Articoli di riviste sul tema "YOUNG ADULT NONFICTION / Animals / Animal Welfare"

AbstractChildhood experiences of animals and current attitudes towards animals were assessed using a questionnaire, which was completed by 227 Japanese students and 174 British students. Pet ownership in childhood, as well as contact with other animals and negative experiences of pets, were used as the independent variables; current attitudes towards pets and other animals were the dependent variables. There were some differences between Japan and the UK: in childhood, the British students had had significantly more pets and more animal-related experiences, such as visiting animal shelters and livestock farms, than had the Japanese students. Their current attitudes were also more positive, and they showed a greater interest in animal welfare issues than did the Japanese students. In both countries there was a positive association between childhood pet-keeping and current favourable attitudes to pets, as measured by the Pet Attitude Scale. Open-ended responses also suggested that the roles of pets for children are perceived in similar ways in Japan and the UK. Adult attitudes to pets and interest in animal welfare seem to be greatly influenced in both countries by childhood experiences of animals, including pets, and may therefore be a general phenomenon.

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is the second most common age-related neurodegenerative disorder. The neurodegeneration leading to incapacitating motor abnormalities mainly occurs in the nigrostriatal pathway due to the loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc). Several animal models have been developed not only to better understand the mechanisms underlying neurodegeneration but also to test the potential of emerging disease-modifying therapies. However, despite aging being the main risk factor for developing idiopathic PD, most of the studies do not use aged animals. Therefore, this study aimed at assessing the effect of aging in the unilateral 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA)-induced animal model of PD. For this, female young adult and aged rats received a unilateral injection of 6-OHDA into the medial forebrain bundle. Subsequently, the impact of aging on 6-OHDA-induced effects on animal welfare, motor performance, and nigrostriatal integrity were assessed. The results showed that aging had a negative impact on animal welfare after surgery. Furthermore, 6-OHDA-induced impairments on skilled motor function were significantly higher in aged rats when compared with their younger counterparts. Nigrostriatal histological analysis further revealed an increased 6-OHDA-induced dopaminergic cell loss in the SNpc of aged animals when compared to young animals. Overall, our results demonstrate a higher susceptibility of aged animals to 6-OHDA toxic insult.

In animal-based research, welfare assessments are essential for ethical and legal reasons. However, accurate assessment of suffering in laboratory animals is often complicated by the multidimensional character of distress and pain and the associated affective states. The present study aimed to design and validate multidimensional composite measure schemes comprising behavioral and biochemical parameters based on a bioinformatics approach. Published data sets from induced and genetic mouse models of neurological and psychiatric disorders were subjected to a bioinformatics workflow for cross-model analyses. ROC analyses pointed to a model-specific discriminatory power of selected behavioral parameters. Principal component analyses confirmed that the composite measure schemes developed for adult or young mice provided relevant information with the level of group separation reflecting the expected severity levels. Finally, the validity of the composite measure schemes developed for adult and young mice was further confirmed by k-means-based clustering as a basis for severity classification. The classification systems allowed the allocation of individual animals to different severity levels and a direct comparison of animal groups and other models. In conclusion, the bioinformatics approach confirmed the suitability of the composite measure schemes for evidence-based comparative severity assessment in adult and young mice. In particular, we demonstrated that the composite measure schemes provide a basis for an individualized severity classification in control and experimental groups allowing direct comparison of severity levels across different induced or genetic models. An online tool (R package) is provided, allowing the application of the bioinformatics approach to severity assessment data sets regardless of the parameters or models used. This tool can also be used to validate refinement measures.

Lung health has a significant impact on the well-being of farm animals. In this study, the incidence of lung damage in cattle, pigs, sheep and goats was monitored in animals slaughtered in slaughterhouses in the Czech Republic between 2010 and 2021. In fattened animals (bulls, finisher pigs, lambs and kids), the incidence of lung damage was statistically significantly the highest in finisher pigs (39.08%) followed by lambs (25.2%), bulls (13.1%) and kids (6.4%). In adult animals (cows, sows, ewes and does), the incidence of lung damage was significantly the highest in ewes (39.5%), followed by cows (36.4%), sows (23.7%) and does (21.5%). For chronic lung damage, the results showed significantly the highest incidence in finisher pigs (37.2%) and young culled from farms (calves 34.0%, piglets 31.3%). For acute lung damage, the results showed significantly higher incidence in piglets (27.4%) and calves (9.7%) compared to other categories of slaughtered animals. In cows and sows, the findings ranged approximately between 6–8%, and did not exceed 2% in the other categories. For parasitic lung damage, significantly the highest findings were found in ewes (25.8%) followed by lambs (17.1%), does (5.8%) and kids (1.0%). The incidence of parasitic lung damage in cattle and pigs did not exceed 0.05%. The differences between chronic, acute and parasitic findings in each category of animals were significant. The findings of lung damage illustrate the fact that the welfare of slaughter animals is inadequate and should be increased.

