodies bronmaturasie gestop en tersiêre migrasie van petroleum wat vroeër opgevang was veroorsaak. Addisioneel vind petroleumverlies gekoppel aan die spilpunt van elke opvanggebiedkonfigurasie tydens die laat Kryt-Paleoseen en Oligoseenvroeë Mioseen plaas. Die tydstelling en omvang van migrasiedinamika is die sensitiefste vir die geologiese scenario wat verskuiwing, seëlomseilingstelsel en fasiesheterogeniteit kombineer. Trouens, vir modelle wat nie fasiesheterogeniteit inkorporeer nie, is voorspellings van vroeëre en huidige seebodemlekkasie van petroleum grotendeels onderskattings. Hierdie komplekse wisselwerking van generasie- en migrasiemeganismes het beduidende implikasies vir die laai van petroleumakkumulasies deur veelvoudige brongesteentes. Vanweë vroeë maturasie en laatstadiumtersiêre migrasie, oefen die sin-rift-brongesteentes, veral middel Hauterivium- en laat Hauteriviumbronintervalle, beduidende beheer oor die omvang van petroleumakkumulasie en -verlies in die kom uit. Laastens weerspreek die gemodelleerde 3D-korskonfigurasie en Mesosoïese-tot-Senosoïesetermiese regime van die WBK ’n klassieke uniforme litosferiese rekking vir die suidelike Suid- Afrikaanse kontinentale grens. Inteendeel, hierdie PhD-proefskrif bevestig dat ’n differensiële verdunning van die litosfeer, gekoppel aan ’n transtensiemeganisme, die beste geskik is om ’n akkurate voorspelling oor die evolusie van kom- en petroleumstelsels van die kontinentale grens mee te maak. Verder, verteenwoordig die 3D-modelle, wat hier aangebied word, tans die mees gevorderde insigte, en het hierdie modelle dus duidelike implikasies vir die assessering van verwante risiko’s in kom- en petroleum teikene valuering van die kontinentale grens, so wel as van ander soortgelyke kontinentale grense regoor die wêreld.

Any industrial site producing contaminants (including chemical and radiological materials), will be constructed on or below the surface, whose associated properties determine how fluid and contaminants travel. The Dounreay Nuclear Power Establishment offers a unique opportunity to understand bedrock geology, superficial deposits, shallow fractures, and their controls on fluid and contaminant pathways. This is due to its complex history, possible contaminants and extensive prior site investigations. Three-dimensional geological modelling is becoming an integral part of site investigations as affordable technology becomes more powerful. Using previously collected, data and state-of-the-art modelling, a high-resolution geological model has been created based on understanding the cyclicity of the Devonian sedimentation of the Orcadian Basin. This underlies the site providing a framework for discrete fracture network and stochastic facies modelling. A discrete fracture network, for three fracture sets, has been created for the bedrock geology through statistical analysis of scanline and borehole data, and stochastic simulations of fracture intensity throughout the geological model. Due to the heterogeneity of the superficial deposits, a stochastic simulation was used to interpolate five distinct superficial facies, considered to influence contaminant pathways and identified from geotechnical logs; 1–Clay, 2–Sand, 3–Gravel, 4–Silt and 5–Peat. Fracture intensity of the hydraulically conductive bedding-parallel fracture set decreases logarithmically with increasing depth. The decreasing fracture intensity of the bedding-parallel fractures reflects a decreasing horizontal hydraulic conductivity, which at 100m levels off and becomes approximately equal to the vertical hydraulic conductivity. The superficial deposits are predominantly clay, with the maximum hydraulic conductivity associated with the gravel facies. The gravel facies provide connectivity from the land surface to the bedrock and associated fracture networks. Methodologies used here can be applied to any site investigation, providing adequate data is available, and by integration, analysis and three-dimensional modelling of the shallow subsurface, a better understanding of contaminant pathways and uncertainties can therefore be achieved.

This thesis is organized as a compendium of three scientific articles, describing the geological characterization of the Hontomín site for Geological Storage of CO2 by means of 3D seismic data, acquired for this purpose, as well as the available well-log and regional data. The three articles form the core of this thesis and constitute the main scientific effort developed therein. These are: • Alcalde, J., Martí, D., Calahorrano, A., Marzán, I., Ayarza, P., Carbonell, R., Juhlin, C. and Pérez-Estaún, A. 2013a. Active seismic characterization experiments of the Hontomín research facility for geological storage of CO2, Spain. International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control, 19, 785-795. • Alcalde, J., Martí, D., Juhlin, C., Malehmir, A., Sopher, D., Saura, E., Marzán, I., Ayarza, P., Calahorrano, A., Pérez-Estaún, A., and Carbonell, R. 2013b. 3D Reflection Seismic Imaging of the Hontomín structure in the Basque-Cantabrian Basin (Spain). Solid Earth4, pp. 481-496. • Alcalde, J., Marzán, I., Saura, E., Martí, D., Ayarza, P., Juhlin, C., Pérez-Estaún, A., and Carbonell, R. 2014. 3D geological characterization of the Hontomín CO2 storage site, Spain: multidisciplinary approach from seismics, well-logging and regional data. Tectonophysics (accepted). The thesis begins with an Introduction (Chapter I), in which the motivations and aims of the thesis are presented. These include the problematic derived from anthropogenic emissions of CO2, and present Carbon Capture and Storage technology as an effective method to reach energetic sustainability. This chapter also includes the state-of-the-art seismic reflection method applied to CO2 storage, as well as an outline of the regional and local geology of the study area. The first article (Alcalde et al., 2013a) constitutes Chapter II of the thesis. It presents and describes the active seismic experiments conducted at the Hontomín site for the seismic characterization. The data acquisition is described in detail, with an emphasis on the most relevant factors that affected the quality of the acquired data. These factors include the geomorphological/topographical aspects of the study area, logistical issues during the acquisition. The effects on the seismic records of a near-surface velocity inversion are also discussed. This contribution also shows a preliminary seismic image of the subsurface, which allows outlining the general dome shape of the target structure. The second article (Alcalde et al., 2013b) comprises Chapter III of the thesis. It outlines the processing applied to the seismic data that led to the final migrated seismic image. It includes a detailed discussion about which processes were more effective in enhancing the quality of the obtained image. The image was judged to be suitable for interpretation and constitutes the primary seismic model, to be used as reference baseline during the monitoring stage. Furthermore, the top of the Jurassic dome structure was mapped, allowing us to provide an overall estimation of the size of the target structure, which is a 107 m2 elongated dome with a maximum CO2 storage capacity of 1.2 Gt. The third article (Alcalde et al., 2014), included in Chapter IV of the thesis, focuses on the interpretation of the seismic image and the building of a 3D geological model. The quality of the seismic data required a geologically driven approach to enable interpretation. This approach used a conceptual model as reference, which was inferred in the first place from the correlation of the available well-log data and later improved by the seismic facies analysis and the regional geological data. The conceptual model was used to interpret the seismic data and resulted in a 9-layered 3D geological model and a thorough description of the fault system present in the area.
Esta tesis tiene como objetivo la caracterización geológica 3D de la Planta de Desarrollo Tecnológico para el Almacenamiento Geológico de CO2 de Hontomín (Burgos). Esta caracterización se ha llevado a cabo mediante el procesado y la interpretación de datos de sísmica de reflexión 3D adquiridos para ese propósito en verano de 2010.

.Dans cette thèse, il a été étudié la structure des milieux poreux, en particulier sur des sols sableux et un paquet virtuel de sphères; Sur la base de références bibliographiques, nos propres outils ont été créés pour calculer la porosité, la surface spécifique et la distribution de la taille des pores. Nous avons construit un algorithme pour résoudre l'équation de diffusion de l'advection directement sur la structure du milieu poreux (en utilisant un résultat d'image 3D du scan $ mu $ CT du support poreux). Nous avons utilisé l'opérateur de division pour calculer la partie advective avec une méthode de volume fini (FV), mettant en œuvre un schéma de réduction de la variation totale (TVD). La partie diffusion a été calculée en utilisant une méthode de FV et avec l’aide du logiciel MUMPS pour résoudre le système linéaire résultant. A partir du champ de concentration obtenu avec l’algorithme et suivant une méthode de moyenne volumique, nous avons calculé les propriétés macroscopiques de: dispersivité et coefficient de dispersion à Pe = 223,23,2.3,0,23 pour un échantillon de sable de Fontainbleau NE34. Nous avons observé que ces résultats dépendent de la qualité de l'image 3D. Les propriétés structurelles et de transport ont été étudiées à l'aide d'images 3D à différentes résolutions. Les images à différentes résolutions ont été appelées images redimensionnées, elles ont été générées numériquement et prises directement à partir du micro CT scan. Comme premier résultat, nous avons proposé un critère basé sur la distribution de la taille des pores pour déterminer si une résolution d'image 3D convient ou non au calcul de la perméabilité d'un matériau granulaire avec une méthode de volume fini (FV). Dans un deuxième résultat, nous avons montré comment les propriétés des macros de transport de soluté sont moins affectées par une détérioration de la résolution que la propriété d’écoulement de la perméabilité (les deux cas sont calculés par une méthode FV). Et comme troisième résultat, nous avons montré qu'une image numérique redimensionnée préserve davantage le comportement des propriétés macroscopiques qu'une image réelle redimensionnée
In this thesis it was studied the structure of the porous media, particularly on a sandy soils and a virtual pack of spheres; based on bibliographic references here were generated our own tools to compute the porosity, specific surface and pore size distribution. We built an algorithm to solve advection diffusion equation directly on the porous media structure (using a 3D image result of the $mu $ CT scan of the porous media). We used the splitting operator to compute the advective part with a Finite Volume (FV) method, implementing a Total Variation Diminishing (TVD) scheme. The diffusion part was computed using with a FV method with the assistance of the MUMPS software to solve the resulting linear system. From the concentration field obtained with the algorithm and following a volume averaging method, we computed the macroscopic properties of: dispersivity and dispersion coefficient at Pe=223,23,2.3,0.23 for a sample of Fontainbleau NE34 sand. We observing that these results depend on the quality of the 3D image, structural and transport properties were studied using 3D images at different resolutions. The images at different resolutions were called rescaled images, and they were generated numerically and taken directly from the micro CT scan. As a first result we proposed a criterion based on the pore size distribution to assess if a 3D image resolution is suitable or not for permeability computation of a granular material with a finite volume (FV) method. As a second result we showed how the solute transport macro properties are less affected by a deterioration of the resolution than the flow property of permeability (both cases computed through a FV method). And as a third result we showed that a numerical rescaled image preserve the behavior of the macroscopic properties more than a real rescaled image

