Tesi sul tema "Water resources development – Government policy – China"

Water resources management practice has undergone changes in management approaches and principles over time. It was previously characterised by what scholars refer to as the hydraulic mission where ‘extreme engineering’ was the order of the day (Allan, 2003). As Radif (1999) argues, water resources managers and policy makers were initially driven to manage and supply water to people for its direct use
these included drinking, growing food, and providing power for domestic and industrial use. This modus operandi continued until the end of the 1970s. Over two decades later, this focus is still prevalent in many countries in southern Africa including Botswana. As Swatuk and Rahm (2004) state, “augmenting supply is a continuing focus of government activity”. The National Water Master Plan (NWMP) is the current policy document guiding water resources management in Botswana and it focuses on supply-side interventions in response to increasing water demand. According to SMEC et al. (1991), the consulting company that conducted the NWMP study, “the investigation and studies... indicated the need for the continuing development of water supplies throughout Botswana over the next 30 years”. Based on these observations, government has developed significant human and technical capacity in exploiting both surface and groundwater resources (Swatuk and Rahm, 2004).

Thesis (MA)--Stellenbosch University, 2000.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This dissertation presents aspects of the public policy process in South Africa with specific reference to water policy between 1994 and 1999. For the purposes of this research, the definition of water policy coincides with the government's definition as contained in the Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP), the Growth, Employment and Redistribution Programme (GEAR), white papers, bills and legislation. Water policy is a broad subject and is approached from a social sciences focus in this study, in that it uses the fulfilment of human needs as a point of departure. Water policy that applied before 1994 was based on water legislation of 1956, as well as some eighty different Acts that were fragmented between a number of institutions. The focus was on water rights, linked to property rights from which the majority of South Africans were excluded. In the implementation of policy attention was mainly paid to engineering achievements. The acknowledgement that water resources are limited in South Africa, as well as in the rest of the world, and the increasing demands on these sources, focused the attention anew on responsible water policy. Since South Africa's transition to an inclusive political democracy in 1994, a variety of far-reaching changes took place with regard to political decision-making and the public policy process. Not only did the policy-making process change, but policy goals, actors, structures and organisations also changed. It is clear that the policy agenda differs significantly from that of the period preceding 1994. In this study, the context within which policy renewal took place in South Africa since 1994, has been presented, and the policy process that new water legislation was subjected to, is described. The role of policy actors and communities - in line with the principles of the Constitution of 1996 that encourage public participation in the democracy - is considered. The implementation of the new water policy could unfortunately not be evaluated as it has only been promulgated a year ago. This study serves as an introduction to a research area which has received little attention thus far and that has potential for further research.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: In hierdie studie word aspekte van die openbare beleidproses in Suid-Afrika ondersoek met spesiale verwysing na waterbeleid tussen 1994 en 1999. Waterbeleid is vir die doeleindes van hierdie studie omskryf soos in die regering se HOP, GEAR, witskrifte, wetsontwerpe en wetgewing. Waterbeleid is 'n breë onderwerp wat in hierdie studie vanuit 'n sosiaal wetenskaplike hoek benader is, naamlik dat daar aan basiese menslike behoeftes voldoen moet word. Die waterbeleid wat voor 1994 gegeld het, was gebaseer op die Waterwet van 1956, asook wetgewing wat oor tagtig wette versprei was en deur 'n aantal instellings gefragmenteer is. Die klem het geval op waterregte, gekoppel aan eiendomsregte waarvan die grootste deel van die Suid-Afrikaanse bevolking uitgesluit was. Klem is ook gelê op ingenieursprestasies in die uitvoering van beleid. Die besef dat waterbronne wêreldwyd en in Suid-Afrika beperk is met toenemende aansprake wat daarop gemaak word, het opnuut die aandag op verantwoordelike waterbeleid gevestig. Sedert Suid-Afrika se oorgang na 'n inklusiewe politieke demokrasie in 1994 is verskeie verreikende veranderings ten opsigte van politieke besluitneming en die openbare beleidproses ingestel. Nie alleen het die beleidmakingsproses verander nie, maar beleidsdoelwitte, -akteurs, -strukture en -organisasies het ook verander. Kortom, die beleidagenda verskil van die periode voor 1994. In hierdie studie is die konteks van beleidvernuwing in Suid-Afrika na 1994 geskets, en die beleidproses waardeur nuwe waterwetgewing gegaan het, is beskryf. Die rol van beleidakteurs en -gemeenskappe - in lyn met die beginsels van die Grondwet van 1996 wat openbare deelneming aan die demokratiese bestel aanmoedig - is ondersoek. Die implementering van die nuwe waterbeleid kon egter nie geëvalueer word nie, aangesien dit skaars 'n jaar gelede gepromulgeer is. Hierdie studie dien as 'n inleiding tot 'n navorsingsveld wat steeds braak lê met moontlikhede vir verdere navorsing.