The welfare of cattle, pigs, sheep and goats was assessed by measuring trauma detected during veterinary postmortem inspection at slaughterhouses. The subject of this evaluation were all bovine, porcine, ovine and caprine animals slaughtered at Czech slaughterhouses in the monitored period, i.e., a total of 1,136,754 cows, 257,912 heifers, 1,015,541 bulls, 104,459 calves, 586,245 sows, 25,027,303 finisher pigs, 123,191 piglets, 22,815 ewes, 114,264 lambs, 1348 does and 5778 kids. The data on the numbers of traumatic findings were obtained retrospectively from a national veterinary database collecting data from slaughterhouse postmortem examinations. The results showed that findings of trauma were observed at a low frequency in the studied species. Injuries were detected most frequently in cows (1.71%). In contrast, no findings associated with the presence of trauma were recorded in does and kids. From the viewpoint of trauma localization, findings on the limbs were more frequent than findings on the body (p < 0.01). The only exceptions to this were lambs, does and kids, for which there was no statistically significant difference between findings on the limbs and the body (p = 1.00). The results show that housing system (bedding, the presence of slats, floor hardness), transport of animals to the slaughterhouse (moving animals to the vehicle, loading ramps, floors in transport vehicles and the transport of animals itself) and design of the slaughterhouse (unloading ramps, passageways and slaughterhouse floors) have a greater impact on the limbs than the bodies of animals in the majority of species. A difference was also demonstrated in the occurrence of findings of trauma in the limbs and body (p < 0.01) between culled adult animals and fattened animals, namely in cattle and pigs. A difference (p < 0.01) between ewes and lambs was found only in the occurrence of traumatic injury to the limbs. The results showed that fattened animals are affected by the risk of trauma to a lesser extent than both culled adult animals and young animals. Statistically significant differences (p < 0.01) were also found between the studied species and categories of animals. The category most affected from the viewpoint of injury both to the limbs and body was cows. In contrast to cows that are typically reared indoors, the low frequency of traumatic findings was found in small ruminants and in bulls, i.e., animals typically reared outdoors. Assumedly, access to pasture may be beneficial considering the risk of traumatic injury.

The current pandemic of COVID-19 has highlighted the importance of basic studies on coronaviruses (CoVs) in general, and severe acute respiratory syndrome CoV type 2 (SARS-CoV-2) in particular. CoVs have for long been studied in veterinary medicine, due to their impact on animal health and welfare, production, and economy. Several animal models using coronaviral disease in the natural host have been suggested. In this review, different animal models are discussed, with the main focus on bovine CoV (BCoV). BCoV is endemic in the cattle population worldwide and has been known and studied for several decades. SARS-CoV-2 and BCoV are both betacoronaviruses, where BCoV is highly similar to human coronavirus (HCoV) OC43, encompassing the same virus species (Betacoronavirus 1). BCoV causes respiratory and gastrointestinal disease in young and adult cattle. This review summarizes the current knowledge of the similarities and dissimilarities between BCoV and SARS-CoV-2, as well as discussing the usage of BCoV as a model for human CoVs, including SARS-CoV-2.

The Cantabrian capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus cantabricus) is one of the most severely threatened subspecies of capercaillie. Its current population range is restricted to a small area of the Cantabrian Mountains (northwestern Spain), with only around 200 individuals remaining. As part of the national strategy for the conservation of the subspecies, the Cantabrian capercaillie Captive Breeding Center of Sobrescobio opened in 2009. Here, we use the information provided by the necropsies performed in this facility on 29 individuals (11 males, 13 females and 5 undetermined; 16 chicks and 13 adults) in order to describe the main mortality causes of captive-bred Cantabrian capercaillies. After necropsy, tissue samples were taken for evaluation using standard methods in histology and microbiology. The majority of the captive animals (18/29, 62.07%) died due to infectious diseases, mainly due to Escherichia coli, Clostridium perfringens, or Aspergillus fumigatus infection. The remaining 11 animals died due to stress-related processes (i.e., rupture of the heart apex and cardiomyopathy or neurogenic shock) (8/29, 27.59%), duodenal obstruction and coelomitis (1/29, 3.45%), perforation of the proventriculus and heart with a briar branch (1/29, 3.45%) or euthanasia due to a valgus leg deformity that prevented proper animal welfare (1/29, 3.45%). Young animals (i.e., younger than 2 months) died mainly due to infectious diseases (14/16, 87.5%), while stress-related causes were responsible for most adult deaths (7/13, 53.85%). We additionally report that two free-ranging adult males died due to exertional myopathy. This study provides relevant information for reducing mortality in captive capercaillies and improving both living conditions in captivity and the adaptation of these animals to the wild.

The incidence of heart damage in cattle, pigs, sheep and goats slaughtered in slaughterhouses in the Czech Republic between 2010 and 2021 was monitored. Findings classified as acute, chronic, and parasitic were recorded during postmortem slaughterhouse examination. Significantly the highest incidence of acute heart damage was found in piglets (14.92%) and calves (4.03%) compared to other animal categories. The incidence of chronic heart damage was found to be significantly the highest for piglets (14.13%). Among fattening animals, the prevalence of chronic heart damage was significantly the highest for finisher pigs (8.19%), followed by bulls (1.33%), lambs (0.20%) and kids (0.15%). Among adult animals, the incidence of chronic heart damage was significantly the highest for cows (7.10%) followed by sows (5.21%), does (1.46%) and ewes (0.86%). Parasitic findings were rare in the period under review (< 0.2% for ewes and < 0.03% for the other monitored species and categories). In general, the highest incidence found was for chronic damage, followed by acute damage, and the lowest for parasitic damage, except for sheep, where the incidence of parasitic findings was higher than the incidence of acute findings. Overall, the highest number of pathological findings on the heart was found for piglets (29.06%), followed by calves (10.87%), i.e. culled young. Relatively high numbers of findings were also found for cows (9.84%), finisher pigs (8.43%), and sows (5.80%). For the other monitored species and categories, heart lesions were found in less than 3% of cases. The results provide insights into the overall heart health and welfare of slaughter animals.

