Tesi sul tema "Thin-film solar cells"
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Inns, Daniel Photovoltaics & Renewable Energy Engineering Faculty of Engineering UNSW. "ALICIA polycrystalline silicon thin-film solar cells". Publisher:University of New South Wales. Photovoltaics & Renewable Energy Engineering, 2007. http://handle.unsw.edu.au/1959.4/43600.
Testo completoThompson, Claire Louise. "Electrochemical routes to thin film solar cells". Thesis, University of Bath, 2011. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.547634.
Testo completoYoshiikawa, Osamu. "Studies on organic thin film solar cells". Kyoto University, 2009. http://hdl.handle.net/2433/123895.
Testo completo0048
新制・課程博士
博士(エネルギー科学)
甲第14742号
エネ博第195号
新制||エネ||44(附属図書館)
UT51-2009-D454
京都大学大学院エネルギー科学研究科エネルギー基礎科学専攻
(主査)教授 八尾 健, 教授 石原 慶一, 教授 辻井 敬亘
学位規則第4条第1項該当
Danaki, Paraskevi. "Radiation hardness of thin film solar cells". Thesis, Uppsala universitet, Molekyl- och kondenserade materiens fysik, 2019. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-386054.
Testo completoSong, Yang Photovoltaics & Renewable Energy Engineering Faculty of Engineering UNSW. "Dielectric thin film applications for silicon solar cells". Publisher:University of New South Wales. Photovoltaics & Renewable Energy Engineering, 2009. http://handle.unsw.edu.au/1959.4/44486.
Testo completoDesai, Darshini. "Electrical characterization of thin film CdTe solar cells". Access to citation, abstract and download form provided by ProQuest Information and Learning Company; downloadable PDF file, 320 p, 2007. http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did=1257806491&sid=6&Fmt=2&clientId=8331&RQT=309&VName=PQD.
Testo completoSchuster, Christian. "Diffractive optics for thin-film silicon solar cells". Thesis, University of York, 2015. http://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/9083/.
Testo completoMarinkovic, Marko [Verfasser]. "Contact resistance effects in thin film solar cells and thin film transistors / Marko Marinkovic". Bremen : IRC-Library, Information Resource Center der Jacobs University Bremen, 2013. http://d-nb.info/1037014243/34.
Testo completoChang, Shang-wen. "Cu₂S/ZnCdS thin film heterojunction solar cell studies". Diss., Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 1985. http://hdl.handle.net/10919/54740.
Testo completoPh. D.
Tetali, Bhaskar Reddy. "Stability studies of CdTe/CdS thin film solar cells". [Tampa, Fla.] : University of South Florida, 2005. http://purl.fcla.edu/fcla/etd/SFE0001135.
Testo completoReinhardt, Yvonne Jeneke [Verfasser], e Eicke [Akademischer Betreuer] Weber. "Imaging and thin-film optics of organic solar cells". Freiburg : Universität, 2016. http://d-nb.info/1124005145/34.
Testo completoAl-Dhafiri, Abdullah M. "CdS-CuₓS single crystal and thin film solar cells". Thesis, Durham University, 1988. http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/6617/.
Testo completoGreco, Angelo. "Optimization of homogeneous emitter and thin-film solar cells". Doctoral thesis, Università di Catania, 2014. http://hdl.handle.net/10761/1547.
Testo completoELSEHRAWY, FARID KHALED MOHAMED FARID. "Photon Management for Thin-Film Quantum Dot Solar Cells". Doctoral thesis, Politecnico di Torino, 2020. http://hdl.handle.net/11583/2843974.
Testo completoMcCann, Michelle Jane, e michelle mccann@uni-konstanz de. "Aspects of Silicon Solar Cells: Thin-Film Cells and LPCVD Silicon Nitride". The Australian National University. Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology, 2002. http://thesis.anu.edu.au./public/adt-ANU20040903.100315.
Testo completoGiraldo, Muñoz Sergio. "Advanced strategies for high efficiency kesterite thin film solar cells". Doctoral thesis, Universitat de Barcelona, 2018. http://hdl.handle.net/10803/523538.
Testo completoEl objetivo principal de esta tesis es el desarrollo de células solares de capa fina de alta eficiencia basadas en absorbedores compuestos de elementos de baja toxicidad y abundantes en la corteza terrestre (kesterita, Cu2ZnSnSe4 (CZTSe)), mediante la implementación de estrategias innovadoras de dopaje. En particular, se ha desarrollado un método secuencial basado en el depósito por sputtering de capas metálicas seguido por un proceso térmico reactivo. A través de la optimización de los procesos y la implementación y análisis de diferentes elementos dopantes, se han investigado los mecanismos de pérdida de eficiencia más relevantes en kesteritas, contribuyendo a desarrollar soluciones alternativas. Los resultados obtenidos han sido publicados como artículos en revistas internacionales de alto factor de impacto. En la primera parte de la Tesis, se han estudiado profundamente los procesos térmicos reactivos, variando los parámetros más críticos para adaptarlos a las características particulares de los precursores metálicos. Seguidamente, se ha realizado un análisis de diferentes elementos dopantes (Ag, Si, Ge, Pb e In); In y Ge se han seleccionado como los más prometedores. De estos, Ge ha mostrado excelentes propiedades como dopante, incrementando la eficiencia de los dispositivos desde 7% hasta más de 10%, mediante la introducción de capas nanométricas (10 nm aprox.) en el precursor metálico. A través de una optimización profunda del proceso de dopado con Ge, se ha obtenido una eficiencia de conversión máxima de 11.8% y un déficit de voltaje de alrededor de 0.56 V, que representa uno de los mejores valores reportados para esta tecnología. Estos progresos se han acompañado de una profunda caracterización micro-estructural, que ha facilitado la identificación de importantes características de las kesteritas, como por ejemplo la presencia de dos tipos diferentes de fronteras de grano con distinta composición. Adicionalmente, Ge induce una modificación en los mecanismos de formación de kesteritas, que ha sido clave para mejorar las propiedades de los dispositivos fotovoltaicos basados en estas tecnologías. En resumen, los resultados obtenidos en la presente Tesis han servido para comprender, implementar y demostrar soluciones innovadoras para conseguir avances significativos en el desarrollo de tecnologías fotovoltaicas sostenibles basadas en kesteritas.
