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Articoli di riviste sul tema "Roman period"
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Han, Zexu. "Negotiation Techniques in the Diplomacy of the Roman Empire to the Hun Empire During Attila Period". Lifelong Education 9, n. 5 (2 agosto 2020): 44. http://dx.doi.org/10.18282/le.v9i5.1202.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
The diplomacy of the Roman Empire is usually regarded as the appendage of the Roman military, but its diplomacy after the decline of the Roman military is seldom studied. The arguments presented here analyze the diplomatic negotiation skills of the Roman Empire during the Attila period, that is, the negotiation skills of the Romans when the Roman army lost its power.
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Rizzetto, Mauro, Pam J. Crabtree e Umberto Albarella. "Livestock Changes at the Beginning and End of the Roman Period in Britain: Issues of Acculturation, Adaptation, and ‘Improvement’". European Journal of Archaeology 20, n. 3 (27 marzo 2017): 535–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/eaa.2017.13.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
This article reviews aspects of the development of animal husbandry in Roman Britain, focusing in particular on the Iron Age/Roman and Roman/early medieval transitions. By analysing the two chronological extremes of the period of Roman influence in Britain we try to identify the core characteristics of Romano-British husbandry by using case studies, in particular from south-eastern Britain, investigated from the perspective of the butchery and morphometric evidence they provide. Our aim is to demonstrate the great dynamism of Romano-British animal husbandry, with substantial changes in livestock management occurring at the beginning, the end, and during the period under study. It is suggested that such changes are the product of interactions between different cultural and social traditions, which can be associated with indigenous and external influences, but also numerous other causes, ranging from ethnic origins to environmental, geographic, political, and economic factors.
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Petts, D. "Elite Settlements in the Roman and Sub-Roman Period". Theoretical Roman Archaeology Journal, n. 1996 (11 aprile 1997): 101. http://dx.doi.org/10.16995/trac1996_101_112.
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CHEBINI, Sabrina. "La Numidia Post-massinissiana: la lotta di potere e le guerre giugurtine. Come Roma riuscì a sopprimere la minaccia giugurtina?" ALTRALANG Journal 3, n. 01 (31 luglio 2021): 90–107. http://dx.doi.org/10.52919/altralang.v3i01.105.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
ABSTRACT: With the Third Punic War, Scipio Emiliano had settled the African question, constituting a province which still had good relations with the kingdom of Numidia ruled by Massinissa, whose politics had attracted Roman merchants and businessmen to Africa, romans and italics. attracted by African riches, Rome was therefore grateful for the relations it had with Numidia. the kingdom after the death of Massinissa had passed to the eldest son Mecipsa, on the latter's death, the kingdom was disputed by the three main heirs, among them, the most unscrupulous was Giugurta, adopted son of Mecipsa, thus a long struggle for supremacy broke out. This article deals with the period of the Roman conquest in North Africa, with particular dedication to the period post- Massinissa and the analysis of the politico-social scenario of Numidia. What role did Giugurta play? How did Rome respond to this threat?
RIASSUNTO: Con la terza guerra punica, Scipione Emiliano sbarcò sul territorio di Cartagine, dopo questa grandiosa vittoria, l’Africa del Nord divenne provincia romana, Roma e Numidia avevano sempre mantenuto buoni rapporti, infatti la politica di Massinissa aveva atterrato in Africa commercianti e uomini d’affari, romani ed italici attratti dalle ricchezze africane, dunque Roma era contenta dei rapporti che interattiva con la Numidia, il regno dopo la morte di Massinissa era passato al figlio maggiore Mecipsa, alla morte di quest’ultimo, il regno fu conteso dai tre principali eredi, tra i quali il più spregiudicato era Giugurta, figlio adottivo di Mecipsa, scoppiò cosi una lunga lotto per la supremazia. Nel presente articolo sono trattati i momenti della conquista romana in Nord-Africa, con particolare dedizione al periodo post-massinissiano e all’analisi dello scenario politico-sociale della Numidia. Quale il ruolo giocato da Giugurta ? Come Roma rispose a tale minaccia?
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Dinu, Dana. "The Roman Army during the Regal Period". International conference KNOWLEDGE-BASED ORGANIZATION 24, n. 1 (1 giugno 2018): 77–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/kbo-2018-0011.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
Abstract The intention of this article is to give a brief overview of how the military power was organised in Rome during the regal period. There is little information about the military organisation of the Romans between 753 and 509 BC. However, some written historical sources have enabled us to reconstruct some aspects of the military life in early Rome. The Indo-European studies and the comparative mythology of the Indo-European peoples also help to understand how the warrior function was valued in early Roman society. Like the other Indo-European peoples, the Romans structured their society in a system reflecting the ideology of the three functions represented, according to G. Dumézil, by the priests, warriors and herdsmen-cultivators. The same conception can be found at the theological level, within the triad Jupiter, Mars, Quirinus, the most important gods of Rome. Romulus, the founder of Rome, is the son of the god Mars, thereby consecrating the predominance of the warlike function within the trifunctional system. The army has always been the main instrument that assured the defence of Rome, but especially the expansion and preservation of its power over the conquered territories
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Pliakou, Georgia. "The basin of Ioannina in central Epirus, northwestern Greece, from the Early Iron Age to the Roman period". Archaeological Reports 64 (novembre 2018): 133–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0570608418000248.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
This article offers an overview of the habitation history of the basin of Ioannina Epirus, from the Early Iron Age to the Roman period. The numerous settlements in this region experienced continuous, often uninterrupted, habitation from the Late Bronze Age to the Hellenistic or even Roman Imperial period. The foundation of fortified settlements/acropoleis in the late fourth to early third century BC should no longer be interpreted as a result of a synoecism, since unfortified villages continued to flourish. From the Augustan period onwards, Romans seem to have settled in the area, although it is also possible that the local population adopted Roman habits.