Housing conditions and environmental enrichment of individually caged laboratory rabbits is of great importance for the welfare of the animals and the quality of the experimental results. In order to improve the design of existing environmental enrichment programs for laboratory rabbits, considerable knowledge of the behavioural needs of this species is necessary. Taking this into consideration, the aim of this study was to monitor and analyze the behaviour of juvenile and young adult rabbits in order to establish whether there are any age-dependent differences in grooming, rearing, sniffing, eating, drinking and gnawing. 12 NZW rabbits were divided into two groups: group A consisted of six 6-month-old rabbits (young adults) and group Β consisted of six 2-month-old rabbits (juvenile). All animals were already housed for more than twenty days under the same conditions in the animal facility. Both groups of rabbits were video-recorded between 06:00h - 18:00h for four consecutive days. The frequency of each behaviour was determined and compared in the two groups of rabbits from the video recordings. The frequencies of grooming, eating and gnawing in the young rabbits were significantly greater than those in the older rabbits (p<0.05). No statistical differences were found between the two groups for rearing, sniffing and drinking. From these results, we concluded that even small age differences should be taken into account when designing an environmental enrichment program for individually caged rabbits.

Environmental enrichment (EE) has been shown to produce beneficial effects in animal models of a wide variety of neurological and psychiatric disorders. EE exhibits antidepressant function; reduces anxiety, improves spatial learning and memory impairment. EE can reduce sensitivity to loss of reward by reducing frustration-like emotional states and facilitates the extinction of conditioned fear. However, some studies related to the emotional effects of EE present controversial results such as reduction or increase in anxiety. The time of exposure to an enriched environment seems to be an important factor in the behavioral responses presented by animals subjected to aversive stimuli. The present study compared the effects of two and four week exposure to EE with young adult Wistar rats under the same conditions and protocol on fear behavioral parameters in the face of footshock (unconditioned fear) and on re-exposure to an environment after electrical shock pairing (conditioned fear). We showed that the EE with a duration of two weeks reduced the freezing response of the animals in an unconditioned fear situation, that is, with the aversive stimulus present in the environment, however, did not influence the same behavior in a conditioned fear situation. In addition, the short-term EE developed the locomotor and exploratory activity, identified by the high rearing behavior, which may also suggest a low level of anxiety in these animals. We can conclude that EE changes the unconditioned fear responses of young adult rats. In addition, the duration of EE interferes differently, being two weeks of treatment with EE sufficient to cause improvement in coping with unconditioned aversive situations. We suggest that the emotional benefits resulting from the welfare provided by EE can be abolished by the longer duration of this treatment, due to the already known effect of tolerance to lasting or abundant rewards.

Reindeer breeding, as a branch of animal husbandry, is gaining more and more popularity in Ukraine. A network of aviaries and farm complexes is developing. At the same time, the conditions of keeping deer require modern approaches to the formation of criteria for assessing the welfare of deer, the development of new or improvement of existing animal feeding or feeding systems, monitoring of their diseases, and preventive measures. As a result of our analysis of published scientific sources of literature, the research of domestic and foreign scientists was directed at solving these problems. Emphasis is placed on the peculiarities of digestion in deer and the critical role of intestinal microbiota in promoting digestion and absorption in the host's body. It is concluded that to ensure high productivity throughout the year, it is necessary to feed deer with optimal content of metabolic energy (ME), protein, and trace elements in the rations, taking into account the physiological needs of the animals or the stage of the production cycle, the age of the animals, their sex and the season of the year. In general, adult deer (230‒250 kg) requires an average of 19, 35, 42, and 28 MJME/day in autumn, winter, spring, and summer, respectively, according to a constant level of crude protein (21.1 ± 4.0, 14.7 ± 1). ,0, 11.1 ± 1.1, and 6.5 ± 0.8 (in spring, summer, autumn, and winter). provision, especially in the first year of life. The difference in the need for deer in macroelements is significant. It is well-founded that 0.4 % Calcium and 0.3 % Phosphorus are present in the rations of this animal species. corresponds to 0.75 and 0.40 %. Young animals need 0.6 % Calcium and 0.4 % Phosphorus in their diet. The recommended level of minerals and vitamins for deer of different age groups is poorly reported. for animals, vitamin A – 4500 IU/kg, vitamin D3 – 1100 IU/kg, and vitamin E – 90 IU/kg. At the same time, for young deer, the need for these limiting vitamins is higher on average by 10‒40 %. Animals should receive a sufficient amount of trace elements with feed (Selenium – 0.25 mg/kg, Cobalt – 0.3 mg/kg, Copper – 15 mg/kg, Ferrum – 250 mg/kg, Manganese – 100 mg/kg, Iodine – 1 mg/kg, Zinc – 75 mg/kg).