Malm, Ulf. "Modelling and Degradation Characteristics of Thin-film CIGS Solar Cells". Doctoral thesis, Uppsala University, Solid State Electronics, 2008. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-9291.
Testo completoThin-film solar cells based around the absorber material CuIn1-xGaxSe2 (CIGS) are studied with respect to their stability characteristics, and different ways of modelling device operation are investigated. Two ways of modelling spatial inhomogeneities are detailed, one fully numerical and one hybrid model. In the numerical model, thin-film solar cells with randomized parameter variations are simulated showing how the voltage decreases with increasing material inhomogeneities.
With the hybrid model, an analytical model for the p-n junction action is used as a boundary condition to a numerical model of the steady state electrical conduction in the front contact layers. This also allows for input of inhomogeneous material parameters, but on a macroscopic scale. The simpler approach, compared to the numerical model, enables simulations of complete cells. Effects of material inhomogeneities, shunt defects and grid geometry are simulated.
The stability of CIGS solar cells with varying absorber thickness, varying buffer layer material and CIGS from two different deposition systems are subjected to damp heat treatment. During this accelerated ageing test the cells are monitored using characterization methods including J-V, QE, C-V and J(V)T. The degradation studies show that the typical VOC decrease experienced by CIGS cells subjected to damp heat is most likely an effect in the bulk of the absorber material.
When cells encapsulated with EVA are subjected to the same damp heat treatment, the effect on the voltage is considerably reduced. In this situation the EVA is saturated with moisture, representing a worst case scenario for a module in operation. Consequently, real-life modules will not suffer extensively from the VOC degradation effect, common in unprotected CIGS devices.
Kieliba, Thomas. "Zone-melting recrystallization for crystalline silicon thin-film solar cells". Berlin dissertation.de, 2006. http://deposit.d-nb.de/cgi-bin/dokserv?id=2898611&prov=M&dok_var=1&dok_ext=htm.
Testo completoErnst, Marco [Verfasser]. "Macroporous silicon for crystalline thin-film solar cells / Marco Ernst". Hannover : Technische Informationsbibliothek und Universitätsbibliothek Hannover (TIB), 2013. http://d-nb.info/1047351552/34.
Testo completoStrothkämper, Christian [Verfasser]. "Charge Carrier Dynamics in Thin Film Solar Cells / Christian Strothkämper". Berlin : Freie Universität Berlin, 2013. http://d-nb.info/1037725832/34.
Testo completoPalekis, Vasilios. "CdTe/CdS Thin Film Solar Cells Fabricated on Flexible Substrates". Scholar Commons, 2011. http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd/3280.
Testo completoSheng, Xing Ph D. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. "Thin-film silicon solar cells : photonic design, process and fundamentals". Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2012. http://hdl.handle.net/1721.1/105936.
Testo completoThis electronic version was submitted by the student author. The certified thesis is available in the Institute Archives and Special Collections.
Cataloged from student-submitted PDF version of thesis.
Includes bibliographical references (pages 153-159).
The photovoltaic technology has been attracting widespread attention because of its effective energy harvest by directly converting solar energy into electricity. Thin-film silicon solar cells are believed to be a promising candidate for further scaled-up production and cost reduction while maintaining the advantages of bulk silicon. The efficiency of thin-film Si solar cells critically depends on optical absorption in the silicon layer since silicon has low absorption coefficient in the red and near-infrared (IR) wavelength ranges due to its indirect bandgap nature. This thesis aims at understanding, designing, and fabricating novel photonic structures for efficiency enhancement in thin-film Si solar cells. We have explored a previously reported a photonic crystal (PC) based structure to improve light absorption in thin-film Si solar cells. The PC structure combines a dielectric grating layer and a distributed Bragg reflector (DBR) for effcient light scattering and reflection, increasing light path length in the thin-film cell. We have understood the operation principles for this design by using photonic band theories and electromagnetic wave simulations. we discover that this DBR with gratings exhibit unusual light trapping in a way different from metal reflectors and photonic crystals. The light trapping effects for the DBR with and without reflector are numerically investigated. The self-assembled anodic aluminum oxide (AAO) technique is introduced to non- lithographically fabricate the grating structure. We adjust the AAO structural parameters by using different anodization voltages, times and electrolytes. Two-step anodization is employed to obtain nearly hexagonal AAO pattern. The interpore periods of the fabricated AAO are calculated by fast Fourier transform (FFT) analysis. We have also demonstrated the fabrication of ordered patterns made of other materials like amorphous Si (a-Si) and silver by using the AAO membrane as a deposition mask. Numerical simulations predict that the fabricated AAO pattern exhibits light trapping performance comparable to the perfectly periodic grating layer. We have implemented the light trapping concepts combining the self-assembled AAO layer and the DBR in the backside of crystalline Si wafers. Photoconductivity measurements suggest that the light absorption is improved in the near-IR spectral range near the band edge of Si. Furthermore, different types of thin-film Si solar cells, including a-Si, mi- crocrystalline Si ([mu]-Si) and micromorph Si solar cells, are investigated. For demonstration, the designed structure is integrated into a 1:5 [mu]m thick [mu]c-Si solar cell. We use numerical simulations to obtain the optimal structure parameters for the grating and the DBR, and then we fabricate the optimized structures using the AAO membrane as a template. The prototype devices integrating our proposed backside structure yield a 21% improvement in efficiency. This is further verified by quantum efficiency measurements, which clearly indicate stronger light absorption in the red and near-IR spectral ranges. Lastly, we have explored the fundamental light trapping limits for thin-film Si solar cells in the wave optics regime. We develop a deterministic method to optimize periodic textures for light trapping. Deep and high-index-contrast textures exhibit strong anisotropic scattering that is outside the regime of validity of the Lambertian models commonly used to describe texture-induced absorption enhancement for normal incidence. In the weak ab- sorption regime, our optimized surface texture in two dimensions (2D) enhances absorption by a factor of 2.7[pi]n, considerably larger than the classical [pi]n Lambertian result and exceeding by almost 50% a recent generalization of Lambertian model for periodic structures in finite spectral range. Since the [pi]n Lambertian limit still applies for isotropic incident light, our optimization methodology can be thought of optimizing the angle/enhancement tradeoff for periodic textures. Based on a modified Shockley-Queisser theory, we conclude that it is possible to achieve more than 20% efficiency in a 1:5 [mu]m thick crystalline Si cell if advanced light trapping schemes can be realized.
by Xing Sheng.