PONTIFÍCIA UNIVERSIDADE CATÓLICA DO RIO DE JANEIRO
COORDENAÇÃO DE APERFEIÇOAMENTO DO PESSOAL DE ENSINO SUPERIOR
O trabalho propõe uma metodologia para elaboração de modelos geológicos e geomecânicos (3D) e realização de análises de estabilidade (2D)de taludes rochosos de minas a céu aberto, com base nos dados da mina de Morro da Mina, fornecidos pela empresa VALE, a qual esta pertence. A metodologia está dividida em duas etapas: modelagem e análises de estabilidade. Para a modelagem, foi utilizado o software Petrel 2004, que oferece ferramentas geoestatísticas, possibilitando a extrapolação das informações geotécnicas pontuais c`, fi, RQD, Q e RMR, obtidas por meio de testemunhos de sondagem, para o maciço inteiro. Utilizou-se a técnica de Krigagem Ordinária. O modelo gerado representou bem a distribuição destas propriedades no espaço. Na etapa de análise de estabilidade, foram utilizadas seções resultantes da modelagem geomecânica. Dois tipos de análises foram realizados: análises cinemáticas, com utilização do software Dips, da Rocscience, e análises por equilíbrio limite dos taludes globais e das bancadas, utilizando-se o software Slide 5.0, também da Rocscience. No primeiro tipo, realizado com dois conjuntos de mapeamentos diferentes, foi constatado que as bancadas devem receber bastante atenção nesta mina, e no segundo tipo, foi verificada a segurança quanto à ruptura circular das bancadas e taludes globais, porém recentemente ocorreu uma ruptura em um dos locais analisados. Os programas RocData 4.0 e RocProp, ambos da Rocscience, foram utilizados para estimar os parâmetros de resistência de Mohr-Coulomb, e os softwares AutoCAD 2004 e Microsoft Office Excel auxiliaram na preparação dos arquivos de entrada no Petrel 2004 e no Slide 5.0.
This work presents a methodology to develop geological and geomechanic models (3D) and to carry out stability analyses (2D) of rock slopes of open pit mine, based on data of Morro da Mina mine, provided by the mining company VALE. The methodology is divided in two stages: modelling and stability analyses. For the modelling, the software Petrel 2004, which allows the use of geostatistical tools, was used, being possible the spatial distribution of geotechnical information, obtained from borehole cores, for the whole rock mass. The technique of Ordinary Kriging was used. The modeled properties were the following: c`, fi, RQD, Q e RMR. The generated model represented well the spatial distribution of these properties. The stability analyses were carried out using 2D sections and the necessary rock mass parameters were obtained from the geomechanical model. Two types of analyses were carried out: kinematic analyses, with use of the software Dips, from Rocscience, and limit equilibrium analyses of the global slopes and the benches, where the software Slide 5.0, also from Rocscience was used. The Kinematic analyses, carried out considering two sets of joint orientations, suggested that the benches have to receive enough attention in this mine, and the limit equilibrium analyses for circular failure of the benches and global slopes indicated high factors of safety. However, before this work initiating a failure already had happened in one of the sections analyzed. The programs RocData 4.0 and RocProp, both from Rocscience, were used to estimate the Mohr-Coulomb strength parameters, and the programs AutoCAD 2004 and Microsoft Office Excel helped at the development of the input files in the Petrel 2004 and Slide 5.0.

In the context of interior noise reduction, the present work aims at proposing Finite Element (FE) solution strategies for interior structural-acoustic applications including 3D modelling of homogeneous and isotropic poroelastic materials, under timeharmonic excitations, and in the low frequency range. A model based on the Biot-Allard theory is used for the poroelastic materials, which is known to be very costly in terms of computational resources. Reduced models offer the possibility to enhance the resolution of such complex problems. However, their applicability to porous materials remained to be demonstrated.First, this thesis presents FE resolutions of poro-elasto-acoustic coupled problems using modal-based approaches both for the acoustic and porous domains. The original modal approach proposed for porous media, together with a dedicated mode selection and truncation procedure, are validated on 1D to 3D applications.In a second part, modal-reduced models are combined with a Padé approximants reconstruction scheme in order to further improve the efficiency.A concluding chapter presents a comparison and a combination of the proposed methods on a 3D academic application, showing promising performances. Conclusions are then drawn to provide indications for future research and tests to be conducted in order to further enhance the methodologies proposed in this thesis.
Dans le contexte de lutte contre les nuisances sonores, cette thèse porte sur le développement de méthodes de résolution efficaces par éléments finis, pour des problèmes de vibroacoustique interne avec interfaces dissipatives, dans le domaine des basses fréquences. L’étude se limite à l’utilisation de solutions passives telles que l’intégration de matériaux poreux homogènes et isotropes, modélisés par une approche fondée sur la théorie de Biot-Allard. Ces modèles étant coûteux en terme de résolution, un des objectifs de cette thèse est de proposer une approche modale pour la réduction du problème poroélastique, bien que l’adéquation d’une telle approche avec le comportement dynamique des matériaux poreux soit à démontrer.Dans un premier temps, la résolution de problèmes couplés élasto-poro-acoustiques par sous-structuration dynamique des domaines acoustiques et poreux est établie. L’approche modale originale proposée pour les milieux poroélastiques, ainsi qu’une procédure de sélection des modes significatifs, sont validées sur des exemples 1D à 3D.Une deuxième partie présente une méthode combinant l’utilisation des modèles réduits précédemment établis avec une procédure d’approximation de solution par approximants de Padé. Il est montré qu’une telle combinaison offre la possibilité d’accroître les performances de la résolution (allocation mémoire et ressources en temps de calcul).Un chapitre dédié aux applications permet d’évaluer et comparer les approches sur un problème académique 3D, mettant en valeur leurs performances encourageantes. Afin d’améliorer les méthodes établies dans cette thèse, des perspectives à ces travaux de recherche sont apportées en conclusion.

QC 20120224

FP6 Marie-Curie Smart Structures
FP7 Marie-Curie Mid-Frequency

In the context of interior noise reduction, the present work aims at proposing Finite Element (FE) solution strategies for interior structural-acoustic applications including 3D modelling of homogeneous and isotropic poroelastic materials, under timeharmonic excitations, and in the low frequency range. A model based on the Biot-Allard theory is used for the poroelastic materials, which is known to be very costly in terms of computational resources. Reduced models offer the possibility to enhance the resolution of such complex problems. However, their applicability to porous materials remained to be demonstrated.First, this thesis presents FE resolutions of poro-elasto-acoustic coupled problems using modal-based approaches both for the acoustic and porous domains. The original modal approach proposed for porous media, together with a dedicated mode selection and truncation procedure, are validated on 1D to 3D applications.In a second part, modal-reduced models are combined with a Padé approximants reconstruction scheme in order to further improve the efficiency.A concluding chapter presents a comparison and a combination of the proposed methods on a 3D academic application, showing promising performances. Conclusions are then drawn to provide indications for future research and tests to be conducted in order to further enhance the methodologies proposed in this thesis.

Fracture mapping of bedrock and knowledge about how fractures influence rock strength and stability is of great importance in a constructional context. These factors largely dictate where one can build and not build in rock, and to what extent reinforcements and safety measurements are needed. In a city like Stockholm where infrastructure has been forced to expand due to a rapidly growing population, this type of knowledge plays a central role to ensure continued development. Fracture mapping is traditionally executed by a geologist who manually measures fracture orientations with a compass. However, this method bears obvious risks as the geologist must physically approach a possibly unstable rock face to carry out manual measurements of fractures and structures. In some cases, the geologist is not even allowed to approach the rock face for safety reasons. The aspect of time should not be neglected either since the process of manual measurements is often time consuming. This has resulted in newer and safer technological methods being developed and tested. In 2015, The Geological Survey of Sweden (SGU) acquired photogrammetrical equipment and 3D-modelling software ShapeMetriX to ease the fracture mapping process, obtain data of higher quality and increase personnel safety in the field. In this report, the photogrammetrical system is quality tested by comparing its results with manual field measurements. The control was carried out on three different rock faces in two locations; Torsgatan, a central street in Stockholm, and Kungens kurva, a construction site southwest of central Stockholm. The study shows that the results of ShapeMetriX correspond well to the manual field measurements and that the method has several advantages as well as disadvantages compared to conventional mapping methods.
Sprickkartering av berggrund och kunskap om hur bergets hållfasthet och stabilitet påverkas av sprickor är viktigt i konstruktionssammanhang. Dessa faktorer dikterar till stor del var man kan och inte kan bygga i berg samt till vilken grad förstärkningar och säkerhetsåtgärder behövs. I en stad lik Stockholm vars infrastruktur tvingas anpassa sig efter en kraftigt växande befolkning sätts dessa kunskaper i en ännu mer central roll för att kunna säkerställa stadens fortsatta utveckling. Sprickkartering utförs traditionellt av en geolog som med hjälp av en kompass manuellt mäter sprickors orientering. Detta medför dock uppenbara risker då denna fysiskt måste befinna sig nära bergskärningen för att kunna utföra mätningar av sprickor och strukturer. I vissa fall kan geologen, av säkerhetsskäl, inte alls närma sig den berörda ytan vilket omöjliggör en detaljerad kartering. Tidsaspekten av det hela bör inte heller bortses då manuella fältmätningar ofta är tidskrävande. Detta har resulterat i att nyare och säkrare teknologiska metoder för kartering och klassificering av berg både utvecklas och prövas. Sveriges geologiska undersökning (SGU) förvärvade 2015 fotogrammetrisk karteringsutrustning och 3D-modelleringsprogrammet ShapeMetriX för att effektivisera sprickkarteringsarbetet, erhålla data med högre kvalitét och öka säkerheten för personal I fält. I denna rapport utvärderas nämnda stereofotogrammetriska karteringsmetod med tillhörande analysmjukvara genom en jämförelse av dess resultat med manuella fältmätningar. Kontrollen utfördes på tre berghällar; en belägen på Torsgatan, en central gågata strax nordväst om centrala Stockholm och de andra vid Kungens kurva, en byggarbetsplats i närheten av Skärholmen i södra Stockholm. Resultat av studien visar att ShapeMetriX mätningar väl stämmer överens med manuella fältmätningar och även att metoden har en

Master of Science
Department of Geology
Abdelmoneam Raef
Matthew W. Totten
This work focuses on the use of advanced seismically driven technologies to estimate the distribution of key reservoir properties which mainly includes porosity and hydrocarbon reservoir pay. These reservoir properties were estimated by using a multitude of seismic attributes derived from post-stack high resolution inversions, spectral imaging and volumetric curvature. A pay model of the reservoir in the Wierman field in Ness County, Kansas is proposed. The proposed geological model is validated based on comparison with findings of one blind well. The model will be useful in determining future drilling prospects, which should improve the drilling success over previous efforts, which resulted in only few of the 14 wells in the area being productive. The rock properties that were modeled were porosity and Gamma ray. Water saturation and permeability were considered, but the data needed were not available. Sequential geological modeling approach uses multiple seismic attributes as a building block to estimate in a sequential manner dependent petrophysical properties such as gamma ray, and porosity. The sequential modelling first determines the reservoir property that has the ability to be the primary property controlling most of the other subsequent reservoir properties. In this study, the gamma ray was chosen as the primary reservoir property. Hence, the first geologic model built using neural networks was a volume of gamma ray constrained by all the available seismic attributes. The geological modeling included post-stack seismic data and the five wells with available well logs. The post-stack seismic data was enhanced by spectral whitening to gain as much resolution as possible. Volumetric curvature was then calculated to determine where major faults were located. Several inversions for acoustic impedance were then applied to the post-stack seismic data to gain as much information as possible about the acoustic impedance. Spectral attributes were also extracted from the post-stack seismic data. After the most appropriate gamma ray and porosity models were chosen, pay zone maps were constructed, which were based on the overlap of a certain range of gamma ray values with a certain range of porosity values. These pay zone maps coupled with the porosity and gamma ray models explain the performance of previously drilled wells.