The study focused on the comparison of health of cattle, pigs, sheep, goats, rabbits, poultry and ostriches slaughtered in slaughterhouses in the Czech Republic based on the occurrence of findings detected during a postmortem veterinary inspection in the period from 2010 to 2019. The level of health was expressed as the so-called PA index obtained by the ratio of the number of findings to the total number of observations (15) during the pathoanatomical examination in the slaughterhouse multiplied by one hundred. Mammals (cattle, pigs, sheep and goats) generally had a higher PA index than birds (domestic chickens, turkeys, ducks, geese, ostriches), with the exception of kids and rabbits. The highest PA index was found in cows (15.13) and piglets (12.18); whereas the lowest PA index was found in broiler chickens (0.102), rabbits, and geese (both 0.14). In poultry, the PA index values were below 1, with the exception of laying hens (PA index 2.165). A higher PA index was found in a group of adult animals (the PA index ranged from 2.17 to 15.13) and groups of young animals culled from farms (the PA index ranged from 10.79 to 12.18) than in fattened animals (the PA index ranged from 0.10 to 5.32). A comprehensive overview of the health condition of slaughtered animals enables the farmers, veterinarians, transporters and slaughterhouse operators to take appropriate and precisely targeted preventive measures, thereby increasing the animal welfare and health in the future while reducing the incidence of carcass damage.

Mink, as carnivorous fur animals, are especially exposed to stress factors during mating, gestation, parturition, and rearing of the young that manifests as aggressive behaviour. So far, preparations applied on mink farms to relieve stress have shown low efficacy. Therefore, we aimed at determining whether the Relaxer feed supplement, prepared from valerian (Valeriana officinalis L.) and passionflower (Passiflora incarnata) extracts, can be applied to reduce the negative effects of stressors. The study was conducted on mink (Neovison vison) of the brown variety on a fur farm (Poland). The study was divided into two stages investigating the effect of the Relaxer additive on adult mink during the mating season (1%, 1.5%, 2% additive) and on young mink weaned from their mothers (1.5%). For all mink groups basic haematological and morphological blood parameters were determined. The animals’ condition and health were observed, and behavioural observations were made using a temperament test. The results of blood parameters of mink showed no negative impact of the additive on the animals’ health. Statistical differences were observed in red blood cell counts. Analysing the white blood cell count parameters from the first stage of the study, a decrease in white blood cell (WBC) count was observed in the blood of animals of groups K and D1 in successive intakes. In this stage, the lowest cortisol levels were obtained in groups D1 and D2. Analysing the red blood cell parameters of animals at stage II, statistically significant differences were observed. Smaller differences were observed for the studied parameters of the protein-cell image of mink blood. A lower percentage of animals with extreme behavioural types (aggressive and fearful) was found in the experimental group. The feed addition of a mixture of herbs significantly influenced the stress behaviour of mink. Improved behaviour was observed which resulted in improved animal welfare and optimised production parameters. The optimal proportion of the additive in the feed was set at 1.5%.

The non-human animal deaths and injuries that result from collisions with motor vehicles are known colloquially as roadkill, and often lead to individuals from various taxa being orphaned. The complexities of multiple spatial and temporal variables in the available data on Australian roadkill and the scale of orphaning and injury make statistical analysis difficult. However, data that offer proxy measures of the roadkill problem suggest a conservative estimate of 4 million Australian mammalian roadkill per year. Also, Australian native mammals are mainly marsupial, so female casualties can have surviving young in their pouches, producing an estimated 560 000 orphans per year. A conservative estimate is that up to 50 000 of these are rescued, rehabilitated and released by volunteer wildlife carers. These roadkill-associated orphans are in addition to those produced by other anthropogenic and natural events and the injured adult animals in the care of volunteers. In accepting total responsibility for rescued animals, wildlife carers face many demands. Their knowledge base can require days of initial instruction with the need for continual updates, and their physical abilities and personal health can be tested by sleepless nights, demanding manual tasks and zoonoses. This review article explores the impact of this commitment and conservatively estimates carers’ financial input to raise one joey at approximately $2000 a year, and their time input at 1000 h, equating to $31 000 per year, applying a dollar value of $31 per hour. It categorises relevant types of grief associated with hand-rearing orphans and rehabilitating injured animals, and suggests that wildlife carers most likely experience many types of grief but are also susceptible to burn-out through compassion fatigue. A perceived lack of understanding, empathy and appreciation for their work by government can add to the stressors they face. Volunteering is declining in Australia at 1% per year, social capital is eroding and the human population is aging, while the number of injured and orphaned animals is increasing. Wildlife carers are a strategic national asset, and they need to be acknowledged and supported if their health and the public service they provide is not to be compromised.

Abstract Segments of society question the welfare of animals in production, whether types of product consumption have a negative impact on personal health, and environmental sustainability of producing livestock. As most Americans are three or more generations removed from production agriculture (American Farm Bureau, 2020), they have minimal incentive to question unsubstantiated information purported by anti-animal agriculture groups. Ag communication strategies often seem to fall short compared with anti-agricultural messages shared throughout the media infosphere. Prominent forms of digital / social media (SM) platforms have infiltrated daily lives of society. With the significance of engagement factors such as likes, comments, shares, and saves on such platforms in mind, our research sought to assess the willingness of SM users to interact with content on Instagram created by agricultural social media influencers (SMIs). Participants (n = 855; ages 18-30 from the U.S. and a non-ag background) were recruited through Prolific and anonymously completed a Qualtrics survey. Quantitative data were responses to questions about willingness to engage with both general content and agriculture-related content. Participants were shown images and narrative content from well-established agricultural SMIs. Participants were surveyed both before and after being shown example image posts of agricultural SMIs. Data were analyzed utilizing SPSS with independent variables consisting of general content versus agricultural content while dependent variables were comprised of the summation of participant engagement type willingness which was operationalized by numerically converting the five-point Likert scale. Results showed differences (P &lt; 0.05) in willingness to engage with agricultural SMI through likes, comments, shares, and saves than with general content. Results imply that agricultural SMIs will have more limited opportunities to facilitate engagement with young adult Instagram users than those that share generalized content. These outcomes reinforce a communication dilemma around SM engagement that focuses on reaching non-ag audiences with image and evidence-based agricultural content.