Ph. D.
Kirkpatrick, Timothy. "Geometric photovoltaics applied to amorphous silicon thin film solar cells". Thesis, Boston College, 2012. http://hdl.handle.net/2345/2892.
Testo completoGeometrically generalized analytical expressions for device transport are derived from first principles for a photovoltaic junction. Subsequently, conventional planar and unconventional coaxial and hemispherical photovoltaic architectures are applied to detail the device physics of the junction based on their respective geometry. For the conventional planar cell, the one-dimensional transport equations governing carrier dynamics are recovered. For the unconventional coaxial and hemispherical junction designs, new multi-dimensional transport equations are revealed. Physical effects such as carrier generation and recombination are compared for each cell architecture, providing insight as to how non-planar junctions may potentially enable greater energy conversion efficiencies. Numerical simulations are performed for arrays of vertically aligned, nanostructured coaxial and hemispherical amorphous silicon solar cells and results are compared to those from simulations performed for the standard planar junction. Results indicate that fundamental physical changes in the spatial dependence of the energy band profile across the intrinsic region of an amorphous silicon p-i-n junction manifest as an increase in recombination current for non-planar photovoltaic architectures. Despite an increase in recombination current, however, the coaxial architecture still appears to be able to surpass the efficiency predicted for the planar geometry, due to the geometry of the junction leading to a decoupling of optics and electronics
Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2012
Submitted to: Boston College. Graduate School of Arts and Sciences
Discipline: Physics
Gottschalg, Ralph. "Environmental influences on the performance of thin-film solar cells". Thesis, Loughborough University, 2001. https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/2134/35675.
Testo completoSesuraj, Rufina. "Plasmonic mirror for light-trapping in thin film solar cells". Thesis, University of Southampton, 2014. https://eprints.soton.ac.uk/366663/.
Testo completoGong, Jiawei. "Theoretical Study on Thin Film Dye Sensitized Photovoltaic Solar Cells". Thesis, North Dakota State University, 2014. https://hdl.handle.net/10365/27177.
Testo completoBaig, Faisal. "Numerical analysis for efficiency enhancement of thin film solar cells". Doctoral thesis, Universitat Politècnica de València, 2019. http://hdl.handle.net/10251/118801.
Testo completo[CAT] Des de fa una dècada s'està investigant intensament la forma de millorar l'eficiència de conversió d'energia (PCE) de les cèl·lules solars de silici (Si) i reduir els seus preus. No obstant això, tot i les millores obtingudes, la fabricació de cèl·lules solars de Si segueix sent costosa i pot rebaixar-se usant materials en forma de capa fina. Per això la recerca de materials absorbents alternatius, no tòxics, abundants en la naturalesa i amb bons rendiments de conversió s'ha intensificat en els últims anys. Entre els diferents materials absorbents, el sulfur d'estany (SnS), amb una banda prohibida de 1.3 eV propera a l'òptima, és un candidat adequat per a la conversió fotovoltaica. Però per a cèl·lules experimentals de SnS el rendiment assolit fins ara és de 4.6%, que és molt menor que el PCE per a dispositius de silici, mentre que entre altres cèl·lules híbrides (orgàniques-no orgàniques) com la perovskita de metilamonio de plom i iode ( MAPbI3) es demostra que és un candidat adequat amb PCE que arriba a un valor del 23%. A part de l'estabilitat, un dels problemes per a la comercialització de cèl·lules de MAPbI3 és la naturalesa tòxica del plom (Pb). Per aquest motiu, s'ha utilitzat l'anàlisi numèrica per revisar els paràmetres de disseny de les cèl·lules solars de perovskita híbrida substituint l'absorbent MAPbI3 per MASnI3 i estudiar l'efecte de la resta de paràmetres de disseny en el rendiment d'estes cèl·lules solars. Hi ha diversos programaris de simulació disponibles que s'utilitzen per a l'anàlisi numèric de cèl·lules solars. En aquest treball hem fem servir un programari anomenat "A Solar Cell Capacitance Simulator" (SCAPS), està disponible de forma gratuïta i és molt popular entre la comunitat científica i tecnològica. Per aconseguir un disseny efectiu per a una cèl·lula solar eficient, es va proposar una aproximació numèrica basada en la millora de la PCE d'una cèl·lula solar experimental. Això es va fer reproduint els resultats per a la cèl·lula solar dissenyada experimentalment en un entorn SCAPS amb estructura p-SnS / n-CdS amb una eficiència de conversió de l'1,5%. Després de reproduir els resultats experimentals, el rendiment del dispositiu es va optimitzar ajustant el gruix de la capa absorbent y de la capa tampó, el temps de vida dels portadors minoritaris, la concentració del dopatge en les capes absorbent, tampó i en la capa finestra. Mitjançant l'optimització gradual dels paràmetres del dispositiu, es va assolir un valor de 14.01% en PCE de cèl·lules solars dissenyades experimentalment en SCAPS amb arquitectura p-SnS / n-CdS / n-ZnO. A partir de l'anàlisi, es va trobar que la PCE d'una cèl·lula solar depèn en gran mesura de la concentració de dopatge de la capa absorbent, el gruix de la capa absorbent i els defectes de la interfície. D'altra banda, es va realitzar una anàlisi per determinar l'efecte de la recombinació de la interfície en el rendiment de les cèl·lules solars i com es pot controlar. Per realitzar aquesta tasca, es va realitzar una anàlisi per a la selecció de la capa tampó adequada per a la cèl·lula solar de perovskita de metilamoni d'estany i iode (MASnI3) i es va trobar que el PCE de la cèl·lula solar també depèn de l'alineació de la banda entre l'absorbidor i la capa de tampó.