Le bassin de Levant, localisé à l’extrémité la plus orientale de la Méditerranée, se situe à jonction de trois plaques tectoniques majeures (Afrique, Arabie, Eurasie ainsi que la microplaque Anatolienne). Il est bordé à l’Est par la faille du Levant (frontière Arabie/Afrique), qui représente un système transformant de 1000 km de long, reliant le rift dans la Mer Rouge au sud avec la zone de convergence le long du Taurus au nord (frontière Arabie/Eurasie). Son extrémité nord est marquée par la frontière convergente Afrique/Anatolie soulignée par l’arc de Chypre. Le bassin Levantin a enregistré l’interaction entre ces différentes plaques au cours du Cénozoïque et sa bordure Est a été en particulier déformée par la mise en place de la faille du Levant. Cette limite de plaque majeure est marquée au Liban par un relais compressif qui a été actif depuis la fin du Miocène. Jusque récemment, l’absence de données sismiques dans la partie centrale du bassin levantin (offshore Liban) a constitué un handicap important dans la caractérisation de ce basin. Dans ce secteur, la géométrie, cinématique, l’âge des structures tectoniques ne sont pas connus. Plusieurs questions en découlent. Quel est impact de la frontière transformante du Levant sur la structure du bassin? Le bassin a-t-il enregistré d’autres déformations au cours du Cénozoïque ? Quel est l’effet de la structuration ancienne et profonde de la marge sur la déformation actuelle ? Ce travail s’est appuyé sur l’interprétation des données sismiques 2D et 3D de haute qualité dont deux cubes 3D de 4290 m3 et sept lignes 2D de 830 km de long. Cette étude a permis d’identifier les structures tectoniques affectant le secteur offshore Libanais et de caractériser leurs origines. Plusieurs familles de failles tout au long de la marge Est du bassin ont été identifiées et témoigne d’une histoire tectonique méso-cénozoïque longue et complexe. Les structures reconnues sont tout d’abord (1) des failles chevauchantes NNE-SSW actives depuis le début du Tertiaire jusqu’à la fin Miocène, (2) des anticlinaux NNE-SSW formés durant le Miocène supérieur et se localisant sur des structures préexistantes et (3) des failles décrochantes dextres, héritées des structures mésozoïques et réactivées durant le Miocène supérieur. Seules les failles décrochantes dextres montrent des preuves d’une activité actuelle, liée à la transpression au long de la faille du Levant. Ces structures constituent le prolongement vers l’ouest de la frontière de plaque du Levant sous un régime transpressif et une compression NW-SE. Nous mettons en évidence que cette frontière de plaque montre une évolution au cours du Néogène avec une forte décroissance de la composante de raccourcissement à partir du Pliocène. La mise en évidence de jeux plus anciens témoigne d’une structuration profonde E-W de la marge, vraisemblablement héritée des tectoniques mésozoïques. L’impact de cette structuration a été évalué à travers une modélisation analogique. Les résultats démontrent le rôle considérable de cet héritage sur l’évolution du relais compressif de la faille du Levant au Liban, entre autre en localisant la déformation le long de couloirs E-W et en segmentant les structures transpressives NNE-SSW. Ces résultats nous conduisent à interpréter les structures E-W comme majeures et traduisant la prolongation vers l’ouest du bassin mésozoïque des Palmyrides. Nous mettons ici en évidence le rôle majeure d’une marge sur la structure d’une frontière de plaques transformante. Le développement de failles antithétiques (failles dextres dans une frontière transformante senestre), connus dans d’autres frontières de ce type, est ici clairement associé à une anisotropie profonde forçant la localisation de la déformation
The Levant Basin is located at the easternmost Mediterranean at the intersection of three major tectonic plates (Africa, Arabia, Eurasia and the smaller Anatolian microplate). The Levant Fracture System (Arabia-Africa plate boundary) borders the basin to its east and represents a 1000 km long left-lateral transform system linking rifting in the Red Sea with plate convergence along the Taurus Mountains (Arabia-Eurasia plate boundary). The Levant Basin is bordered to the north by the Cyprus Arc (Africa-Eurasia plate boundary). The interaction between these tectonic plates had important consequences on the evolution of the Levant Basin whereby its eastern boundary has been affected by deformation along the Levant Fracture System. This major plate boundary is associated with a restraining bend in Lebanon and has been active since the Late Miocene. Until recent days, the absence of seismic data in the central Levant Basin was an obstacle against characterizing the tectonic setting of the basin. In this area, the geometry, kinematics and the age of the tectonic structures are poorly understood. A focal question thus remains on how the Levant Basin was affected by this adjacent plate boundary. Therefore, what is the impact of the deformation along the Levant Fracture System since the Late Miocene on this basin and how can we assess it? Has the latter been affected by other tectonic regimes prior to the onset of transpression? If so, how would the existing structures influence the style of modern deformation? In this study, high quality 2D and 3D seismic reflection data (with two 4290 m3 3D seismic cubes and seven 830 km long 2D seismic lines) were interpreted allowing identification and timing of the structures in the Levant Basin offshore Lebanon. Several fault families, mapped along the margin, are remnants of a lasting and complex tectonic history since Mesozoic times. These include NNE-SSW striking thrust faults active during the early Tertiary and inactive since the Pliocene; NNE-SSW striking anticlines folded during the Late Miocene and overlying pre-existing structuresd; and ENE-WSW striking dextral strike-slip faults inherited from Mesozoic times and reactivated during the Late Miocene. Only the dextral strike-slip faults show evidence of current activity and are interpreted to be linked to transpression along the Levant Fracture System. They constitute the westward extension of the plate boundary, formed under a transpressif regime and a NW-SE compression. We have showed how this plate boundary has evolved through the Neogene with a decrease in the shortening component during the Pliocene.The identification of pre-existing structures along the eastern Levant margin shed the light on the deep structuration affecting this area, inherited from Mesozoic tectonic events. The impact of these structures was tested through analogue modeling. Results indicated a considerable impact of pre-existing structures on the development of the restraining bend, localizing deformation at the onset of transpression and responsible of segmenting the restraining bend along an ENE direction. These ENE-WSW faults are thus major and are most likely associated with the deformation affecting the Palmyra basin since the Mesozoic, which is thus extending westward to Lebanon. This study has shown the important role of a margin on a strike-slip plate boundary. Namely, the development of antithetic faults (local dextral strike-slip faults in a regional sinistral strike-slip plate boundary) known in other similar plate boundaries is associated with a deep crustal anisotropy localizing the subsequent deformation