Jamaica has an abundance of freshwater resources, however, a lack of infrastructure makes treated, piped water inaccessible in many areas. Through literature reviews and site visits, this thesis is an analysis of how the people and land, and money and policy, interact with one another in relation to Jamaica's freshwater resources and water infrastructure. Special attention is given to the island's type-example Cockpit karst geology; tourism, mining, and farming's relation to this karst; types of water delivery systems in rural southern Trelawny's Cockpit Country; southern Trelawny residents' perceptions of the water situation; and policy and development goals in the context of Jamaica and southern Trelawny. I hope to bring attention to the unique social, geologic, and developmental context of water in Jamaica, and more specifically to garner attention for major water infrastructure improvements in south Trelawny. A number of recommendations for improvements with policy and infrastructure are made.

Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2002.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: A vast literature on the incompatibility of socio-economic development and environmental conservation (also referred to as sustainable development) has developed over the past few years. This study takes on the form of a critical, problemdriven discussion and evaluation of the applicability and viability of the concept of capacity-sharing to the current South African water management regime. Within the study, the complexities involved in the shift from a supply- to demandoriented management strategy are examined in depth. This transition in strategy proves to be problematic for water policy makers and managers because of past management regimes and structures, measurement related problems, incorrect or insufficient definition of criteria needed for demand-oriented approaches and the emotional complexities regarding water use. Developments in water policy are currently at a point where problems are experienced regarding the practical implementation of proposed water demand-oriented policy. The concept of capacity-sharing is explained and discussed in detail, leading to the identification of the applicability to three of the most important problems (basic contradiction within the 1998 National Water Act, initial allocation for market adoption and equity within the market) faced within the transition towards a demand-oriented approach. This study found that the concept of capacity-sharing does hold applicability in addressing the above-mentioned three problems towards the transition to a demand-side management approach. Capacity-sharing, therefore, should be part of this timely transition and the state should make use of the advantages of this concept. To support this view, seven studies are proposed for further research to address the problems as mentioned in section 5.2 of the thesis.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: 'n Uitgebreide literatuur aangaande die onversoenbaarheid van sosio-ekonomiese ontwikkeling en omgewingsbewaring (ook volhoubare ontwikkeling genoem) het oor die afgelope paar jaar ontwikkel. Hierdie studie neem die vorm van 'n kritiese, probleemgedrewe bespreking ten opsigte van die toepasbaarheid en relevansie van die konsep van kapasiteitsdeling binne die orde van huidige Suid Afrikaanse waterbestuur, aan. Die vele aspekte van die klemverskuiwing van 'n aanbod- na 'n vraag-georiënteerde waterbestuur-strategie, word ook beklemtoon. Hierdie oorgang is problematies vir waterbeleid-formuleerders en bestuurders as gevolg van vorige waterbestuur-ordes en strukture, meetbaarheid georiënteerde probleme, foutiewe of onvoldoende definieering van watergebruik-regte en die emosionele kompleksiteite van water. Tans, word probleme rakende die praktiese implementering van voorgestelde vraag-georienteerde waterbeleid ervaar. Die konsep van kapasiteitsdeling word in detail verduidelik en bespreek waarvandaan die toepasbaarheid op drie van die belangrikste probleme (basiese kontradiksie binne die 1998 Nasionale Waterwet, aanvanklike verdeling van water gebruik regte vir opname binne die mark en die kwessie van regverdigheid binne die mark) vir die oorgang na 'n vraaggeoriënteerde strategie geïdentifiseer word. Die studie het bevind dat die konsep van kapasiteitsdeling wel relevansie ten opsigte van die bogenoemde drie probleme tydens die oorgang na 'n vraag-georiënteerde strategie, inhou. Kapasiteitsdeling behoort dus deel te vorm van die oorgangsfase na 'n vraag-georiënteerde water bestuur strategie en die staat behoort gebruik te maak van die konsep se voordele. Ter ondersteuning hiervan word sewe studies voorgestel vir verdere navorsing ten opsigte van die probleme soos geïdentifiseer in afdeling 5.2 van die tesis.