Background: Bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) is a pathogen that causes great economic losses in dairy and beef herds.The main disturbances caused by this virus are related to abortion, fetal malformation and mummification, and the birth ofweak calves. In addition, this disease may result in persistently infected animals, as well as individual immune tolerance tothe virus. However, the symptoms are nonspecific and variable, and dependent on the age of affected animal. The objectiveof the present study was to report three cases with clinical signs of BVDV infection, with subsequent confirmation of thediagnosis by reverse transcription - polymerase chain reaction technique (RT-PCR).Cases: In a beef production farm located at the state of Para, Brazil, three animals presented severe diarrhea; the feces wereliquefied and greenish-yellow in color; crusted lesions were visible and scattered over various parts of the animals’ bodies,including the muzzle, nostrils, periauricular region, and hooves; the tongue mucosa was undergoing an intense desquamationprocess. One of the affected animals, a 6-month-old calf, was euthanized following the recommendations of the “Brazilianguide to good practices for animal euthanasia” of the Ethics, Bioethics and Animal Welfare Committee / Federal Council ofVeterinary Medicine. After euthanasia, this calf was necropsied and some of its organs, including the tongue and skin, weresent to the Biological Institute of Sao Paulo State for histopathology examination (HE) and identification and isolation of thevirus. Positive samples for the presence of BVDV were diagnosed by RT-PCR, confirming the suspicion and explaining thesigns observed in that animal and reported in other dead animals of the farm. Because RT-PCR was performed in ulcerativelesions present in the tongue, negative reactions were detected for bovine herpesvirus (BoHV) and positive reactions forBVDV. The cutaneous tissue was marked with lymphocytic infiltration, observed in both epidermis and dermis, which refersto crusted lesions distributed in several regions of the animal’s body. In the lungs, we observed rare areas of emphysema andmarked lymphocytic interstitial pneumonia with hemorrhagic spots, correlated with symptoms of respiratory disease. Also,marked renal damage and spleen lesions were identified, indicating glomerulonephritis and lymphocytic splenitis.Discussion: This study evidenced the occurrence of BVDV in two calves and one adult animal, which is in agreementwith the described higher incidence of symptomatic infection in young animals. Clinical signs of severe greenish-yellowdiarrhea and crusted lesions distributed throughout several regions of the animals’ bodies, including the muzzle, nostrils,periauricular region, and hooves were described, with intense tongue epithelium desquamation, which is a particular andcharacteristic symptom of Mucosal Disease - the classical form of the physiopathogeny caused by bovine viral diarrheavirus. The clinical findings of severe diarrhea are possibly related to the histopathological results, which showed hyaliniza-tion of the intestinal mucosa and rare mononuclear cells in the liver nodules. Pulmonary histopathological findings of rareareas of lymphocytic interstitial pneumonia, severe emphysema, and hemorrhagic foci refer to respiratory diseases. Basedon the clinical signs and laboratory findings, we conclude that the affected animals showed classic symptoms of bovineviral diarrhea. This diagnosis highlights the presence of the disease in cattle raised in the state of Para, Brazil.

In animal experimentation, welfare and severity assessments of all procedures applied to animals are necessary to meet legal and ethical requirements, as well as public interests. So far, the methods suggested for this purpose are time consuming and personnel intensive. Also, evidence-based biostatistical methods for this purpose are still rare. We here tested whether the classification of heart rate (HR) and activity (Act) data monitored by telemetry in the home cage by unsupervised k-means-based class-labeling and subsequent Support Vector Machine (SVM) analysis allows severity assessment and grading of experimental procedures of different domains, including surgery, injection, behavioral testing, and routine handling for maintenance. Telemetric devices were subcutaneously implanted in young adult male Crl:CD(SD) and BDIX/UImHanZtm rats. After recovery, rats were randomly subjected to different experimental procedures, i.e., handling and cage change as routine maintenance, Rat Grimace Scale, burrowing, and social interaction for welfare assessment, as well as repeated subcutaneous injections. Thereafter, rats were either intracranially implanted with electrodes or injected with tumor cells. Directly after each procedure, HR and Act were monitored by telemetry in the home cage for 4 h. Application of k-means and SVM algorithms on the obtained data sets from baseline (as no stress), cage change (exploratory Act), and intracranial surgery (as burden) measurements computed three classes described as low HR/low Act, high HR/high Act, and high HR/low Act, respectively. Validation of the SVM model by entering data from all procedures confirmed the allocation to the high HR/low Act class (burden) after surgery, which lasted longer after subcutaneous transmitter implantation than after intracranial surgery. The majority of data points from repeated injections, behavioral testing, and maintenance handling were allocated to the low HR/low Act and high HR/high Act classes. Overall, the SVM model based on HR and Act data monitored in home cage after procedures may be useful for the classification and grading of experimental procedures of different domains.