Le bassin de Levant, localisé à l’extrémité la plus orientale de la Méditerranée, se situe à jonction de trois plaques tectoniques majeures (Afrique, Arabie, Eurasie ainsi que la microplaque Anatolienne). Il est bordé à l’Est par la faille du Levant (frontière Arabie/Afrique), qui représente un système transformant de 1000 km de long, reliant le rift dans la Mer Rouge au sud avec la zone de convergence le long du Taurus au nord (frontière Arabie/Eurasie). Son extrémité nord est marquée par la frontière convergente Afrique/Anatolie soulignée par l’arc de Chypre. Le bassin Levantin a enregistré l’interaction entre ces différentes plaques au cours du Cénozoïque et sa bordure Est a été en particulier déformée par la mise en place de la faille du Levant. Cette limite de plaque majeure est marquée au Liban par un relais compressif qui a été actif depuis la fin du Miocène. Jusque récemment, l’absence de données sismiques dans la partie centrale du bassin levantin (offshore Liban) a constitué un handicap important dans la caractérisation de ce basin. Dans ce secteur, la géométrie, cinématique, l’âge des structures tectoniques ne sont pas connus. Plusieurs questions en découlent. Quel est impact de la frontière transformante du Levant sur la structure du bassin? Le bassin a-t-il enregistré d’autres déformations au cours du Cénozoïque ? Quel est l’effet de la structuration ancienne et profonde de la marge sur la déformation actuelle ? Ce travail s’est appuyé sur l’interprétation des données sismiques 2D et 3D de haute qualité dont deux cubes 3D de 4290 m3 et sept lignes 2D de 830 km de long. Cette étude a permis d’identifier les structures tectoniques affectant le secteur offshore Libanais et de caractériser leurs origines. Plusieurs familles de failles tout au long de la marge Est du bassin ont été identifiées et témoigne d’une histoire tectonique méso-cénozoïque longue et complexe. Les structures reconnues sont tout d’abord (1) des failles chevauchantes NNE-SSW actives depuis le début du Tertiaire jusqu’à la fin Miocène, (2) des anticlinaux NNE-SSW formés durant le Miocène supérieur et se localisant sur des structures préexistantes et (3) des failles décrochantes dextres, héritées des structures mésozoïques et réactivées durant le Miocène supérieur. Seules les failles décrochantes dextres montrent des preuves d’une activité actuelle, liée à la transpression au long de la faille du Levant. Ces structures constituent le prolongement vers l’ouest de la frontière de plaque du Levant sous un régime transpressif et une compression NW-SE. Nous mettons en évidence que cette frontière de plaque montre une évolution au cours du Néogène avec une forte décroissance de la composante de raccourcissement à partir du Pliocène. La mise en évidence de jeux plus anciens témoigne d’une structuration profonde E-W de la marge, vraisemblablement héritée des tectoniques mésozoïques. L’impact de cette structuration a été évalué à travers une modélisation analogique. Les résultats démontrent le rôle considérable de cet héritage sur l’évolution du relais compressif de la faille du Levant au Liban, entre autre en localisant la déformation le long de couloirs E-W et en segmentant les structures transpressives NNE-SSW. Ces résultats nous conduisent à interpréter les structures E-W comme majeures et traduisant la prolongation vers l’ouest du bassin mésozoïque des Palmyrides. Nous mettons ici en évidence le rôle majeure d’une marge sur la structure d’une frontière de plaques transformante. Le développement de failles antithétiques (failles dextres dans une frontière transformante senestre), connus dans d’autres frontières de ce type, est ici clairement associé à une anisotropie profonde forçant la localisation de la déformation
The Levant Basin is located at the easternmost Mediterranean at the intersection of three major tectonic plates (Africa, Arabia, Eurasia and the smaller Anatolian microplate). The Levant Fracture System (Arabia-Africa plate boundary) borders the basin to its east and represents a 1000 km long left-lateral transform system linking rifting in the Red Sea with plate convergence along the Taurus Mountains (Arabia-Eurasia plate boundary). The Levant Basin is bordered to the north by the Cyprus Arc (Africa-Eurasia plate boundary). The interaction between these tectonic plates had important consequences on the evolution of the Levant Basin whereby its eastern boundary has been affected by deformation along the Levant Fracture System. This major plate boundary is associated with a restraining bend in Lebanon and has been active since the Late Miocene. Until recent days, the absence of seismic data in the central Levant Basin was an obstacle against characterizing the tectonic setting of the basin. In this area, the geometry, kinematics and the age of the tectonic structures are poorly understood. A focal question thus remains on how the Levant Basin was affected by this adjacent plate boundary. Therefore, what is the impact of the deformation along the Levant Fracture System since the Late Miocene on this basin and how can we assess it? Has the latter been affected by other tectonic regimes prior to the onset of transpression? If so, how would the existing structures influence the style of modern deformation? In this study, high quality 2D and 3D seismic reflection data (with two 4290 m3 3D seismic cubes and seven 830 km long 2D seismic lines) were interpreted allowing identification and timing of the structures in the Levant Basin offshore Lebanon. Several fault families, mapped along the margin, are remnants of a lasting and complex tectonic history since Mesozoic times. These include NNE-SSW striking thrust faults active during the early Tertiary and inactive since the Pliocene; NNE-SSW striking anticlines folded during the Late Miocene and overlying pre-existing structuresd; and ENE-WSW striking dextral strike-slip faults inherited from Mesozoic times and reactivated during the Late Miocene. Only the dextral strike-slip faults show evidence of current activity and are interpreted to be linked to transpression along the Levant Fracture System. They constitute the westward extension of the plate boundary, formed under a transpressif regime and a NW-SE compression. We have showed how this plate boundary has evolved through the Neogene with a decrease in the shortening component during the Pliocene.The identification of pre-existing structures along the eastern Levant margin shed the light on the deep structuration affecting this area, inherited from Mesozoic tectonic events. The impact of these structures was tested through analogue modeling. Results indicated a considerable impact of pre-existing structures on the development of the restraining bend, localizing deformation at the onset of transpression and responsible of segmenting the restraining bend along an ENE direction. These ENE-WSW faults are thus major and are most likely associated with the deformation affecting the Palmyra basin since the Mesozoic, which is thus extending westward to Lebanon. This study has shown the important role of a margin on a strike-slip plate boundary. Namely, the development of antithetic faults (local dextral strike-slip faults in a regional sinistral strike-slip plate boundary) known in other similar plate boundaries is associated with a deep crustal anisotropy localizing the subsequent deformation

This Thesis reports on the integration of different modelling techniques to construct a unified and better constrained conceptual model of structural evolution of the Pico del Águila anticline (External Sierras, Southern Pyrenees, Spain). The structure is a well-known example of detachment fold, which exhibits a N-S structural trend, parallel to the direction of tectonic transport in the Southern Pyrenees. Based on field observations of an unevenly distributed Triassic décollement, analogue modelling show how to generate orogen-perpendicular structures which may result in transverse anticlines. Numerical models investigate the effect of a complex mechanical stratigraphy, characterized by an interlayering of competent and incompetent layers, plus syn-kinematic sedimentation in the fold growth. Based on field data and seismic interpretations, a 3D reconstruction and sequential geomechanical restoration of the Pico del Águila anticline reports the coexistence of multiple folding mechanisms occurring simultaneously in different units and structural domains of the fold, leading to a complex strain pattern that can not be assessed by simplistic kinematic 2D approaches. By integrating the presented models with the previous data in the region, we discuss about the benefits and drawbacks of each modelling technique and present an integrated model of structural evolution for the Pico del Águila anticline. This brings a better comprehension of the structure as well as the processes that drove the evolution of the N-S detachment anticlines in the External Sierras of the Southern Pyrenees.
L’anticlinal del Pico del Águila és un conegut exemple de plec de desenganxament amb sedimentació marina a fluvio-deltaica associada, amb una tendència estructural N-S, paral•lela a la direcció de transport tectònic dels Pirineus Meridionals. Basat en observacions de camp que indiquen una distribució heterogènia del nivell de desenganxament Triàsic, els models analògics mostren el procés de generació d’estructures perpendiculars al sistema orogènic que poden donar lloc als anticlinals N-S descrits a les Sierras Exteriores Aragonesas. Els models numèrics investiguen l’efecte d’una estratigrafia mecànica complexa, caracteritzada per una intercalació d’unitats competents i incomptetents (amb marcades diferències en el grau de competència, per tant) i de la sedimentació sin-cinemàtica en el creixement i evolució de l’anticlinal. Basat en dades de camp i interpretacions de perfils sísmics s’ha portat a terme una reconstrucció i restitució geomecànica tridimensional de l’anticlinal del Pico del Águila. D’aquestes se’n deriva la coexistència de de múltiples mecanismes de plegament actuant simultàniament en diferents unitats i dominis estructurals, la qual implica al seu torn un patró i distribució de la deformació que no poden ser avaluats mitjançant aproximacions o tècniques de modelització cinemàtiques o/i bidimensionals. S’integren també els resultats obtinguts a partir de les esmentades tècniques de modelització amb les dades i coneixements previs de la regió, es discuteixen els beneficis, desavantatges i limitacions de cadascuna d’aquestes tècniques de modelització, i es presenta un model integrat d’evolució estructural del Pico del Águila. Aquest anàlisi crític dels resultats i aquest esforç d’integració porten sense dubte cap a una millor comprensió de l’estructura i dels processos que menaren l’evolució dels plecs de desenganxament N-S de les Sierras Exteriores Aragonesas dels Pirineus Meridionals.

Ce mémoire de thèse de doctorat est structuré en deux parties. Dans la 1ère partie, une nouvelle approche traitant la caractérisation géométrique et mécanique est décrite. La modélisation géométrique de tissu 3D interlock est corrélée avec les paramètres de tissage afin de mieux prendre en compte ces paramètres. Le tissage de tissu 3D interlock est décrit en détail. Par la suite, une étude a été menée pour mieux comprendre les changements qui se produisent dans une mèche de carbone lorsque cette dernière est intégrée dans un renfort. Un coefficient de transfert des propriétés mécaniques a été proposé permettant une meilleure compréhension de l’influence des paramètres structuraux sur les propriétés d’un composite. Dans la 2eme partie du mémoire, un système de mesure in situ pour les composites a été développé. Ce système comporte un capteur souple et un module de traitement de données et d’amplification des signaux. Le capteur fibreux développé durant nos recherches a été inséré pendant le tissage comme un fil de trame. Le système a été testé sur une plaque en composite, contenant les renforts en 3D interlock, en traction. Le capteur suit fidèlement les déformations de la plaque composite jusqu’à la rupture
This thesis is divided in two parts. In the first part a geometrical modelling approach has been developed in tandem with weaving parameters. The reinforcements were woven on a modified conventional loom to study the geometry of these structures. Their weaving has been described in detail. The weaving parameters have been correlated to the modelling approach. The meso structural modelling approach is capable of predicting essential reinforcement geometrical characteristics at meso structural level without being too complicated. Furthermore, mechanical characterization of 3D interlock reinforcements has been carried out in such a way that a track of mechanical properties during the complete production cycle has been maintained. A novel parameter called strength transfer coefficient was proposed which allows better understanding of the influence of structural parameters on the final properties of the composite. In the second part of the thesis an online structural health monitoring system which is composed of a textile based sensor and signal amplification and treatment module, has been developed. This system is capable of detecting structural deformations in the composite as the sensor is integrated during the manufacturing of the reinforcement and can follow its deformation pattern when composite is subjected to tensile loading in a real time