The North Platte Natural Resources District (NPNRD) is one of 23 quasi-governmental organizations in the state of Nebraska that are organized by river basin and are responsible for the management of groundwater. Conversely, the state's surface water is governed by the Nebraska Department of Natural Resources under the system of prior appropriation. This study uses Foucauldian neoliberal governmentality and a contrasting theory of 'meandering' to explore the conflicting beliefs, perceptions and values that form the foundations of different notions of 'efficiency' as it pertains to water use and management in NPNRD while a political ecology lens is used to situate local perceptions within the regional context of the Platte River Basin. Study findings ultimately point to the remaining 'disintegration' of water governance despite the state's efforts to create legislation that seeks to merge ground and surface water management in practice.

The water resources management regime has shifted from one focusing almost exclusively on augmenting supply to one where ensuring access, equity and sustainability are an integral part of the process. A growing demand for water and the fact that the amount of fresh water is constant raises the impression of water scarcity will occur. Indications are that the notion of access to water for basic needs as well as access to productive water underpins perceptions of scarcity. This thesis interrogated perceptions of scarcity in a small rural community in order to understand the role water can play in developing sustainable livelihoods.

This thesis presents an account of water policies in Alberta's South Saskatchewan River Basin in reference to the historical factors influencing past decisions, the claims supporting present reforms and implications for future policy directions. I begin by investigating the historical factors surrounding early water policies and consider their influence on water development in the 20th century. Next I critically examine the policy reforms from 1996-2006 and consider both how early policy decisions influence contemporary plans and the claims offered in support of current management decisions. I then look to the future of water policy in southern Alberta and the planned implementation of adaptive management systems. I analyze adaptive management theory in the policy context of Alberta and find the normative claims of adaptive management insufficient. I then suggest a more robust normative framework to supplement adaptive management theory.

Public participation in water management processes is one of the internationally recognised and adopted principles of Integrated Water Resource Management. The South African Department of Water Affairs and Forestry aims to facilitate the decentralisation of water management powers to the local community level via the establishment of regional and local water management institutions, namely Catchment Management Agencies, Water User Associations and Catchment Forums. The National Water Act (No. 36 of 1998) acknowledges that the discriminatory laws and practices of the past have prevented equal access to water and the use of water resources. The contribution of water management institutions to social and economic development, in particular poverty eradication and food security, is mentioned in the water act. The participation of poor rural communities living in the Kat valley, an area where an elite minority reap the benefits of water use for agriculture, is the focus of this research. Their participation, perceptions and experiences are documented and explored to determine how the promulgation of post-apartheid water policy and legislation has affected their access to water. The results of this research are based on data collected from several methods including surveys, workshops and observation. Analysis of these data revealed the complicated and stagnant nature of participation from Kat valley rural communities in local water management initiatives and organisations. Existing water management organisations were not successful in stimulating poor people’s participation as they were unable to address their primary concerns, namely a secure source of potable water, employment and access to water for agricultural purposes. This thesis asserts that the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, as the custodian of South Africa’s water resources, has not taken on a supportive, accountable role in assisting marginalised communities with improving their access to water for domestic purposes and securing access to water rights for productive use. This, in turn, has led to dissatisfaction among these communities and a wariness of participatory activities that focus mainly on raising environmental awareness. The establishment of effective accountability relationships among all stakeholders, pro-poor water management structures and initiatives, as well as integrated and co-operative management of natural resources, are needed to revitalise the present participation of poor communities living in rural areas.