Over the past century, many books for general readers have styled sharks as “monsters of the deep” (Steele). In recent decades, however, at least some writers have also turned to representing how sharks are seriously threatened by human activities. At a time when media coverage of shark sightings seems ever increasing in Australia, scholarship has begun to consider people’s attitudes to sharks and how these are formed, investigating the representation of sharks (Peschak; Ostrovski et al.) in films (Le Busque and Litchfield; Neff; Schwanebeck), newspaper reports (Muter et al.), and social media (Le Busque et al., “An Analysis”). My own research into representations of surfing and sharks in Australian writing (Brien) has, however, revealed that, although reporting of shark sightings and human-shark interactions are prominent in the news, and sharks function as vivid and commanding images and metaphors in art and writing (Ellis; Westbrook et al.), little scholarship has investigated their representation in Australian books published for a general readership. While recognising representations of sharks in other book-length narrative forms in Australia, including Australian fiction, poetry, and film (Ryan and Ellison), this enquiry is focussed on non-fiction books for general readers, to provide an initial review. Sampling holdings of non-fiction books in the National Library of Australia, crosschecked with Google Books, in early 2021, this investigation identified 50 Australian books for general readers that are principally about sharks, or that feature attitudes to them, published from 1911 to 2021. Although not seeking to capture all Australian non-fiction books for general readers that feature sharks, the sampling attempted to locate a wide range of representations and genres across the time frame from the earliest identified text until the time of the survey. The books located include works of natural and popular history, travel writing, memoir, biography, humour, and other long-form non-fiction for adult and younger readers, including hybrid works. A thematic analysis (Guest et al.) of the representation of sharks in these texts identified five themes that moved from understanding sharks as fishes to seeing them as monsters, then prey, and finally to endangered species needing conservation. Many books contained more than one theme, and not all examples identified have been quoted in the discussion of the themes below. Sharks as Part of the Natural Environment Drawing on oral histories passed through generations, two memoirs (Bradley et al.; Fossa) narrate Indigenous stories in which sharks play a central role. These reveal that sharks are part of both the world and a wider cosmology for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people (Clua and Guiart). In these representations, sharks are integrated with, and integral to, Indigenous life, with one writer suggesting they are “creator beings, ancestors, totems. Their lifecycles reflect the seasons, the landscape and sea country. They are seen in the movement of the stars” (Allam). A series of natural history narratives focus on zoological studies of Australian sharks, describing shark species and their anatomy and physiology, as well as discussing shark genetics, behaviour, habitats, and distribution. A foundational and relatively early Australian example is Gilbert P. Whitley’s The Fishes of Australia: The Sharks, Rays, Devil-fish, and Other Primitive Fishes of Australia and New Zealand, published in 1940. Ichthyologist at the Australian Museum in Sydney from the early 1920s to 1964, Whitley authored several books which furthered scientific thought on sharks. Four editions of his Australian Sharks were published between 1983 and 1991 in English, and the book is still held in many libraries and other collections worldwide. In this text, Whitley described a wide variety of sharks, noting shared as well as individual features. Beautiful drawings contribute information on shape, colouring, markings, and other recognisable features to assist with correct identification. Although a scientist and a Fellow and then President of the Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales, Whitley recognised it was important to communicate with general readers and his books are accessible, the prose crisp and clear. Books published after this text (Aiken; Ayling; Last and Stevens; Tricas and Carwardine) share Whitley’s regard for the diversity of sharks as well as his desire to educate a general readership. By 2002, the CSIRO’s Field Guide to Australian Sharks & Rays (Daley et al.) also featured numerous striking photographs of these creatures. Titles such as Australia’s Amazing Sharks (Australian Geographic) emphasise sharks’ unique qualities, including their agility and speed in the water, sensitive sight and smell, and ability to detect changes in water pressure around them, heal rapidly, and replace their teeth. These books also emphasise the central role that sharks play in the marine ecosystem. There are also such field guides to sharks in specific parts of Australia (Allen). This attention to disseminating accurate zoological information about sharks is also evident in books written for younger readers including very young children (Berkes; Kear; Parker and Parker). In these and other similar books, sharks are imaged as a central and vital component of the ocean environment, and the narratives focus on their features and qualities as wondrous rather than monstrous. Sharks as Predatory Monsters A number of books for general readers do, however, image sharks as monsters. In 1911, in his travel narrative Peeps at Many Lands: Australia, Frank Fox describes sharks as “the most dangerous foes of man in Australia” (23) and many books have reinforced this view over the following century. This can be seen in titles that refer to sharks as dangerous predatory killers (Fox and Ruhen; Goadby; Reid; Riley; Sharpe; Taylor and Taylor). The covers of a large proportion of such books feature sharks emerging from the water, jaws wide open in explicit homage to the imaging of the monster shark in the film Jaws (Spielberg). Shark!: Killer Tales from the Dangerous Depths (Reid) is characteristic of books that portray encounters with sharks as terrifying and dramatic, using emotive language and stories that describe sharks as “the world’s most feared sea creature” (47) because they are such “highly efficient killing machines” (iv, see also 127, 129). This representation of sharks is also common in several books for younger readers (Moriarty; Rohr). Although the risk of being injured by an unprovoked shark is extremely low (Chapman; Fletcher et al.), fear of sharks