Object of this work is the 3-D modelling of complex geological architectures in the Quaternary Po Basin (Lombardy, Italy). Reliable surface and subsurface models in Quaternary alluvial basins are important for several applications, including groundwater research and management, geohazard evaluation, exploitation and protection of other natural resources. The study area is the Po Plain-Apennine border in Lombardy (Italy), in a peculiar sector where the structural culminations of the buried Emilian Arc salient of the Northern Apennines determine the location of isolated reliefs in the Po Plain (i.e. San Colombano Hill and Casalpusterlengo – Zorlesco subtle relic reliefs). This area was selected because it permits to improve the 3-D modelling procedure in a complex tectono-stratigraphic-geomorphological setting, which is of interest for both the still controversial geological reconstructions of the Po Basin and the relevant issues in groundwater management and geothermal energy exploitation. The Quaternary sedimentary fill of the southern margin of the Po Basin in Lombardy records the complex interplay between active Apennine thrusting to the South, rebound and isostatic response to deglaciations at the flexed Alpine margin to the North and the dynamics induced by Quaternary glacial cycles. All of these factors produced the assemblage of nested stratigraphic, structural and geomorphological complexities which are the object of this work. Reliable 3-D models must account for multiple ranks and scales of sedimentary heterogeneity. To obtain such a result, this works attempts to compute 3-D models, constrained not only by the traditional explicit geological “hard” surface and subsurface data, but also by the implicit “soft” data represented by the increments of the geological evolution of the basin. At present, none of the available modelling methods incorporates geological evolution, hierarchy of stratigraphic and structural components of geological heterogeneity and uncertainty as formal rules of 3-D model building in a straightforward manner. Aim of the work is to propose an integrated, multidisciplinary methodology to combine both explicit and implicit geological knowledge as constraint for 3-D (4-D) architectural geological modelling of the study area. Specific aims of this work are: i) to reconstruct the surface and subsurface Quaternary geology of the study area at different scales; ii) derive the increments and the autogenic vs. allogenic controlling factors on the geological evolution; iii) develop alternative 3-D (4-D) models of the Quaternary sedimentary infill of the area, honoring the new maps and subsurface reconstructions and accounting for the incremental geological evolution; iv) contribute to improve and implement a method that combines explicit geological data with the implicit hierarchic and evolutionary constraints for 3-D geological modelling. A multidisciplinary methodology has been set-up. It integrates i) classical geological, sedimentological, stratigraphic, geopedological, geomorphological and structural field surveys; ii) subsurface reconstruction based on stratigraphic correlation of borehole logs and geophysical images, along a fence of 2-D cross-sections over an area of 400 km2 and a maximum investigation depth of 150 m b.g.s.; iii) 3-D geological modelling based on integration of the GIS management of the multiple data-sets and the GeoModeller® 3-D modelling software. GeoModeller® was chosen for the feasibility to deal with the bounding surfaces, which is the key-concept to describe hierarchic frameworks and the key to introduce the genetic interpretation of the basin history (4th dimension) into 3-D representations. To do that, new software routines and novel concepts for the modelling rules were set-up and implemented in the commercial code. Results of the work include: i) a new geological and geomorphological map of the San Colombano hill at 1:10.000 scale over an area of about 60 km2; ii) a hierarchic stratigraphic scheme of the surface-subsurface Quaternary succession of the southern Po Basin, integrated to the iii) incremental tectono-depositional evolution of the Po Basin-Apennine border, that relates the ranking and the significance of the stratigraphic and morphological boundaries to the hierarchy of the Quaternary increments of the geological evolution; iv) the conceptualization of the implicit hierarchic rules to be introduced into 3-D model building, and the procedure to progressively include the explicit and implicit geological rules within multi-scale realizations; v) some new computing routines which let GeoModeller® to manage the new rules and vi) alternative 4-D geological models accounting for different interpretations of the geological evolution. Six high-rank increments of the geological evolution (“stages”) punctuated by low-rank steps have been described in this work. During stages 1 and 2, N-ward thrusting along the blind Emilian Arc originated the Zanclean and the Gelasian Unconformities. On the San Colombano hill, the Calabrian shallow marine San Colombano Fm. (PL4 highest-rank succession) unconformably overlies the truncated deep-marine Miocene formations, up-thrusted during Mio-Pliocene. At stage 3, Early to Middle Pleistocene increments of thrust-folding at the northernmost buried reaches of the Emilian Arc induced erosion of the intra-Calabrian unconformity (U1) and separated local depocentres related to the San Colombano and Casalpusterlengo – Zorlesco structures. These were filled by transitional and alluvial units (PS1 highest–rank succession). These regressive deposits, lap onto the uplifting structures of San Colombano and Casalpusterlengo - Zorlesco, suggesting the onset of their structural separation. At stage 4, these latter two structures were separated from the San Colombano thrust, since the Middle Pleistocene, by means of a newly interpreted dextral lateral ramp (San Colombano lateral ramp), as testified by the delayed migration of the depocentres of the Middle Pleistocene glacio-fluvial units and by the time-shift of the onlaps onto the different structures. After folding of U1, at the base of these units, the Early-Middle Pleistocene unconformity U2 was carved, bounding the base of the PS2 alluvial and glacio-fluvial high-rank succession. During stage 5, Late Pleistocene alluvial and glacio-fluvial units (PS3 highest-rank succession, correlative to late Besnate and Cantù Alpine glaciations) covered, through the Late Pleistocene unconformity (U3), the older glacio-fluvial succession in the subsurface of Casalpusterlengo and Zorlesco areas, while they terraced the deformed marine succession in the San Colombano area, both on the uplifted hilltop and on the surrounding “Plain Main Level” (Castiglioni and Pellegrini, 2001). Syndepositional normal faulting, related to dextral wrenching regime, occurred during this stage. Fault-related offset of Late Pleistocene units, stratigraphic and morpho- structural evidences (facets, relic surfaces and drainage patterns), document ongoing transtension, at stage 6 (Latest Pleistocene – Holocene; U4 unconformity), plausibly relating to the NNW-wards thrusting and related wrenching along the Pavia-Casteggio lateral ramp (Benedetti et al., 2003). Field evidences suggest to propose a link between the entrenchment and the anomalies of the post-glacial river network at the southern margin of the Po Plain to this tectonic stage. This reconstruction links the origin of the highest-rank unconformable stratigraphic boundaries to the Quaternary tectonic stages of Apennine thrusting, wrenching and extension. The intermediate- and low-rank unconformities relate to both minor tectonic increments and to the climatic-driven glacial cycles, because the bases of the glacio-fluvial units are nested within the highest-rank tectonic-induced unconformities. On the isolated reliefs, in situ paleosols testify the preservation of non-erosional surfaces, i.e. morphological surfaces, related to sites of morphological stability. These became the sites for loess aggradation during the Late Pleistocene, that means when the isolated reliefs had been already uplifted and the main controlling factor on deposition was climatic. The recognition of unconformable stratigraphic boundaries vs. conformable “morphological” boundaries permits to unravel the different chronostratigraphic significance of these two surface types (respectively time-transgressive and almost isochronous) and to use them to constrain the reconstruction of the chronological evolution of the basin and the 4-D model to be computed. A novel approach in the use of GeoModeller® is proposed by implementing a model building procedure based on coded ‘hierarchic rules’, at present not encompassed in the modelling suite. A rigorous routine is proposed to apply these rules to obtain at least three ranks of visualization of the 3-D geological architecture of the study area. The ordering of the geological units in the stratigraphic pile, combined with the set of the reference surface (top/bottom) and the nature of the interpolation for each surface (erode/onlap) conceptualized the hierarchic rules valid to represent complex stratigraphic architectures at each scale. 1) The isopotentials of GeoModeller® (i.e. the lowest rank surfaces which can be computed and represented by this software) describe well the morphological surfaces, i.e. surfaces stable through time. Using the orientation of the morphological surfaces as reference top boundary for model computation means to constrain the isopotentials to the deformation history of the area. This concept strongly impacts on the 3-D model application to the simulation of internal facies, as it would be necessary to simulate the distribution of hydrostratigraphic parameters. 2) Since crossing the isopotential, the erode stratigraphic boundaries bring the significance of the time-transgressive unconformable surfaces, in accordance with the geological evolution. 3) By attributing erode nature to the high-rank surfaces, and onlap rules and reverse ordering in the stratigraphic pile to the intermediate-rank ones, the resulting 3-D model displays the high-rank surfaces as composite stratigraphic unconformities, like they have been described by the geological model, since they collect the minor increments of deformation, deposition and erosion through the geological time. As a result, the proposed 3-D models are multiscale and honour the explicit geological observations and the implicit geological evolution at each scale of observation. The intermediate-rank boundaries and sediment volumes represent the result of the intermediate-rank evolutionary increments. On larger spatial and temporal scales, they can be grouped and visualized into higher-rank boundaries (‘U’ unconformities) and volumes, related to the major tectono-depositional stages. The relationship between geological history and geometrical features, with the possibility to upscale and downscale the model according to its hierarchic configuration in view of any specific application, is one novelty of the modelling results here presented. The uncertainties derived from the interpretation of the geological evolution gave rise to two alternative geological models of the San Colombano hill area. Both honour the input explicit data and differ on the interpretation of the extent of the conjugate fault systems that involved the Late Quaternary stratigraphy. The final visualization of the 3-D, ranked stratigraphic units and surfaces highlights the basic role of consistent 4-D geological models as the best synthesis of heterogeneous and multi-scale datasets, that represent the base for several applications at different scale. The adopted approach yields a model that can be easily updated, as soon as new knowledge gets available and modified, and permits to test different hypotheses accounting for any new implicit geological constraints.

Building Information Modelling is changing the design and construction field ever since it entered the market. It took just some time to show its capabilities, it takes some time to be mastered before it could be used expressing all its best features. Since it was conceived to be adopted from the earliest stage of design to get the maximum from the decisional project, it still struggles to adapt to existing buildings. In fact, there is a branch of this methodology that is dedicated to what has been already made that is called Historic BIM or HBIM. This study aims to make clear what are BIM and HBIM, both from a theoretical point of view and in practice, applying from scratch the state of the art to a case study. It had been chosen the fortress of San Felice sul Panaro, a marvellous building with a thousand years of history in its bricks, that suffered violent earthquakes, but it is still standing. By means of this example, it will be shown which are the limits that could be encountered when applying BIM methodology to existing heritage, moreover will be pointed out all the new features that a simple 2D design could not achieve.

This work is aimed at the reconstruction of the upper Quaternary depositional architecture, below the urban area of Ferrara, in northern Italy. The study area is part of the lower alluvial plain of the Po and Reno rivers and is therefore dominate by fluvial channel sands, levee sands-silts, and interchannel depression mud. The research was focused on the reconstruction of a digital geological model of the sedimentary bodies buried in the first 35 m under the topographic surface. The study units accumulated through Holocene and late Pleistocene times. The research work is based on the analysis of a rich data set, derived from about 2,000 subsurface investigations, consisting of continuous coring, penetration tests (including CPTU and SCPTU), and water wells stratigraphy. The subsurface modelling was achieved through both the conceptual interpretation of surface and subsurface information and the computerized geostatistic interpolation of digitalized data. The digital interpolation overcame the large heterogeneity of the data set into a homogeneous statistical and conceptual framework, through the use of a time and economic efficient work protocol. The research work achieved the reconstruction of the environmental evolution of the area, from the last glacial maximum time up to the present. The large climatic and eustatic fluctuations of the Quaternary largely influenced the environmental evolution and sedimentary dynamics of the area. During the last sea-level lowstand, a large body of synglacial river sands accumulated into the research area, under middle alluvial plain conditions. During phases of the eustatic rising, a thick alluvial plain body aggraded in the southern portion of the study area, fed by Apennines derived rivers, whereas non depositional condition persisted on the northern structural high. The maximum transgression was matched with the widespread sedimentation of fresh water marsh muds. During the highstand times, sands accumulated into both the Po and Reno channels, and mud into the adjacent interfluvial depressions. The research work demonstrated the great role played by the compressive deformation of this portion of the seismic active Apennines Foredeep Basin in the shaping of the depositional architecture. The sedimentary successions accumulated onto the anticline crests are much thinner than those sedimented into the syncline areas. The stratigraphic interpretation of the subsurface data can improve the geotechnical and hydrogeological work and support an improved seismic danger mitigation of an area significantly affected by the May 2012 earthquakes.