[EN] A decade of extensive research has been conducted to enhance the power conversion efficiency (PCE) of silicon (Si) solar cells and to cut their prices short. But still, the fabrication of Si solar cells are costly. So, to reduce the fabrication cost of the solar cell search for alternate earth abundant and non-toxic absorber materials is thriving. Among different absorber materials tin sulfide (SnS) is found to be a suitable candidate for the non-organic solar cell with a band gap of 1.3 eV. But the PCE achieved for SnS is 4.6% that is far less from the PCE of (Si), whereas among other organic non-organic solar cells like methylammonium lead halide perovskite ({\rm MAPbI}_3) is proven to be a suitable candidate with PCE reaching to a value of 23%. The problem with the commercialization of {\rm MAPbI}_3 is due to the toxic nature of lead (Pb). So, in dealing with these issues of solar cell numerical analysis can play a key role as numerical analysis allows flexibility in the design of realistic problem and experimentation with different hypotheses can easily be performed. Complete set of device characteristic can often be easily generated by consuming less amount of time and effort. Because of this reason numerical analysis was used to revisit solar cells design parameters and the effect of solar cell physical parameters on solar cell performance. There are various simulation software's available that are used for solar cell numerical analysis. Here in this work, we used Solar cell capacitance simulator (SCAPS) software, it is freely available and is most popular among the research community. To achieve effective design for efficient solar cell a numerical guide was proposed based on which PCE of an experimental designed solar cell can be enhanced. This was done by reproducing results for the experimentally designed solar cell in SCAPS environment with structure p-SnS/n-CdS having a conversion efficiency of 1.5%. After reproduction of experimental results device performance was optimized by varying thickness of (absorber layer, buffer layer), minority carrier lifetime, doping concentration (absorber, buffer), and adding window layer. By stepwise optimization of device parameters, PCE of an experimental designed solar cell in SCAPS with architecture p-SnS/n-CdS/n-ZnO was reached to a value of 14.01%. From the analysis, it was found that PCE of a solar cell is highly depended upon doping concentration of the absorber layer, the thickness of the absorber layer and interface defects. Based on the results evaluated an analysis was performed for tin based organic non-organic methylammonium tin halide perovskite solar cell ({\rm MASnI}_3) to find the effect of interface recombination on solar cell performance and how it can be governed. The reason for this transition from SnS to {\rm MASnI}_3 was because {\rm MASnI}_3 can be fabricated simply by spin-coating methylammonium iodide (MAI) over SnS layer. To perform this task analysis was performed for the selection of suitable buffer layer for Pb free methylammonium tin halide perovskite solar cell ({\rm MASnI}_3) and it was found that PCE of the solar cell is also depended upon band alignment between absorber and buffer layer. Based on the results a new structure was proposed for Pb free perovskite solar cell (Back\ contact/{\rm MASnBr}_3/{\rm MASnI}_3/CdZnS/FTO) with PCE of 18.71% for absorber thickness of 500 nm and acceptor doping concentration of 1x10^{16}\ {\rm cm}^3. The results achieved in this thesis will provide an imperative guideline for researchers to design efficient solar cells.
Baig, F. (2019). Numerical analysis for efficiency enhancement of thin film solar cells [Tesis doctoral no publicada]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/118801
TESIS
Khattak, Yousaf Hameed. "Modeling of High Power Conversion Efficiency Thin Film Solar Cells". Doctoral thesis, Universitat Politècnica de València, 2019. http://hdl.handle.net/10251/118802.
Testo completo[CAT] L'energia solar fotovoltaica ha emergit com una font d'energia nova i sostenible, que és ecològica i rendible si la producció és a gran escala. En l'escenari actual, els dispositius fotovoltaics econòmics i de gran eficiència de conversió estan ben posicionats per a la generació d'electricitat neta i sostenible. Les cèl·lules solars basades en silici dominen aquest mercat des de fa molts anys. Per a la fabricació i producció de cèl·lules solars basades en silici, es requereixen tècniques de fabricació sofisticades que fan que el panell solar sigui costós. Per altra banda estan les cel·les solars de capa fina, que estan guanyant importància a causa de l'intensificació de les capacitats de fabricació. La tecnologia de capa fina és una de les tecnologies més rentables i eficients per a la fabricació de cel solars, i és un tema d'intensa investigació en la fotovoltaica industrial. La tecnologia de capa fina és més econòmica que altres tecnologies perquè els dispositius utilitzen menys material i estan basats en diversos tipus de materials semiconductors que absorbeixen la llum. Entre aquests materials, les cèl·lules solars de kesterita que utilitzen CZTS, CZTSe i les seves aleacions CZTSSe poden convertir-se en el reemplaçament òptim als absorbents de calcopirita. Aquests materials presenten unes característiques òptiques i elèctriques sobresalientes i tenen un gap òptic directe amb una banda prohibida que oscil·la entre 1,4eV i 1,5eV i un coeficient d'absorció, \alpha>{10}^4{cm}^{-1}. Aquestes característiques han propiciat que les Les kesteritas estan sent molt investigades per la comunitat fotovoltaica de capes primes. D'acord amb el límit de Shockley-Queisser, l'eficiència de conversió per a una cel·la solar basada en CZTS és d'aproximadament 28%. Aquesta eficiència és teòricament possible a través de l'ajust de la banda prohibida, però tot i així, encara no s'ha pogut assolir experimentalment, probablement a causa de la incomprensió del funcionament dels dispositius. Per a una millor comprensió de les característiques i funcionament dels dispositius, la modelització numèrica pot jugar un paper important al permetre estudiar diferents estructures de sistemes que poden estalviar temps i costos a la comunitat científica-tècnica. En aquest treball, s'ha dut a terme una modelització numèrica per estimar i analitzar l'efecte de paràmetres físics com l'espessor i la concentració de dopatge de la capa absorbent, la capa tampó i la capa finestra, a més d'estudiar l'efecte de la temperatura i l'efecte de la potència d'il·luminació del sol en el rendiment del dispositiu. L'anàlisi numèrica dels dispositius es va realitzar amb el programari de simulació denominat "Solar Cell Capacitance Simulator" (SCAPS-1D). Per això es va analitzar una estructura senzilla p-n-n^+ utilitzant molibdé com contacte posterior i FTO com a finestra òptica i contacte frontal i seguint la seqüència de materials Mo/CZTS/CdS/ZnO/FTO. A través de l'anàlisi, es va estudiar el rendiment de les cel·les solars amb la variació en l'espessor de l'absorbent per trobar l'espessor òptim de la capa absorbent. També es va estudiar l'efecte de la concentració del dopatge i de la funció de treball del metall. Després de la visualització d'una estructura de dispositiu bàsic en SCAPS-1D, es model una cel·la solar experimental basada en CZTS. Els resultats de les cel·les solars CZTS dissenyats experimentalment es simularen per primera vegada en l'entorn SCAPS-1D. Els resultats simulats de SCAPS-1D es van comparar amb els resultats experimentals. Després de l'optimització dels paràmetres de la celda, es va incrementar l'eficiència de conversió d'un dispositiu optimitzat i, a partir del modelatge, es va descobrir que el rendiment del dispositiu es millora a l'augmentar la vida útil dels minoritaris, cosa que es aconsegueix amb la incorporació d'un camp elèctric a la superfície del con