is prevalent and real (Le Busque et al., “People’s Fear”) and described in a number of these texts. Several of the memoirs located describe surfers’ fear of sharks (Muirhead; Orgias), as do those of swimmers, divers, and other frequent users of the sea (Denness; de Gelder; McAloon), even if the author has never encountered a shark in the wild. In these texts, this fear of sharks is often traced to viewing Jaws, and especially to how the film’s huge, bloodthirsty great white shark persistently and determinedly attacks its human hunters. Pioneer Australian shark expert Valerie Taylor describes such great white sharks as “very big, powerful … and amazingly beautiful” but accurately notes that “revenge is not part of their thought process” (Kindle version). Two books explicitly seek to map and explain Australians’ fear of sharks. In Sharks: A History of Fear in Australia, Callum Denness charts this fear across time, beginning with his own “shark story”: a panicked, terror-filled evacuation from the sea, following the sighting of a shadow which turned out not to be a shark. Blake Chapman’s Shark Attacks: Myths, Misunderstandings and Human Fears explains commonly held fearful perceptions of sharks. Acknowledging that sharks are a “highly emotive topic”, the author of this text does not deny “the terror [that] they invoke in our psyche” but makes a case that this is “only a minor characteristic of what makes them such intriguing animals” (ix). In Death by Coconut: 50 Things More Dangerous than a Shark and Why You Shouldn’t Be Afraid of the Ocean, Ruby Ashby Orr utilises humour to educate younger readers about the real risk humans face from sharks and, as per the book’s title, why they should not be feared, listing champagne corks and falling coconuts among the many everyday activities more likely to lead to injury and death in Australia than encountering a shark. Taylor goes further in her memoir – not only describing her wonder at swimming with these creatures, but also her calm acceptance of the possibility of being injured by a shark: "if we are to be bitten, then we are to be bitten … . One must choose a life of adventure, and of mystery and discovery, but with that choice, one must also choose the attendant risks" (2019: Kindle version). Such an attitude is very rare in the books located, with even some of the most positive about these sea creatures still quite sensibly fearful of potentially dangerous encounters with them. Sharks as Prey There is a long history of sharks being fished in Australia (Clark). The killing of sharks for sport is detailed in An American Angler in Australia, which describes popular adventure writer Zane Grey’s visit to Australia and New Zealand in the 1930s to fish ‘big game’. This text includes many bloody accounts of killing sharks, which are justified with explanations about how sharks are dangerous. It is also illustrated with gruesome pictures of dead sharks. Australian fisher Alf Dean’s biography describes him as the “World’s Greatest Shark Hunter” (Thiele), this text similarly illustrated with photographs of some of the gigantic sharks he caught and killed in the second half of the twentieth century. Apart from being killed during pleasure and sport fishing, sharks are also hunted by spearfishers. Valerie Taylor and her late husband, Ron Taylor, are well known in Australia and internationally as shark experts, but they began their careers as spearfishers and shark hunters (Taylor, Ron Taylor’s), with the documentary Shark Hunters gruesomely detailing their killing of many sharks. The couple have produced several books that recount their close encounters with sharks (Taylor; Taylor, Taylor and Goadby; Taylor and Taylor), charting their movement from killers to conservationists as they learned more about the ocean and its inhabitants. Now a passionate campaigner against the past butchery she participated in, Taylor’s memoir describes her shift to a more respectful relationship with sharks, driven by her desire to understand and protect them. In Australia, the culling of sharks is supposedly carried out to ensure human safety in the ocean, although this practice has long been questioned. In 1983, for instance, Whitley noted the “indiscriminate” killing of grey nurse sharks, despite this species largely being very docile and of little threat to people (Australian Sharks, 10). This is repeated by Tony Ayling twenty-five years later who adds the information that the generally harmless grey nurse sharks have been killed to the point of extinction, as it was wrongly believed they preyed on surfers and swimmers. Shark researcher and conservationist Riley Elliott, author of Shark Man: One Kiwi Man’s Mission to Save Our Most Feared and Misunderstood Predator (2014), includes an extremely critical chapter on Western Australian shark ‘management’ through culling, summing up the problems associated with this approach: it seems to me that this cull involved no science or logic, just waste and politics. It’s sickening that the people behind this cull were the Fisheries department, which prior to this was the very department responsible for setting up the world’s best acoustic tagging system for sharks. (Kindle version, Chapter 7) Describing sharks as “misunderstood creatures”, Orr is also clear in her opposition to killing sharks to ‘protect’ swimmers noting that “each year only around 10 people are killed in shark attacks worldwide, while around 73 million sharks are killed by humans”. She adds the question and answer, “sounds unfair? Of course it is, but when an attack is all over the news and the people are baying for shark blood, it’s easy to lose perspective. But culling them? Seriously?” (back cover). The condemnation of culling is also evident in David Brooks’s recent essay on the topic in his collection of essays about animal welfare, conservation and the relationship between humans and other species, Animal Dreams. This disapproval is also evident in narratives by those who have been injured by sharks. Navy diver Paul de Gelder and surfer Glen Orgias were both bitten by sharks in Sydney in 2009 and both their memoirs detail their fear of sharks and the pain they suffered from these interactions and their lengthy recoveries. However, despite their undoubted suffering – both men lost limbs due to these encounters – they also attest to their ongoing respect for these creatures and specify a shared desire not to see them culled. Orgias, instead, charts the life story of the shark who bit him alongside his own story in his memoir, musing at the end of the book, not about himself or his injury, but about the fate of the shark he had encountered: great whites are portrayed … as