Les Grès d’Annot préservés dans les chaînes subalpines méridionales sont des turbidites riches en sable déposées dans le basin d’avant pays alpin durant l’Eocène supérieur et l’Oligocène inférieur. La sédimentologie et la stratigraphie de ce système turbiditique ont déjà été étudiées, mais le contexte structural reste mal connu. Cette thèse est consacrée à l’étude tectonique des Grès d’Annot, combinant un travail de terrain et l’utilisation d’outils de modélisation géométrique en 3D (gOcad) et cinématique (Trishear), centrés sur les sous-bassins d’Annot, du Grand Coyer et de Sanguinière. L’objectif est d’étudier l’héritage et l’évolution structural du bassin turbiditique et de le replacer dans le contexte régional du SE de la France. Les résultats indiquent que le remplissage du bassin périalpin précoce (Eocène et Oligocène) est bien plus complexe qu’une simple migration de la sédimentation (Grès d’Annot) et de la déformation vers l’avant pays. Ils révèlent des interactions entre tectonique et sédimentation à différentes échelles. A l’échelle de l’avant-pays, une coupe équilibrée illustre le contrôle primordial de la marge passive salifère préexistante sur la structure de la chaîne plissée. Le sel triasique constitue un décollement basal régional, qui de par sa faiblesse, a accommodé une déformation alpine précoce d’une large zone de l’avant-pays dès l’Éocène moyen et supérieur. Les variations de stratigraphie mécanique des séries mésozoïques sont à l’origine d’un changement de style structural : lors de la compression, plusieurs niveaux de décollement actifs se développent dans la partie orientale où les séries sont plus argileuses et plus fines. Ceci induit, en surface, une géométrie de bassin complexe avec des plis de longueurs d’ondes différentes et des migrations de charnière au cours de la sédimentation turbiditique. L’héritage structural du bassin d’avant-pays, jusqu’alors sous-estimé, est le résultat de l’ouverture de la Téthys alpine et d’une déformation précoce régionale exprimée par des plis d’axe E-W qui débute dès le Crétacé supérieur et s’accentue durant l’Éocène moyen. Des résultats préliminaires de thermochronologie (datations U-Th/He sur zircons détritiques de grès moyens à grossiers ou de granodiorites présentes dans les coulées de débris du dépocentre de Sanguinière) suggèrent une exhumation des reliefs à l’origine du matériel détritique liée à cette déformation crétacée. L’étude structurale détaillée de la série des Grès d’Annot et de son substratum dans les sous-bassins d’Annot et du Grand Coyer permet de définir en 3D les connections entre les dépocentres et de proposer une évolution structurale de ceux-ci à l’échelle du bassin. Les paléocourants montrent un parallélisme avec la direction des plis majeurs, indiquant un confinement alors que des directions divergentes à proximité des structures tectoniques plus mineures ou transverses suggèrent que ces dernières interagissent avec les écoulements. Les turbidites se déposent parallèlement dans plusieurs synclinaux alpins, actifs en alternance ou en même temps. A l’échelle des dépocentres, la modélisation géométrique 3D du dépocentre d’Annot en utilisant gOcad permet d’identifier les structures héritées et de démontrer la contemporanéité du plissement alpin et des dépôts turbiditiques. La migration de l’onlap des dépôts de grès et la variation des pendages à l’intérieur des membres turbiditiques sont associées à une migration du dépocentre. Cette géométrie est liée à une migration de la charnière synclinale qui favorise une tendance des dépôts à migrer latéralement plutôt qu’à s’empiler.D’un point de vue sédimentologique et stratigraphique, les Grès d’Annot sont connus pour être un bon analogue des réservoirs des grands fonds de type « riches en sable », situés sur les marges passives en aval de deltas
The Annot Sandstone, exposed in the southern sub-alpine chains, consists of sand-rich turbidites deposited in the Tertiary Alpine foreland basin (Upper Eocene – Lower Oligocene Annot Sandstone basin). While the sedimentology and stratigraphy of this turbidite system have been largely described and discussed, its structural framework remains unconstrained. This thesis presents a study of the tectonics of the Annot Sandstone basin based on field surveys and 3D geometrical (gOcad) and kinematic modelling (Trishear), focusing in particular on the Annot, Grand Coyer and Sanguinière sub-basins. Objectives were to determine the structural evolution of the sub-basins, including the role of inherited features, and to use these data to better constrain the alpine tectonic history of SE France.Infill of the early alpine foreland basin is more complex than a simple foreland migration of sedimentation and deformation. Results reveal complex interactions of tectonics and sedimentation at different scales during deposition of the Annot Sandstone.•At the foreland scale, a balanced cross-section illustrates the critical control by the pre-existing salt-based passive margin architecture on the structure of the fold and thrust belt. Triassic evaporates regionally acted as a weak basal detachment, accommodating an early alpine deformation phase of the whole foreland from the Middle to Upper Eocene. Variations in mechanical stratigraphy within the Mesozoic sediments generated a change in structural style. For example, the eastern region is characterized by a thinner, shalier Mesozoic succession, leading to several active detachments during alpine compression. Multiple fold wavelengths and synsedimentary rolling hinges generated by these active detachments led to complex depocentres. The previously under-estimated structural heritage of the foreland basin derived from rifting and spreading of the Alpine Tethys and from an early regional deformation responsible for E-W trending folds, which began in the Late Cretaceous and increased during the Middle Eocene. Preliminary thermochronology results (U-Th/He datings on detrital zircons of medium to coarse sandstone blocks and granodiorite blocks from debris flows of the Sanguiniere depocentre) suggest an exhumation of source areas during this Cretaceous deformation.•A detailed study of structures within the Annot and Grand Coyer sub-basins and their Cretaceous substrate revealed connected depocentres evolving in 3D at the basin scale. Paleocurrent directions are mainly parallel to the main alpine fold axes recording structural confinement, while some diverging directions indicate flow interaction with minor or oblique tectonic features. Turbidites were deposited along the axis into several alpine synclines, which were simultaneously or successively active.•Concerning the depocentre infill, 3D geometrical modelling of the Annot depocentre (using gOcad) was used to identify inherited structures and to constrain alpine fold activity during turbidite deposition. The onlap migration and the specific stacking and dip pattern within turbidite members (laterally rather than vertically stacked deposits) record depocentre migration linked with a rolling synclinal hinge. Due to its sedimentology and its stratigraphy, the Annot Sandstone is well-known as an analogue for sand-rich reservoirs deposited at delta toes in deep-water passive margins. This study reveals that, structurally, it is also a good example of axially-sourced turbidite depocentres developed on a multi-detachement fold and thrust belt

Chlamydophila pneumoniae è un batterio Gram-negative ed intracellulare obbligato, con un ciclo di sviluppo bifasico, in quanto assume due diverse forme: la forma extracellulare infettiva chiamata corpo elementare e la forma intracellulare replicativa chiamata corpo reticolare. C. pneumoniae è l’agente eziologico delle infezioni respiratorie e sembra giocare un ruolo immuno-patogenico nell’aterosclerosi contribuendo all’infiammazione ed instabilità della placca. Le Fosfolipasi D (PLDs) sono enzimi coinvolti nel metabolismo lipidico ed in altri eventi che direttamente o indirettamente agiscono sulla virulenza e la risposta infiammatoria. Per capire meglio il ruolo della PLD di C. pneumoniae (CpPLD) nella biologia cellulare e durante l’infezione, il gene Cppld è stato clonato ed espresso in Escherichia coli e la proteina ricombinante rCpPLD è stata purificata. Questa proteina si è dimostrata molto immunogenica e capace di individuare anticorpi anti-CpPLD di una popolazione generale di soggetti esposti a C. pneumoniae. Esperimenti in vitro di trascrizione genica ed espressione in cellule Hep-2 infettate, ha dimostrato che il gene Cppld è molto espresso all’inizio e alla fine del ciclo di sviluppo della Chlamydia e che la proteina CpPLD è localizzata alla periferia del corpo d’inclusione a 72 ore dall’infezione. Della proteina CpPLD è stata studiata anche l’attività enzimatica. rCpPLD è stata in grado di sintetizzare cardiolipina da 2 molecole di fosfatidil glicerolo, dimostrando di essere un enzima cardiolipina sintetasi. Inoltre, lo scopo di questo studio è stato anche quello di valutare la risposta sierologica alla rCpPLD in pazienti con sindrome coronarica acuta (ACS) ed in sangue di donatori sani. Tutti i sieri esaminati sono stati analizzati per microimmunofluorescenza (MIF). I campioni positivi sono stati categorizzati come soggetti con presuntiva infezione da C. pneumoniae o passata esposizione (solo specifiche IgG) ed infezione cronica (presenza di specifiche IgG e IgA). Nessun siero MIF-negativo ha mostrato anticorpi contro rCpPLD. In soggetti MIF-positivi, anticorpi contro rCpPLD sono stati consistentemente trovati in sieri di pazienti affetti da ACS con un’infezione cronica. In più è stato individuato un epitopo immunodominante P5 (aa 233-252) della proteina CpPLD, il quale reagisce fortemente con sieri di soggetti con ACS. La CpPLD ed il peptide P5 potrebbero essere utilizzati come antigeni per la diagnosi di C. pneumoniae in pazienti ACS con infezione cronica. Questi dati suggeriscono che rCpPLD potrebbe essere utile per futuri studi in merito al ruolo che quest’enzima gioca nella patologia e nella risposta immunitaria all’infezione da C. pneumoniae.
Chlamydophila pneumoniae is a Gram-negative obligate intracellular eubacteria, with a biphasic developmental cycle and two distinct morphological forms: the extracellular infectious elementary body and the intracellular replicating reticulate body. C. pneumoniae is an aetiological agent of respiratory infection also suspected to play an immuno-pathogenetic role in atherosclerosis by contributing to inflammation and plaque instability. Phospholipases D (PLDs) are enzyme involved in lipid metabolism and others events which can direct or indirect impact on virulence and inflammatory response. To better understand the role of C. pneumoniae PLD (CpPLD) in cell biology and during the infection, the Cppld gene was cloned and expressed in Escherichia coli and the recombinant protein rCpPLD was purified. This generated protein was highly immunogenic in mice and capable to elicit anti-CpPLD antibodies in the general population exposed to C. pneumoniae. In vitro experiments of gene transcription and expression in Hep-2 infected cells, showed that Cppld gene was expressed highly to early and late chlamydial development, and the CpPLD protein was localized at the periphery of inclusions at 72 h post infection. Enzymatic activity was also investigated. The rCpPLD was able to synthesize cardiolipin from 2 molecules of phosphatidyl-glycerol, demonstrating that the CpPLD was a cardiolipin sinthase enzyme. Furthermore, the purpose of this study was to evaluate the serological response to the rCpPLD in patients with acute coronary syndromes (ACS) and in healthy blood donors. All serum samples were screened by microimmunefluorescence (MIF). the positive samples were categorized as subjects with presumptive C. pneumoniae infection or past exposure (only specific IgG) and chronic infection (presence of specific IgG and IgA). MIF-negative sera showed antibodies against rCpPLD. In MIF-positive subjects antibodies against to rCpPLD were consistently found in sera of ACS patients with chronic infection. Additionally, it was recognized an immunodominant epitope in position 233-252 aa (P5) of the CpPLD protein which strongly reacted with ACS sera. The CpPLD protein and its P5 peptide could be plausible antigens for the diagnosis of C. pneumoniae chronic infections in ACS patients. These data suggest that rCpPLD may be a useful tool for future studies concerning the role that this enzyme plays in the pathology and immune response to C. pneumoniae infection.