South Africa is a water poor region and yet, like in many other developing countries, water resources are a valuable production input in socially important industries such as agriculture and mining (Nieuwoudt et al., 2004:162-182). With a mean annual rainfall and runoff of 502mm and 42mm (420m³ per hectare per annum) respectively, Briers and Powell (1993:1) speculate that water shortages will limit South Africa’s economic development in the twenty-first century. In response to the challenges of water resource scarcity and socio-economic inequalities, in 1997 the South African Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF), following international trends, formulated a National Water Policy (NWP) based on Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) principles (Palmer et al., 2003). The main objectives of the NWP (1997) are to protect national water resources from degradation, provide economically disadvantaged communities with access to water resources and promote economic development, through the devolution of water management responsibilities to locally established water institutions (NWP, 1997). The pursuit of these objectives requires a thorough investigation of biophysical, sociopolitical and economic characteristics of the demarcated water areas. For such an investigation to provide accurate and locally relevant results, broad stakeholder participation is of paramount importance. The thesis discusses economic measures required in pursuing enhanced stakeholder participation levels at local levels. A socio-economic survey investigation describing major participation trends against reported property rights and Willingness to Pay values was conducted in the Kat River Valley, Eastern Cape province. From the investigation, observed participation trends driven by economic interests were identified and used in recommendations proposed for the policy implementation process. Using game theoretic arguments as guidelines in soliciting cooperative behaviour in the use and consumption of common resources (Ostrom, 1990), the thesis proposes the introduction of water related public works projects as employment creating vehicles for individuals and communities targeted for economic empowerment and participation in the water policy. However, for sustainable stakeholder participation levels, it is argued that the employment positions created through the projects need to be designed in a manner that would encourage an evolution of long-term relationships between stakeholders and the water management institutions.

China has undertaken a vast engineering project: the large-scale transfer of water from the south of the country to the north, the intention being to alleviate flooding in the south and water shortages in the north. It may take up to fifty years to complete. This thesis examines the broad outline of the scheme, the planning that has gone into it, its historical and political background, and the political, social, and ecological problems that it has encountered and may be likely to cause in the future. The political context of a 'pro-technology' policy amongst today's Chinese leaders is highlighted. The Chinese study is made in the light of water-transfer schemes that have been implemented, or proposed, in other countries; and also ideas about sustainable development, policy processes, and natural resource management. Five case studies are considered: the Aral Sea (Central Asia), the Snowy Mountain Scheme (Australia), the National Hydrological Plan (Spain), the Central Arizona Project (the United States) and the South-to-North Water Transfer Project (China). They are examined as a basis for understanding policy problems and processes in water resource management, and also to make some suggestions for their resolution in the Chinese case―though finding a permanent or definitive solution lies beyond the scope of the present inquiry. The difficulties for traditional policy processes to manage uncertainty and complexity are particularly acute in the area of natural resource management. For example, climate change issues challenge present water management systems and diversion projects. Therefore, uncertainty and complexity issues, beyond the 'ideal' policy cycle, are considered, particularly in relation to climate change, but also the water diversion schemes themselves. Climate change presents a particularly important challenge to the Chinese Project.

M.A. (Public Management and Governance)
“Water will be the scarce resources in the 21st century.” This vision was brought to the South African Government’s attention after the Water Research Commission (WRC) conducted extensive research as illustrated in the WRC’s Annual report for 2007/8. According to the WRC, the research aimed to enlighten decision and policy makers to take precautionary measures that will help guarantee that water resources are “protected, used, developed, conserved, and managed in a sustainable manner”. Hence, the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF) has started developing the Water Resource Classification System to mitigate the anticipated challenge envisioned. Among others, the WRC’s findings guided the development of this policy. On the other hand, the South African Constitution, 1996 states that, “people have the right to environment which is not harmful to the citizen”. Other legislation, such as the National Environmental Management Act (1998), the National Water Act, 1998 and the Water Services Act, 1997 echoed the same sentiment. The National Water Act, 1998 served as basis for a National Water Resources Strategy as a framework to guide the entire Water Resource Classification System policy process (Chapter 2: Part 1 of the National Water Act, 1998. Section 195 (e) of the South African Constitution, 1996, highlights that “people’s needs must be responded to, and the public must be encouraged to participate in the policy making”. Thus, the role of stakeholder participation in the DWAF Water Resource Classification System (WRCS) was chosen as a topic for investigation to inform policy makers as well as to identify policy defects. The research project aimed to evaluate the level of stakeholder participation in developing policy, as well as identifying and assessing the nature, influence and levels of their participation. It was established that broad stakeholder participation was a critical success factor during this policy development process. However, the WRCS was finalised based only on the information gathered from a few stakeholders. It should be noted that when water classification was undertaken the environmental issues were considered in such a way that the classification process does not in one way or another compromise the environment in general and is not detrimental to ecosystems in particular. According to the National Water Act, 1998, water is classified in three categories, namely minimally, moderately and heavily. In other countries water is treated as just another natural resource, but in South Africa water is treated as government’s scarce resource. This study investigated the importance of stakeholder participation as a key to policy development in a democratic state and concluded that better participation would have enhanced citizen ownership and shaping the policy concerned.