pathological creatures, and as malevolent. That’s rubbish … they are graceful, mighty beasts. I respect them, and fear them … [but] the thought of them fighting, dying, in a net upsets me. I hope this great white shark doesn’t end up like that. (271–271) Several of the more recent books identified in this study acknowledge that, despite growing understanding of sharks, the popular press and many policy makers continue to advocate for shark culls, these calls especially vocal after a shark-related human death or injury (Peppin-Neff). The damage to shark species involved caused by their killing – either directly by fishing, spearing, finning, or otherwise hunting them, or inadvertently as they become caught in nets or affected by human pollution of the ocean – is discussed in many of the more recent books identified in this study. Sharks as Endangered Alongside fishing, finning, and hunting, human actions and their effects such as beach netting, pollution and habitat change are killing many sharks, to the point where many shark species are threatened. Several recent books follow Orr in noting that an estimated 100 million sharks are now killed annually across the globe and that this, as well as changes to their habitats, are driving many shark species to the status of vulnerable, threatened or towards extinction (Dulvy et al.). This is detailed in texts about biodiversity and climate change in Australia (Steffen et al.) as well as in many of the zoologically focussed books discussed above under the theme of “Sharks as part of the natural environment”. The CSIRO’s Field Guide to Australian Sharks & Rays (Daley et al.), for example, emphasises not only that several shark species are under threat (and protected) (8–9) but also that sharks are, as individuals, themselves very fragile creatures. Their skeletons are made from flexible, soft cartilage rather than bone, meaning that although they are “often thought of as being incredibly tough; in reality, they need to be handled carefully to maximise their chance of survival following capture” (9). Material on this theme is included in books for younger readers on Australia’s endangered animals (Bourke; Roc and Hawke). Shark Conservation By 1991, shark conservation in Australia and overseas was a topic of serious discussion in Sydney, with an international workshop on the subject held at Taronga Zoo and the proceedings published (Pepperell et al.). Since then, the movement to protect sharks has grown, with marine scientists, high-profile figures and other writers promoting shark conservation, especially through attempts to educate the general public about sharks. De Gelder’s memoir, for instance, describes how he now champions sharks, promoting shark conservation in his work as a public speaker. Peter Benchley, who (with Carl Gottlieb) recast his novel Jaws for the film’s screenplay, later attested to regretting his portrayal of sharks as aggressive and became a prominent spokesperson for shark conservation. In explaining his change of heart, he stated that when he wrote the novel, he was reflecting the general belief that sharks would both seek out human prey and attack boats, but he later discovered this to be untrue (Benchley, “Without Malice”). Many recent books about sharks for younger readers convey a conservation message, underscoring how, instead of fearing or killing sharks, or doing nothing, humans need to actively assist these vulnerable creatures to survive. In the children’s book series featuring Bindi Irwin and her “wildlife adventures”, there is a volume where Bindi and a friend are on a diving holiday when they find a dead shark whose fin has been removed. The book not only describes how shark finning is illegal, but also how Bindi and friend are “determined to bring the culprits to justice” (Browne). This narrative, like the other books in this series, has a dual focus; highlighting the beauty of wildlife and its value, but also how the creatures described need protection and assistance. Concluding Discussion This study was prompted by the understanding that the Earth is currently in the epoch known as the Anthropocene, a time in which humans have significantly altered, and continue to alter, the Earth by our activities (Myers), resulting in numerous species becoming threatened, endangered, or extinct. It acknowledges the pressing need for not only natural science research on these actions and their effects, but also for such scientists to publish their findings in more accessible ways (see, Paulin and Green). It specifically responds to demands for scholarship outside the relevant areas of science and conservation to encourage widespread thinking and action (Mascia et al.; Bennett et al.). As understanding public perceptions and overcoming widely held fear of sharks can facilitate their conservation (Panoch and Pearson), the way sharks are imaged is integral to their survival. The five themes identified in this study reveal vastly different ways of viewing and writing about sharks. These range from seeing sharks as nothing more than large fishes to be killed for pleasure, to viewing them as terrifying monsters, to finally understanding that they are amazing creatures who play an important role in the world’s environment and are in urgent need of conservation. This range of representation is important, for if sharks are understood as demon monsters which hunt humans, then it is much more ‘reasonable’ to not care about their future than if they are understood to be fascinating and fragile creatures suffering from their interactions with humans and our effect on the environment. Further research could conduct a textual analysis of these books. In this context, it is interesting to note that, although in 1949 C. Bede Maxwell suggested describing human deaths and injuries from sharks as “accidents” (182) and in 2013 Christopher Neff and Robert Hueter proposed using “sightings, encounters, bites, and the rare cases of fatal bites” (70) to accurately represent “the true risk posed by sharks” to humans (70), the majority of the books in this study, like mass media reports, continue to use the ubiquitous and more dramatic terminology of “shark attack”. The books identified in this analysis could also be compared with international texts to reveal and investigate global similarities and differences. While the focus of this discussion has been on non-fiction texts, a companion analysis of representation of sharks in Australian fiction, poetry, films, and other narratives could also be undertaken, in the hope that such investigations contribute to more nuanced understandings of these majestic sea creatures. 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