Droop-Nose Leading Edge (DNLE) morphing wings are one of the most promising devices in order to achieve aerodynamic drag and noise reduction during take-off and landing phases. An accurate design of these structures could lead to the decrease of aircraft fuel consumption in the perspective of reaching a greener aviation, following the objectives indicated by Flightpath 2050 issued by the E.U. However, due to the challenges related to the realization of this technology and TRL reached, DNLE are more likely implemented in Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAS) for testing and evaluation purposes. In the present study, an optimization methodology for the DNLE composite laminate skin and morphing mechanism structure is proposed and applied to a study case represented by the UAS-S45 aircraft. The work starts from the morphing leading edge structure developed by the LARCASE laboratory at ETS Montreal. The results showed that by means of the optimization strategy adopted, the force required on the actuator mechanism is 88% lower than the original design. A significant improvement on the profile smoothness along its section and in the spanwise direction in morphing conditions has been obtained too. However, further investigations are still needed in order to achieve a more appropriate morphing shape. Despite this, it appears from the results obtained that the proposed methodology can be useful to tackle the DNLE design problem in an effective and efficient way. What developed in this work has been conceived to support the investigation of DNLE in the small leading edge profiles typical of the UAS. In this way, an easier procedure for the set up of the design flow, and a decrease in the computational effort for the optimization process can be obtained. An experimental validation of the results obtained is currently being performed at ETS, and future development regards the assessment of the errors of the numeric procedure herein presented respect to real data.

The primary aim of this dissertation is to map the geology of the East Rand Basin accurately by creating a 3D model. This was done by using borehole data from the National Groundwater Archive Geodatabase, which the Department of Water and Sanitation collected, and the average depths derived from the literature. Triangulated irregular networks (TINs) and digital elevation models (DEMs) surfaces were created from these data points to determine the depths for areas with no borehole data. Using these surfaces, three methods were used to create three main models. These models were then compared to one another, other geological maps and cross-sections to determine the most accurate and practical model of the three. It was found that the quality and quantity of the data from the National Groundwater Archive Geodatabase were not sufficient for these models; therefore, the results and accuracy of each layer was questionable. This dissertation found that these methods can be used for basic geological studies if the data are of the same quality and quantity. However, if the data are more evenly distributed and higher in quantity, these methods can be used to create more accurate models. Furthermore, the use of commercial software was recommended in this study. The reason for recommending these tools is that they have been specifically designed to create geological layers from boreholes within the ArcGIS software. These tools also allow the user to create cross-sections within ArcGIS.
MSc (Geography and Environmental Management), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

A research report submitted to the Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Science in Mining Engineering 4 August 2015
The FE2 Gold Deposit forms part of Sadiola Mine located in south-western Mali - nearby the border with Senegal - approximately 440km north-west of the capital Bamako, and 70km south of the city of Kayes. Sadiola Mine is made up of 7 open pits (the Main Pit, FN3, FE2, FE3, FE4, Tambali and Sekokoto). Gold (Au) mineralisation is spatially associated with a complex alteration pattern, pointing to a mesothermal origin for the Au mineralisation. The Main Pit deposit contains an Oxide portion and a deeper Sulphide zone comprised of unweathered material below the pit. In 2010, mining of the Oxide portion was concluded. Currently, Sadiola does not have the plant capability to treat Sulphides due to its hardness and most of the Oxide Mineral Reserve in the concession has been depleted. The FE2 deposit is expected to provide Oxide Ore for 7 months based on the current mine plan. The Oxide mining on the Sadiola concession has an expected life of 3 years. Sadiola’s future is thus tied to the fate of the Sadiola Sulphides Project (SSP), targeted at exploiting the Sulphide zone Ore. In the absence the SSP materialising to date, focus has shifted to the FE2 deposit to scavenge any remaining Oxide Ore, to prolong mine life. The previous Mineral Resource model was generated in June 2014. The model was based on grade control drilling information. The current Mineral Resource Estimate (MRE), presented in this research report, was prompted by an Advanced Grade Control (AGC) drilling campaign that took place during October 2014 to identify additional Oxide Ore Mineral Resource (Indicated, Inferred and Blue Sky Potential). The AGC drillholes (12.5m (X) by 12.5m (Y) drill spacing) have been drilled mostly as infill drilling and all holes had accompanying assay data. The Ore and Graphite mesh modelling was conducted using the grade interpolation technique in Leapfrog® mining software. The Hardness, Redox, Laterite and Classification wireframes were created in Datamine® Studio 3 software. A lower geological cut-off of 0.32g/t Au was applied to the mineralised domains. Three domains were estimated: EZONE 1 (Laterite and Saprolite Ore); EZONE 2 (Hard Ore i.e. Sulphides) and EZONE 3 (Waste). All estimation into the Mineral Resource model was done in Datamine® Studio 3. Ordinary Kriging (OK) was used to estimate the Au grades; Inverse Power of Distance (IPD) to estimate “hardness probabilities” for isolated hard/blastable material above the hard/soft contact; and Indicator Kriging (IK) used to estimate the distribution of the Graphitic alteration. The Au estimation process was optimised using Quantitative Kriging Neighbourhood Analysis (QKNA). The estimates were validated visually, statistically and using swath analyses. Uniform Conditioning (UC) was used to estimate the recoverable Mineral Resource in EZONES 1 and 2 for the reporting of the distribution of grades above various economic cut-offs. The Selective Mining Unit (SMU) size assumed for the FE2 UC process was 10m (X) x 10m (Y) x 3.33m (Z) and was based on the selectivity achievable with the current mining equipment. Given the panel size of 25m (X) x 25m (Y) x 10m (Z), there were about 18 SMUs in each panel. A tonnage adjustment factor was applied and was based on a volume representing half the SMU size. It was expressed as a percentage of the panel size (2.7%). Any proportions smaller than this percentage were removed as they would not be practically recoverable (these volumes would be too small to mine with the selected equipment). The Mineral Resource was classified in accordance with the South African Code for Reporting of Exploration Results, Mineral Resources and Mineral Reserves (SAMREC) and the Australian Joint Ore Reserves Committee (JORC) guidelines. A drill spacing of 25m (X) by 25m (Y) was considered sufficient to classify the Mineral Resource as Indicated, and 50m (X) by 50m (Y) as Inferred. Areas covered by larger drill spacing were considered to be Blue Sky Potential (not an official Mineral Resource Category, but used for internal purposes by AngloGold Ashanti Limited (AGA) to estimate possible mineralisation potential). No Measured Mineral Resource was defined. The classification criteria are based on studies completed for other, similar Sadiola deposits (such as FE3 and FE4). The 2014 Mineral Resource model was compared with the updated Mineral Resource model (2015) within a common volume i.e. within the Business Plan (BP) 2015 $1,600 Mineral Resource shell and the $1,200 Mineral Reserve design (below the topography as no mining has taken place at FE2) to quantify if the Oxide Ore potential had increased as a result of the model update (Table 1). The detailed Reconciliation study showed that the new estimate identified an additional 7,191 ounces of Indicated Mineral Resource – of which, 1,893 ounces was previously classified as Inferred Mineral Resource but was upgraded to the Indicated Mineral Resource category as a result of the new Mineral Resource model. The reason for the increase is due to the new drilling results which resulted in the extension of some of the mineralised zones and showed better continuity for others. Table 1:Model reconciliation by broader material types: 2014 vs. 2015 MW cut-off grades.A checklist of assessment and reporting criteria based on the JORC code showed that no major risks to the model exist. However, some key recommendations were made and include: - Testing domaining and variography at various geological cut-offs - Performing an updated Classification study to confirm the suitability of the Classification criteria used - Soft Oxide density probe measurements reported in 2015 were significantly higher than in 2014. Further work needs to be done to confirm the validity of the density results before updating the 2015 density values - Testing estimation software used in the estimation process against similar software in the industry to single out the one that provides the most accurate results - Further work should be carried out to assess the effect of top cuts and top caps on the resulting Mineral Resource models - Further work is required on boundary analysis going forward as in reality the Laterite and Saprolite are very different, despite the results of the statistics suggesting that they are similar. - The latest LIDAR survey had not been provided at the time of Ore wireframe modelling. A new survey needs to be carried out to ensure that drillholes collar positions used in the modelling were correct - Further work is required to understand what method is best to model the extent of the graphitic alteration and how to optimise the method