In the Twenty-first Century, sustainable water management is likely to be humanity's greatest challenge in a world of ever-increasing demand. Legal instruments both international and national regulate and provide a general framework for the use and management of international waters. Future basin management agreements can be informed by examining the degree of success, in terms of sustainability and equity, achieved by such agreements. That success can be influenced by the degree to which such agreements support the human right to water implicitly stated in international customary law, through a collaborative management approach. Since 1988, attempts by communities on the Pongolo floodplain to be involved in Pongolopoort Dam releases, have met with little success. Recently, the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry has begun to support those efforts, but the approach remains a sectoral one, and is primarily concerned with water issues. The South African National Water Act 36 of 1998 provides for environmental management and public participation, as well as providing explicitly for the rights of individual water users, but its implementation is hampered by an overwhelming emphasis on technical considerations and a lack of political will to embrace collaborative management systems. Little effort is expended on collaborative management methods, though the level of transparency in water management is improving, despite remaining highly centralised. The level and extent of incentives for local community participation is low, and systematic monitoring is in its early development. International river basin agreements generally take a top-down or state-driven approach, though there are some examples where local cross-border communities have participated successfully in the implementation of international agreements and management of transboundary basins. South Africa, Swaziland and M09ambique signed the Interim Incomaputo Agreement, which includes the Maputo basin, in August 2002. Once again, the approach to this agreement has been highly sectoral in that negotiations were handled entirely by water officials in the relevant countries. A lack of transparency has prevailed in the negotiation stages, though through the basin studies, which will inform implementation plans, the level of participation should improve. There is overwhelming consensus that integrated management is the key to sustainable international river basin management. Formal and systematic methods for inter-departmental communication, both nationally and internationally are currently not being implemented, which has significant negative impacts on integrated management. Research in this area represents an opportunity to explore collaborative management of an international river basin in an area that is, as yet, unstressed in terms of population and water supply.
Thesis (M.Env.Dev.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2002.

China's Minqin Oasis once welcomed traders along the ancient Silk Road with rivers, lakes, and lush forests, yet today the region's farmland and grassland are increasingly being engulfed by the sands of the Gobi Desert. The severity of this incremental catastrophe for a declining population of 300,000 residents has brought forth a host of recent water policies to include agronomic water conservation through plastic mulch use, computerized regulation and pricing of groundwater, and water diversions from the Yellow River. This study uses a multi-disciplinary and mixed methods approach to better understand farmer perspectives on why they implement certain water and land use practices in agriculture. The world's farmers currently use the majority of the world's available freshwater and arable land. Modern agriculture and its continued intensification also lead to increases in petroleum based inputs such as agrochemicals and agricultural plastics (plasticulture). Despite the large of impact of the decisions made by the world's farmers on natural resources, little research to date has sought to better understand farmers' perceptions and decision-making processes. Plastic film mulch is a technology that has existed since the 1940's and it has been used in places such as rural China for over five decades. This technology conserves a considerable amount of irrigation water and it increases harvests, however, use of plastic for mulch causes waste disposal problems and is an expenditure of petroleum through plastic manufacturing. Without a fundamental understanding of why farmers perceive plastic mulch to be valuable to their households and communities, we may not fully grasp why its global application continues to increase year after year. Moreover, a focused study of plastic mulch use at the local level may also allow researchers and entrepreneurs to develop a suitable alternative mulch that does not consume non-renewable resources or result in detrimental plastic waste after its utility has been exhausted. This study uses household level interviews, surveys, and participant observation to better understand why Minqin County farmers in rural China continue to use plastic mulch and how it may influence their standard of living.
Graduation date: 2013