[EN] The solar cell has emerged as a newer and a relatively sustainable energy source, that is eco-friendly and cost-effective if the production is on a larger scale. In the current scenario, the economic and high-power conversion efficiency photovoltaic devices without degradation of materials are designed for the generation of electricity. The silicon-based solar cells dominated the market for many years. For the manufacturing and production of silicon-based solar cells, sophisticated fabrication techniques are required that make the solar panel costly. Due to intensification in manufacturing capabilities, thin film solar cells are gaining significance. Thin film technology is one of the most cost-effective and efficient technologies for the manufacturing of solar cells, and it is an excellent subject of intense research in the photovoltaic industry. Thin film technology is economical than other technologies because devices have relatively less material and are based on various types of light absorbing semiconductor materials. Among these materials, kesterite solar cells utilizing CZTS, CZTSe and their alloys CZTSSe are emerging as the most auspicious replacement for the chalcopyrite absorbers. The outstanding electrical and optical features having direct optical band gap ranges among 1.4eV to 1.5eV and large absorption coefficient \alpha\ >{10}^4{cm}^{-1} of CZTS have made it very interesting in the thin film community. According to the Shockley-Queisser limit, the optimum conversion efficiency of around 28\ % is theoretically possible from a CZTS based solar cell by tuning the band gap, but still, it is not experimentally possible to achieve 28% conversion efficiency from a solar cell due to lack of understanding of device characteristics. For a better understanding of device characteristics, numerical modeling can play a significant role by modeling different device structures that can save time and cost of the research community. In this work, numerical modeling was carried out for estimating and analyzing the effect of physical parameters such as thickness and doping concentration of absorber, buffer and window layers, temperature effect and effect of illumination power of the sun on device performance. Device modeling had performed on the dedicated simulation software "Solar Cell Capacitance Simulator" (SCAPS-1D). To achieve this task first, a simple {p-n-n}^+ structure for Mo/CZTS/CdS/ZnO/FTO had been analyzed with molybdenum as back contact and FTO as a front contact. Through analysis, it had been found that solar cell performance was affected by variation in absorber thickness, doping concentration, and metal work function. After visualization of a basic device structure in SCAPS-1D, CZTS based experimental solar cell had been modeled. Experimentally designed CZTS solar cell results were first simulated in SCAPS-1D environment. The SCAPS-1D simulated results were then compared with experimental results. After optimization of cell parameters, the conversion efficiency of an optimized device was increased and from modeling, it had been found that device performance was improved by improving minority carrier lifetime and integration of back surface field at the back contact. Based on the results presented, it was found that recombination in a solar cell can greatly affect the performance of a solar cell. Therefore, a new structure (Back\ contact/CFTS/ZnS/Zn(O,S)/FTO) was modeled and analyzed in which interface recombination is reduced by optimizing the band gap of Zn(O,S) layer. Based on different device structure modeling, it was found that solar cell with structure CFTS/ZnS/Zn(O,S)/FTO can exhibit an efficiency of 26.11% with optimized physical parameters like absorber thickness layer of 4\mu m and acceptor concentration density of 2\times{10}^{18}\ {cm}^{-3}. The proposed results will give a valuable guideline for the feasible fabrication and designing of high-power conversion efficiency solar cells.
Khattak, YH. (2019). Modeling of High Power Conversion Efficiency Thin Film Solar Cells [Tesis doctoral no publicada]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/118802
TESIS
Spehar, Martin Edward Jr. "Numerical Simulations of Thin-Film Solar Cells with Novel Architectures". Bowling Green State University / OhioLINK, 2021. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=bgsu1626276515324644.
Testo completoLisco, Fabiana. "High rate deposition processes for thin film CdTe solar cells". Thesis, Loughborough University, 2015. https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/2134/17965.
Testo completoMadugu, Mohammad Lamido. "Processing of semiconductors and thin film solar cells using electroplating". Thesis, Sheffield Hallam University, 2016. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.706121.
Testo completoWellings, Jayne Sara. "Electrodeposition of semiconductors for applications in thin film solar cells". Thesis, Sheffield Hallam University, 2009. http://shura.shu.ac.uk/3214/.
Testo completoMuckley, Eric S. "Optimization of film morphology for the performance of organic thin film solar cells". Thesis, California State University, Long Beach, 2013. http://pqdtopen.proquest.com/#viewpdf?dispub=1523341.
Testo completoThe power conversion efficiency of organic thin film solar cells must be improved before they can become commercially competitive alternatives to silicon-based photovoltaics. Exciton diffusion and charge carrier migration in organic films are strongly influenced by film morphology, which can be controlled by the substrate temperature during film growth. Zinc-phthalocyaninelbuckminsterfullerene bilayer film devices are fabricated with substrate temperatures between 25°C and 224°C and their solar cell performance is investigated here. The device open-circuit voltage, efficiency, and fill factor all exhibit peaks when films are grown at temperatures between 160°C and 180°C, which is likely a result of both the increase in shunt resistance and reduction in undesirable back diode effects which occur between l00°C and 180°C. The device performance can also be attributed to changes in the film crystallite size, roughness, and abundance of pinholes, as well as the occurrence of crystalline phase transitions which occur in both zinc-phthalocyanine and buckminsterfullerene between 150°C and 200°C. The unusually high open-circuit voltage (1.2 V), low short-circuit current density (0.03 mA/cm2), and low device efficiency (0.04%) reported here are reminiscent of single layer phthalocyanine-based Schottky solar cells, which suggests that pinholes in bilayer film devices can effectively lead to the formation of Schottky diodes.