Rock slope instabilities represent a major hazard for human activities, often causing economic losses, property damages and maintenance costs, as well as injuries or fatalities. Rock slope stability is so one of the most important issue in mountain areas and mines. Although, in fact, rock falls along highways and railways in mountainous terrains do not pose the same level of economic risk as large-scale failures (which can cause the closure of major transportation routes for several days), the number of people killed by rockfalls tends to be of the same order as people killed by all other instabilities affecting rock slopes. An accurate characterisation of the rock mass discontinuities allows to understand the most probable failure mechanism and individuate the source area, since the local orientation of the mesh of the 3D model of the slope. A proper geostructural survey, together with a high definition 3D model of the slope, allows, in fact, to evaluate the position of source area; the geostructural survey permits also the modelling of the volume distribution of the removable blocks. The position of the source area, the position of the blocks and the high definition 3D model of the slope are fundamental parameters for the modelling of the run out of the blocks, defining so the trajectory of the blocks and the associated kinetic energy for the design of the most appropriate protection works. The estimate of the blocks volume can be conducted by means of codes that use the structural features of the rock surface to identify the boundaries of the polygons that represent the blocks. An accurate geomechanical characterisation is therefore crucial to gather information about the most probable failure mechanism, the position of source area and the volume of removable blocks. Semiautomatic methods in addition to manual methods for discontinuities extraction, have allowed to reduce the user-dependant subjectivity and the consume of time over the last few decades, to obtain details of the rock mass structures. The thesis shows the application of different tools for the structural characterisation and the stability assessment on a number of different walls affected by rockfall in open pit mines in Australia. 3D models of walls have been built since close range photogrammetric surveys using Siro3D code (Datamine SiroVision). SiroJoint (in built in the Siro3D package) has been used to manually detect the discontinuities, while DiAna, Facets plug-in of CloudCompare and I-site Studio (Maptek) codes have been used for the semiautomatic discontinuities extraction. Stereoplots of the discontinuities extracted by manual and semiautomatic methods have been so compared and kinematic indices for plane failure, wedge failure, block toppling, and flexural toppling have been calculated. The structural survey has been then used to perform the distribution of the block volume thanks to a multi-function discrete fracture network (DFN) generator and to describe removability and stability of the blocks using the Block Theory (Goodman & Shi) and the Factor of Safety (Hoek & Bray). This stability analysis has been carried out with SiroModel software (developed by CSIRO within Large Open Pit-LOP project). 3D kinematic analysis has been then performed using DiAna-K code, since the semiautomatic geostructural survey carried out with DiAna and the high definition 3D model of the slope. DiAna and DiAna-K codes has been developed within the Department of earth Sciences of the University of Florence. The integration of the 3D kinematic analysis with the stability analysis of the blocks extracted with a DFN allows to objectively quantify since remote survey data the main geometric input parameters necessary for a complete and reliable rockfall hazard analysis, such as slope high resolution morphology, source areas and volume of unstable blocks, thanks to which is possible to calculate the kinetic energy along the run out. The study is aimed to: i) evaluate how artificial cuts affect the reliability of semiautomatic discontinuities extraction methods in comparison to manual discontinuities extraction methods; ii) compare stereoplots of semiautomatic and manual discontinuities extraction in case of artificial cuts; iii) integrate 3D kinematic analysis with the stability analysis of the blocks extracted with a multi-function discrete fracture network generator. The comparison of the stereoplots of the discontinuity planes produced with SiroJoint and DiAna shows results somehow comparable; moreover, this application revealed a number of interesting advantages and drawbacks of manual and semiautomatic methods, which can be useful to overcome some current limitations and improve the quality of the remote geostructural survey and then of the rockfall simulations. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- La stabilità di versanti in roccia costituisce un tipo di frana che presenta un rischio elevato. Tale rischio è elevato in considerazione della probabilità che si abbiano vittime o feriti, dei tempi di interruzione dell’infrastruttura danneggiata e dei costi della sua messa in esercizio, oltre che di installazione dei più idonei sistemi di protezione. La caduta massi è infatti uno dei rischi maggiori in aree montane, così come anche in aree minerarie. Malgrado infatti i volumi di versate mobilizzati dai crolli siano in genere minori rispetto ai volumi dei corpi di frana di altri fenomeni di versante, l’elevata velocità del fenomeno fa sì che il numero di vittime avute a causa di caduta massi sia dello stesso ordine di altri fenomeni di versante. Un’attenta caratterizzazione delle discontinuità presenti all’interno dell’ammasso roccioso consente comprendere quali meccanismi cinematici siano più probabili ed individuare le possibili aree fonte dei distacchi. Pertanto, un corretto rilievo geostrutturale, insieme ad un modello 3D ad alta definizione del pendio, costituisce un dato di input essenziale per la corretta modellazione del run out dei massi in termini di percorsi e di energie cinetiche in gioco, permettendo quindi la progettazione delle contromisure di protezione più appropriate. Sono pertanto essenziali alcuni dati per la corretta modellazione 3D della rockfall analysis: un modello del terreno 3D di alta definizione (ricavato con rilievo fotogrammetrico o laser scanning), la posizione delle aree di distacco dei blocchi ed il volume dei blocchi instabili. Un accurato rilievo geostrutturale è alla base dell’individuazione dei meccanismi e quindi delle aree la cui esposizione risulta più favorevole all’innesco di caduta massi: un accurato rilievo geostrutturale è quindi alla base di una corretta valutazione del rischio caduta massi. Negli ultimi decenni ai metodi di rilevamento manuale delle discontinuità si sono aggiunti i metodi semiautomatici di estrazione delle discontinuità, che consentono di individuare le discontinuità a partire da parametri geometrici settati dall’operatore, riducendo molto la soggettività del rilievo ed il tempo necessario. Il rilievo geostrutturale consente quindi di calcolare gli indici di pericolosità cinematica e di avere la distribuzione del volume dei blocchi rimovibili. Gli indici di pericolosità cinematica consentono di attribuire un valore a ciascuno dei cinematismi posibili (scivolamento planare, civolamento di cunei, ribaltamento di blocchi, ribaltamento di flessure) in funzione dell’orientazione del versante; se si dispone di una mesh sarà quindi possibile capire quali porzioni siano più esposte al distacco di blocchi, in ragione della loro esposizione. Il rilievo geostrutturale consente inoltre di ricavare la distribuzione del volume dei blocchi mediante l’utilizzo di codici di calcolo che costruiscono una rete discreta di discontinuità all’interno dell’ammasso roccioso, mediante una modellazione di tipo stocastico. La tesi analizza e confronta l’applicazione di diversi codici per la caratterizzazione geostrutturale e per la successiva valutazione della stabilità di versante, su vari versanti in roccia situati in miniere di tipo open-pit in Australia. I modelli 3D dei versanti in roccia sono stati ricavati tramite fotogrammetria con il software Siro3D (Datamine SiroVision). Il codice SiroJoint (Siro3D package) è stato utilizzato per il rilievo manuale delle discontinuità, mentre per il rilievo semiautomatico delle discontinuità sono stati utilizzati i codici DiAna, Facets (CloudCompare) e I-Site Studio (Maptek). Sono stati quindi ricavati e gli stereoplots delle discontinuità estratte con metodi manuali e automatici e sono stati calcolati e confrontati gli indici di pericolosità cinematica per ciascun cinematismo. Il rilievo strutturale effettuato è stato utilizzato per ricavare tramite un generatore multifunzione di un sistema di fratture continue (discrete fracture network, DFN) all’interno del software SiroModel (sviluppato da CSIRO all’interno del progetto LRGE Open Pit mines – OPS), che ha consentito a partire dalla Teoria di Goodman e Shi sulla rimovibilità dei blocchi e dal calcolo del Fattore di Sicurezza (Factor of Safety; Hoek & Bray, 1981) di comprendere la distribuzione del volume dei blocchi instabili, stabili grazie all’attrito e stabili (Type I, II e III della classificazione dei blocchi di Goodman & Shi). I blocchi sono stati estratti mediante una modellazione stocastica a partire dall’orientazione e dalla persistenza delle discontinuità. L’analisi cinematica 3D è stata condotta tramite DiAna-K, usando come dati di il rilievo semiautomatico delle discontinuità ed il modello 3D del terreno ottenuto con tecnica fotogrammetrica. I codici DiAna e DiAna-K sono stati sviluppati dal Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra dell’Università di Firenze. L'integrazione dell’analisi cinematica 3D e dell’analisi di stabilità finalizzata alla definizione del volume dei blocchi rimovibili permette una definizione quantitativa ed oggettiva dei principali dati geometrici necessari per la modellazione del rischio di caduta massi, consentendo quindi di definire le traiettorie, la velocità e l’energia cinetica dei blocchi per una corretta progettazione degli interventi di mitigazione del rischio. Lo studio è stato finalizzato a: i) Valutare come la presenza di tagli artificiali influenzi l’applicabilità di metodi semiautomatici per l’estrazione delle discontinuità, rispetto a metodi manuali; ii) Confrontare gli stereoplot e gli indici di pericolosità cinematica dei rilievi geostrutturali effettuati con metodi manuali o con metodi semiautomatici di estrazione delle discontinuità; iii) Integrare l’analisi cinematica 3D con l’analisi di stabilità dei blocchi estratti grazie a DFN.

A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfilment of the requirements of the Master degree in Science. 2017.
This study presents the combined processing, integration and inverse modelling of magnetic and gravity data for first-order crustal scale structures in southern Mali and northeast of Guinea. Southern Mali and northeast Guinea form part of the Palaeoproterozoic Baoulé-Mossi domain, which is part of the West African craton (WAC). The current understanding of the geology region is limited to exploration camp-scale studies with limited borehole investigations, and regional interpretations of historic geophysical datasets. In this study geophysical modelling is used to attempt to advance the understanding of the geology at depth. The combination of geophysical methods is an optimization that can support geophysical interpretations and contribute to the determination of the geological and structural characteristics that are important in understanding the subsurface geology. Geophysical inversion modelling broadly resolved geology and structures under thick sedimentary cover (850-1100, thick) that is interpreted as comprising basinal sediments of the Taoudenni basin, or Cretaceous ferricrete. Geological constraints reduced the non-uniqueness, but could not control the quality. Nonetheless, the architecture, geometry and form of structures and dykes were predicted when compared with experimental analogue models as being a reasonable predictive tool for the behaviour of structures and dykes at depth. The use of surface physical properties added more information to the inversion modelling, but was very limited. The enhancement of magnetic and gravity data, using filters, defined tip damage zones for firstorder scale Yanfolila and Banifing shear zones that host gold mineralisation for example, at the Morila gold mine, and Kalana, Kodieran mines and Komana prospects. Second-order structures were also defined including in the tip damage zones of the Siguiri, Fatou and Syama shear zones, and the Manakoro fault, Madina-Yanfolila fault and Madina fault.
LG2017

Accessibility to consistent subsurface hydrostratigraphic information is crucial for the development of robust groundwater flow and contaminant transport models. However, full three-dimensional understanding of the subsurface geology is often the missing link. Construction of watershed-scale hydrostratigraphic models continues to be limited by the quality and density of borehole data which often lack detailed geologic information. This can become a serious problem where rapid sediment facies changes and intricate sediment architecture occur. This research is motivated by the idea that if we can understand more about the distribution of sediments and structures of complex deposits, we learn more about depositional processes and how they affect the internal geometry of a deposit and the distribution of hydraulic properties. One approach is to study surficial excavations (e.g. sand and gravel pits) that often punctuate shallow aquifers. The purpose of this study is to develop and test a method of integrating high-resolution georeferenced stratigraphic and sedimentologic information from sand and gravel pits as a means to better document sedimentologic data and improve understanding of the depositional environments. The study area is located within the Waterloo Moraine, in southwestern Ontario, and is an unconsolidated shallow aquifer system with a complex internal architecture and sediment heterogeneity. The method involves the integration of high-resolution field data with borehole and geophysical information in a computer-based 3D environment. A total of fourteen virtual sedimentary sections were constructed by georegistering digital photographs within a framework of georeferenced positions collected using a reflectorless total station and GPS. Fourteen sediment facies have been described in the field. These include crudely stratified gravel beds, planar and cross-laminated sandy strata (ripple and dune scales), along with laminated and massive silty and clayey beds. Calculated hydraulic conductivities span over seven orders of magnitude. The analysis of a single excavation has shown contrasting sediment assemblages from one end of the pit to the other, highlighting the complexity of the Waterloo Moraine. The heterogeneous and deformed layers of gravel, sand, and mud may be the product of an ice-contact to ice-proximal environment, whereas the extensive sandy assemblages may reflect an intermediate subaqueous fan region. The results also suggest that the borehole database overestimates the amount of fine-grained material in the study area. Finally, this research demonstrates that it is possible to build in a timely manner a 3D virtual sedimentologic database. New emerging technologies will lead to increased resolution and accuracy, and will help streamline the process even further. The possibility of expanding the 3D geodatabase to other excavations across the region in a timely manner is likely to lead to improved hydrostratigraphic models and, by extension, to more efficient strategies in water resources planning, management and protection.