Are South Africa's water service delivery policies and strategies equitable, accessible, affordable, efficient, effective and sustainable for Msunduzi low-income households? The primary objective of this study was to elicit the community experience of South Africa's water service delivery policies and strategies and link these experiences to a broader analysis of policy and strategy to locate water service delivery contraventions, inconsistencies and inadequacies. The secondary objective was to initiate community-based platforms for engagement with water-related issues and build capacity within local community task teams to initiate lobbying and advocacy strategies to support community-suggested and research-outcome reforms thereby returning popular control to the locus of communities. The study was conducted in KwaZulu-Natal, within the Msunduzi municipal jurisdiction, under the uMgungundlovu district municipality (DC22) in the period from October 2002-April 2003. Households in five low-income urban areas were included in the study: Imbali (units 1 and 2), Sobantu, Haniville and Thembalihle. The study employed a community action research design using non-probability sampling. Surveys, conducted by community researchers, were complemented by broad community engagement approaches, informal interviews with external stakeholders and the initiation of platforms for information sharing and fundamental debate. The study revealed two significant findings. The first finding found that South Africa's water service delivery policies, strategies and implementation mechanisms were inconsistent with the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry's sector goals of equity, affordability, efficiency, effectiveness and sustainability. They contained serious scientific and social inadequacies, inequitably promoted economic considerations above social and environmental considerations; lacked regulation and monitoring systems to identify and address implementation contraventions; were not receptive to the socioeconomic situations of low-income households and should be fundamentally re-worked. Policies and strategies purported to ensure that the basic water service requirements of low-income households were met, essentially compounded socio-economic constraints and compromised human rights, justice and equity. The second finding was related to popular involvement and engagement. Community consultative processes for input into local and national policies and strategies were inadequate and often pseudoparticipatory; political platforms (local and national) for communities to engage and influence decision-makers were inadequate or lacking; and the community control, ownership and acceptance of the Msunduzi water service delivery institution and its mechanisms were low. Recommendations for the reform of policy, strategy and implementation of such reforms were advocated through the vehicle of reviews, evaluations and audits, to inform the necessary amendments, adjustments and intensification of local and national regulation and monitoring mechanisms. Lobbying and advocacy strategies, to support the implementation of reforms, were promoted through community-based approaches of popular engagement with water-related issues, information dissemination; community mobilisation and popular control of public processes.
Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2003.

Botswana is a water scarce country. Rainfall is highly variable, leading to limited surface and groundwater resources. Due to persistently dry conditions most rivers found in Botswana are ephemeral. The Boteti River sub-Basin is one of the numerous ephemeral river sub-Basins, in Botswana. Key environmental challenges, resulting from human activities, in the sub-Basin are: increased pressure on local resources due to overstocking, overgrazing and over-harvesting; reductions in wildlife numbers; denudation of vegetation and the resultant exposure of the soil to wind erosion. As a major step, to pilot implementation of river basin management in the ephemeral river basins in southern Africa, the Boteti River sub-Basin is one of the key areas identified for study under the Ephemeral River Basins in the Southern African Development Community SADC (ERBSADC) Project. This study was initiated, as part of the ERB-SADC project and its aim is to investigate the socio-economic status of the Boteti River sub-Basin and determine the potential for developing integrated management of water and land resources in the sub- Basin. Its key objectives are to identify and assess types and patterns of water use; to identify and assess key livelihood activities; and to critically assess community participation in water resources management in the sub-Basin. A questionnaire was administered to 293 households, a focus group discussion was held with twelve community representatives of six villages in the sub-Basin, six traditional leaders and five local government officers were interviewed as key informants, and informal discussions were held with three local farmers. Results from the study indicate low livelihood levels based on livestock and arable agriculture, high dependence on natural resources and low participation of communities in water management. The study concludes that a livelihood approach to integrated water resources management can help deal with environmental challenges and enhance community participation.
Environmental Sciences
Thesis (M.A. (Environmental Science))