Ullah, Hanif. "Simulation studies of photovoltaic thin film devices". Doctoral thesis, Universitat Politècnica de València, 2015. http://hdl.handle.net/10251/48800.
Testo completoUllah, H. (2015). Simulation studies of photovoltaic thin film devices [Tesis doctoral no publicada]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/48800
TESIS
Alfadhili, Fadhil K. "Development of Back Contacts for CdTe Thin Films Solar Cells". University of Toledo / OhioLINK, 2020. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=toledo1588962981116943.
Testo completoMorgan, Peter Neil. "Metastable phenomena in hydrogenated amorphous silicon thin film transistors". Thesis, University of Cambridge, 1995. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.387749.
Testo completoHariri, Abdul Kader. "Structural and electrical characteristics of CdS-Cu2S thin film solar cells". Thesis, University of Hull, 1985. http://hydra.hull.ac.uk/resources/hull:4707.
Testo completoBapanapalli, Srilatha. "Cds/cdte thin film solar cells with zinc stannate buffer layer". [Tampa, Fla.] : University of South Florida, 2005. http://purl.fcla.edu/fcla/etd/SFE0001004.
Testo completoMantilla, Pérez Paola. "Multi-junction thin film solar cells for an optimal light harvesting". Doctoral thesis, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, 2017. http://hdl.handle.net/10803/406044.
Testo completoLa fotovoltaica de capa delgada engloba un grupo de tecnologías capaces de capturar la luz en tan sólo unos pocos nanómetros de espesor. Su bajo costo de manufactura, flexibilidad y bajo peso, hace a las capas delgadas candidatas ideales para la integración en edificios. En particular, las celdas orgánicas pueden proveer una transparencia de alta calidad similar a las ventanas convencionales irrealizable con tecnologías basadas en Silicio. Sin embargo, para la producción de electricidad a gran escala en donde la eficiencia es, tal vez, el factor determinante, existen nuevas tecnologías como las celdas solares de perovskita que pueden resultar más adecuadas. Al momento de escribir esta tesis, las eficiencias de celdas de perovskita de simple unión casi duplican la de las mejores celdas orgánicas de simple unión. Una limitante de ambas tecnologías, en especial de las celdas orgánicas y en menor medida de las perovskitas, es la baja movilidad de las cargas. Esta, junto a otras desventajas de los absorbentes orgánicos y perovskitas limita su espesor al rango de los 100 a los 130 nm, y entre los 500 a 600 nm, respectivamente. En resumen, el manejo de la luz debe constituir un ingrediente esencial para el diseño de los dispositivos, tal que se consiga un desempeño óptimo en la aplicación para la cual sean considerados. En esta tesis, con el fin de alcanzar un aprovechamiento óptimo de la luz y por ende aumentar el desempeño de las celdas solares de capa delgada, utilizamos dos enfoques. Por un lado, aumentamos el espesor total de material absorbente dentro del dispositivo sin incrementar el espesor de las capas actives individuales y por otro lado, combinamos absorbentes complementarios para cubrir una porción más amplia del espectro solar. Estos enfoques conllevan al doble reto de encontrar la distribución de campo electromagnético óptima dentro de una estructura compleja de multicapas con dos o más capas activas, junto a la implementación de una recolección o recombinación de cargas efectiva por parte de las capas intermedias encargadas de conectar dos subceldas adyacentes. En el caso de las celdas orgánicas, consideramos celdas de multiunión usando el mismo material activo para todas las subceldas. Para implementarlas, se realizan estructuras cuyas capas activas no excedan los 100 nm. También estudiamos configuraciones donde los materiales tienen absorciones complementarias usando perovskitas. En ambos casos, sobretodo en el primero, se requiere un método sistemático para optimizar el aprovechamiento de la luz. Para obtener las configuraciones óptimas empleamos una estrategia de integración inversa junto con un cálculo del campo eléctrico basado en el modelo de matriz de transferencia. Además, desarrollamos nuevas estrategias para optimizar la colección de cargas en las capas de interconexión de las subceldas aplicables a dispositivos tipo tandem, triple, 4-terminales y serie-paralelo.
Manley, Phillip [Verfasser]. "Simulation of Plasmonic Nanoparticles in Thin Film Solar Cells / Phillip Manley". Berlin : Freie Universität Berlin, 2016. http://d-nb.info/1107011779/34.
Testo completoFeng, Ping-Chi, e 馮鈵棋. "Organic thin film solar cells". Thesis, 2010. http://ndltd.ncl.edu.tw/handle/63381782999491543447.
Testo completo國立臺灣海洋大學
光電科學研究所
98
Organic photovoltaic devices have gained a broad interest due to their potential for large-area low-cost solar cells. In this thesis, we used a series of novel p-type small organic molecules as the electron donor and fullerene derivatives (C60, PCBM) as the electron acceptor to form simple bulk heterojunction solar cells. Among them, LCC1 shows high hole mobility (h ca.10-4~ 10-5 cm2/Vs), good absorption coefficients, small molecular weight and favourable solution proceessability, which can be applied in thermal evaporation and solution process. Here, we successfully deposited photoactive layer by cosublimation of LCC1:C60 and by spin-coating mixtures of LCC1:PCBM. In thermal evaporation, LCC1:C60 in ratio of 3:1 has best performance. Short circuit current density is 2.74 mA/cm2, while the maximum efficiency could be 0.76 %. In solution process, LCC1:PCBM in ratio of 1:1 that has best performance. Short circuit current density is 3.21 mA/cm2, while the maximum efficiency could be 1.06 %.
Huang, Da-Jhe, e 黃大哲. "a-SiC:H thin film solar cells". Thesis, 2013. http://ndltd.ncl.edu.tw/handle/4bd5ev.
Testo completo國立中興大學
電機工程學系所
101
In this thesis, hydrogenated amorphous silicon carbide (a-SiC:H) thin-film solar cells were prepared by using 13.56 MHz pulse-modulation plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (Pulse-PECVD). (1) Modulation of plasma turn-on time (ton) to fabricate single i-layer, (2) inserting buffer layers at the p/i and i/n interfaces, and (3) step change ton to prepare graded bandgap (Eg) i-layer, using these experimental design, the influence of different bandgap single i-layer, buffer layers, and graded bandgap i-layer on the performance of a-SiC: H solar cells were investigated. For pulse modulation of ton to produce the single i-layer a-SiC: H with various Eg solar cells, as ton changes from 5 ms to 40 ms, the deposition rate is increased from 0.046 nm/s to 0.199 nm/s, and the Eg is increased from 1.70 eV to 1.765 eV. The absorption coefficient and the density of the film were decreased. The open-circuit voltage (Voc) of the solar cells is increased from 0.822 V to 0.872 V, but short-circuit current density (Jsc) is decreased from 11.91 mA/cm2 to 10.24 mA/cm2, and fill factor (FF) is also decreased from 72.8 % to 66.5 %. Due to the reduction of Jsc and FF, the energy transfer efficiency is decreased from 7.12% to 5.94%. For insertion of a thin (15 nm) a-SiC:H buffer layer at p/i interface, as ton increases from 10 ms, to 20 ms and to 40 ms, the Voc and FF are increased.The performance of a-SiC: H solar cell can be improved with the Voc, Jsc, FF, and energy transfer efficiency f 0.837 V, 11.87 mA/cm2,73.7%, and 7.32 %.For insertion of a thin (15nm) a-SiC: H buffer layer at i/n interface, as ton increases from 5 ms,to 10 ms, and to 20 ms, the Voc,Jsc, and FF are decreased. The performance of a-SiC: H solar cell can be improved with the Voc, Jsc, FF, and energy transfer efficiency of 0.86 V, 10.41 mA/cm2,70.1 %, and 6.72 %. For step change ton to prepare graded bandgap a-SiC:H i-layer solar cells, the graded bandgap solar cell has the effective Eg of 1.732 eV, that the Jsc and FF relative to those of the i-layer with the Eg of 1.765 eV solar cell are increased from 10.41 mA/cm2 to 11.19 mA/cm2,and 70% to 71.7%, but are not higher than the i-layer with the Eg of 1.70 eV solar cell, which the Jsc and FFare 11.87 mA/cm2 and 73.7%. The Voc of graded bandgap solar cell relative to that of the i-layer with the Eg of 1.70 eV solar cellis increased from 0.837 V to 0.860 V, which is very close tothe value (0.862V) of i-layer with the Egof 1.765 eV solar cell. The energy transfer efficiency of graded bandgap solar cell with respect to the i-layer with the Eg of 1.765 eV solar cell is increased from 6.27% to 6.90%, but is not higher than the value (7.32%) of the i-layer with the Eg of 1.70 eV solar cell.
Chuang, Wen-Jie, e 莊雯倢. "Performance Analysis of CIGS Thin Film Solar Cells and Device Simulations of CdTe Thin Film Solar Cells". Thesis, 2018. http://ndltd.ncl.edu.tw/handle/btczm8.
Testo completo國立東華大學
電機工程學系
106
The two-step process including the deposition of the metal precursors followed by heating the metal precursors in a vacuum environment of Se overpressure was employed for the preparation of Cu(In,Ga)Se2 (CIGS) films. The correlations among the two-step process parameters, film properties, and cell performance were studied. The results demonstrated that the CIGS films selenized at the relatively high Se flow rate of 25 Å/s exhibited the improved surface morphologies. With the given selenization conditions, the efficiency of 12.5% for the fabricated CIGS solar cells was achieved. The features of co-evaporation processes including the single-stage, bi-layer, and three-stage process were discussed. The characteristics of the co-evaporated CIGS solar cells were presented. Not only the surface morphologies but also the grading bandgap structures were crucial to the improvement of the open-circuit voltage of the CIGS solar cells. Efficiencies of over 17% for the co-evaporated CIGS solar cells have been achieved. Furthermore, the critical factors and the mechanisms governing the performance of the CIGS solar cells were addressed. In addition, a baseline model and an advanced model of CdTe solar cells with the selected semiconductor properties fitting to the performance parameters of the champion CdTe solar cells were developed. The responsible factors for the efficiency improvement of the high-performance CdTe solar cell were analyzed. The thin CdS films, and the low defect densities and high carrier mobilities of the CdS films were the crucial factors for the enhancement of the short-circuit current density. With the suppression of carrier recombination, the open-circuit voltage and the fill factor of the CdTe solar cells with the low defect densities in either CdTe films or interdiffusion layer were enhanced. Furthermore, the carrier collection was impeded for the interdiffusion layer with a high defect density, leading to a decrease in the short-circuit current density. Moreover, the simulation results revealed that the efficiency of 20-21% was achieved for the CdTe solar cells with the low defect densities and the high carrier concentrations of the CdTe films.
Duarte, Eduardo Manuel Ribeiro. "Low-Cost Thin Film Perovskite Solar Cells". Master's thesis, 2018. http://hdl.handle.net/10362/47632.
Testo completoFathi, Ehsanollah. "Thin Film Solar Cells on Transparent Plastic Foils". Thesis, 2011. http://hdl.handle.net/10012/5952.
Testo completoTang, Ming, e 湯銘. "Simulation Study of Novel Thin Film Solar Cells". Thesis, 2011. http://ndltd.ncl.edu.tw/handle/ex9xp9.
Testo completo國立中興大學
電機工程學系所
99
Due to the material cost dropping and the efficiency improving, the manufacturing cost can be reduced under US$ 0.7/W. Thin film solar cells become the most potential photovoltaic cells. In this dissertation, the basic theorem and the electrical character of photovoltaic are first introduced; and, the advantage/disadvantage and the limitation of traditional thin film solar cells are discussed. For the solutions, novel thin film solar cells are then provided. The main idea of novel solar cells is based on the dividing methods of photon absorption and carrier transport to improve the photo voltaic efficiency. TCAD, a popular tool for device simulations, is used to verify the idea. Before the simulation, the material character and the model parameters of the silicon-based solar cells, such as density of state for the a-Si(a-SiC) band structure, generation and recombination model and so on, are first studied to calibrate and simulate the device electrical behavior. The AM 1.5 solar radiation and transfer matrix (TMM) are further used to simulate the optical field in the novel cells. Finally, these models are used to simulate, to compare the traditional cells with the novel cells, and to find the efficiency improvement of the novel cells. The different cells dimensions are also used to see the change of the efficiency. The results can prove the thinking for this study and provide the consultation for the future work.
Ho, Yin-Lun, e 何映綸. "Study of p-Cu2O Thin Film Solar Cells". Thesis, 2011. http://ndltd.ncl.edu.tw/handle/5sv245.
Testo completo國立臺北科技大學
材料科學與工程研究所
99
The Cu2O thin films were prepared on Corning Eagle 2000 glass substrate by reactive direct current magnetron sputtering. The influences of oxygen flow rate, argon flow rate and annealing temperature on the structures and properties of deposited films were investigated. Mixtures of Cu, Cu2O, Cu4O3 and CuO with different optical and electrical properties were found to form under different process conditions. Cu2O thin films that are suitable for absorption layer in solar cell can be obtained by reactive magnetron sputtering at 200 °C under 1.65 × 10-2 Torr oxygen pressure and annealed by rapid thermal annealing (RTA) system at different temperatures. Various degree of reduction is also observed by varying annealing temperatures. These films are characterized using UV-VIS photometer, four-point probe system, Hall measurement system, and solar cell efficiency measurement system. It is found that 600 °C annealing is optimum to obtain the required Cu2O thin film structures which also contains trace amount of Cu phase. Such formed p-Cu2O was combined with n-AZO film to form hetrojunction. It demonstrated an open circuit voltage (Voc), short circuit current (Isc) and fill factor (FF) of 0.263 V, 5.72 mA and 0.323, respectively. The value of conversion efficiency is smaller than expected which could possibly be improved by reducing reverse leakage current.
Chen, Jian-Liang, e 陳建良. "Process Development of CZTS Thin-Film Solar Cells". Thesis, 2014. http://ndltd.ncl.edu.tw/handle/08429226114437590337.
Testo completo國立雲林科技大學
電子工程系
102
The indium and gallium of CIGS are rare materials in the earth, and the hydrogen selenide (H2Se) is a toxic gas in selenization process. In recent years, some alternative absorbent materials have been developed for the thin film solar cells, such as Cu2ZnSnS4 (CZTS), Cu2ZnSnSe4 (CZTSe), and other similar quaternary compounds of chalcopyrite structures. In this work, copper zinc tin sulfide (Cu2ZnSnS4) films were investigated as the absorbent layer for the thin film solar cells. The CZTS film is of p-type direct bandgap semiconductor and is suitable as the absorbent layer for the thin-film solar cells due to its low cost, non-toxicity, abundant material and direct bandgap. In this work, the structure of the thin film solar cell with CZTS film is Al/ITO/ZnO/ZnS/CZTS/Mo/SLG. The physical properties of the deposited CZTS films were characterized with Field-Emission Scanning Electron Microscope (FESEM), XRD, UV-VIS analysis. The photovoltaic conversion efficiencies of the CZTS solar cells were measured with solar simulator. The experimental results showed that the CZTS film has good surface morphology with sputtering power of 80W. The surface morphology of the CZTS film is relatively flat which is consistent with the XRD analysis, and after annealing 500℃,there is no material of secondary phase formed. The EDS results show that with increased annealing temperatures, the Cu/Zn+Sn ratio is increased that the ratios of Cu/Zn+Sn, Zn/Sn, S/metal are closer to the ideal values. The optimized annealing temperature is 500℃ that the atomic ratios of Cu/Zn+Sn, Zn/Sn, and S/metal are 0.725, 0.894, and 0.951, respectively. The absorption coefficients of the prepared CZTS films are about 104 cm-1. The energy band gaps of the prepared CZTS films are about 1.5 eV. However, the photovoltaic conversion efficiency of the CZTS thin film solar cell still needs to be improved.
Lin, Cong-jun, e 林琮鈞. "Surface textured GaN-based thin-film solar cells". Thesis, 2014. http://ndltd.ncl.edu.tw/handle/38355012016635545541.
Testo completo國立臺灣科技大學
光電工程研究所
102
In this work, GaN surface roughening techniques were developed and used in solar cells to increase the photocurrent density. Typical commercial GaN LED wafers that we used to fabricate GaN solar cells have very thin active layers resulting in quite low solar light absorption. Therefore we added a surface scattering layer by surface roughening to increase the optical length of the incident light in the active layer in order to increase light absorption and photocurrent density. In this work, SiO2 sub-micron spheres of approximately 300 nm in diameter were used as a mask and spin-coated on GaN wafers of more than 70 % in area coverage percentage. Followed by ICP-RIE (inductively-coupled plasma reactive ion etching) dry etching, scatters of various sizes and depths on GaN surface were produced under different setting of processing variables. Then we continuously processed the textured wafers into solar cells and compared their photocurrents with the ones without surface textures. In results, because the roughening of GaN surface also increased Schottky-contact areas and surface defects/surface recombination centers, the open circuit voltage (Voc) was slightly decreased and the series resistance was increased; consequently, the fill factor and the power conversion efficiency were also affected. When the wafer surface was not overly etched, and the width and depth of the scatters were about 174 nm and 64 nm, respectively, the short circuit current density and the external quantum efficiency were improved by ~18% compared to the ones without the surface textures
Jhong, Ming-Sian, e 鍾明憲. "Study On Nanostructure Silicon Thin Film Solar Cells". Thesis, 2010. http://ndltd.ncl.edu.tw/handle/89393116443933959975.
Testo completo國立中興大學
光電工程研究所
98
In this thesis,at first we utilize the method of forming neat PS nanoball lithograth to apply on a-Si glass substrate,and then fabricate a-Si nanorod by using ICP-RIE.Second,we apply hydrogen surface plasma on a-Si nanorod.And last,we utilize PECVD system deposit N-type a-Si thin film, to fabricate nanostructure silicon thin film solar cells. My experiment result show that: in proper the hydrogen plasma power,processing time,pressure.We can get the optimal processing condition of hydrogen surface plasma.Using the optimal hydrogen surface plasma to deal with the a-Si nanorod which had discussed in proper the ICP power,RF power,etching pressure,etching gas flow,etching time.The nanostructure device can be improved by hydrogen surface plasma. Then,we utilize the UV-VIS,and IPCE to disscuss the property of absorptive absorpticn of i nanorod or not,at the same time,we analyze the property of electric to the different type device which are PI/N , P/I nanorod/N , P/I nanorod/H2 plasma/N.