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Vnukov, Sergey Yu. "Sinopean Amphorae of the Roman Period". Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 16, n. 1-2 (2010): 361–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/157005711x560408.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
Abstract The main aims of this paper are to review briefly the various types of Sinopean amphorae of the Roman period, paying particular attention to newly-discovered and rare forms of these vessels, and to demonstrate their general evolution tendencies. Sinopean amphorae of the Roman period belong to two production traditions (local Hellenistic and pan-Roman), but are all made of the same fabric. The main problem when studying the Roman vessels is the lack of dated assemblages of the late 1st and 2nd centuries AD. As a result, there is a gap in the evidence between the evolution of the early Roman amphora and the vessels produced from the 3rd century onwards. Several new and rare varieties of Sinopean amphorae of this period, of both production traditions, are described in the article. They offer the opportunity to fill partly the gap between the early Roman Sinopean amphorae and the later vessels manufactured in Demirci, and to specify the typology and general evolution of the amphorae produced in Sinope.
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Fawcett, Peter. "Athenian Taxes in the Hellenistic Period". Hesperia: The Journal of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens 93, n. 1 (gennaio 2024): 29–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.2972/hes.2024.a922192.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
ABSTRACT: This article surveys modern scholarship on Athenian taxes and tax administration in the Hellenistic period, from the death of Alexander the Great to the sack of Athens by the Romans in 86 bce, and on the benefits that Athens derived from the tax-free island of Delos after 167 bce. I highlight the transition from compulsory to voluntary payments as taxes, and examine continuities and discontinuities in Athenian taxes from the Classical period to the Hellenistic period, as well as their influences on Roman taxes.
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Wilson, Pete. "The Roman Period Name for Adel". Britannia 47 (2 maggio 2016): 280–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0068113x1600012x.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
ABSTRACTAntiquarian and more recent discussions of Roman period place-names in western West Yorkshire are considered, along with possible locations for Cambodunum, with the Roman period site at Adel identified as the latter.
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Bruyako, I. V. "Miscellaneous Romani (several rare findings of the Roman period from Kartal)". Archaeological News, n. 35 (2022): 73–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.31600/1817-6976-2022-35-73-80.
Testo completoTesi sul tema "Roman period"
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Clarke, Katherine Jane. "Between geography and history : Strabo's Roman world". Thesis, University of Oxford, 1996. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.361861.
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Patten, Shirley Fay. "Pottery from the late period to the early Roman period from Dakhleh Oasis, Egypt". Australia : Macquarie University, 2000. http://hdl.handle.net/1959.14/44492.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
Thesis (PhD)--Macquarie University, Division of Humanities, Dept. of Ancient History, 2000.Bibliography: p. 475-498.
PART I -- Thesis introduction -- Location, environment and routes of the Western Desert -- Cultural, historical and archaeological setting of Dakhleh Oasis -- Introduction to the vessel typology -- Introduction to the site catalogue -- Technology of pottery manufacture -- Fabrics and wares -- Conclusion -- PART II -- The vessel typology -- The site catalogue.
This thesis analyses a body of largely unpublished ceramic material from Dakhleh Oasis in the Western Desert of Egypt. The material is primarily from the survey of Dakhleh Oasis and the testing of sites by members of the Dakhleh Oasis Project and, except for some Phase 4 material recovered from excavations at Ismant el-Kharab, is unstratified. It covers a thousand years of Egyptian pottery-making from the eighth century BC to the late second century AD. -- A comprehensive survey of published and unpublished material from other sites in Egypt and adjacent regions has been undertaken to acquire comparative material for the pottery from Dakhleh Oasis. In addition, a study of the technical characteristics of the vessels that have remained accessible has been undertaken to describe and explain ancient pottery practices and to build up a framework for comparative purposes. -- With this body of information, a vessel typology divided into two series, each of which are further divided into two phases, has been devised and the chronology of the vessels determined. This ceramic typology has been used to compare surveyed sites of different utilisation - cemetery, settlement and temple sites - and to establish a dating system for these sites. The resulting chronology will be a guide to the determination of future excavations in the oasis and will assist in the on-going study of the socio-economic development of the oasis. The typology also provides a corpus of pottery for the processing of material from future excavations in Dakhleh Oasis and information for other ceramicists working in Egypt and elsewhere. -- The comparative survey of ceramic material from other sites demonstrates that Dakhleh Oasis, although a remote region in the Western Desert of Egypt, maintained contact with the Nile Valley and more distant areas. It also shows that, while this interaction influenced local pottery styles, the oasis retained and developed its own pottery traditions. -- In addition, a preliminary analysis has been made of fabrics and clays for descriptive purposes and to increase knowledge of the ancient ceramics from the oasis. -- A database has also been built to store and manipulate the information on this extensive body of ceramic material from Dakhleh Oasis. The pottery drawings have been produced in a format readily accessible for electronic transfer to researchers in the field of Egyptian ceramics.
Mode of access: World Wide Web.
498, [199] p. ill. (some col.), maps
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Fox, Matthew. "Roman historical myths : the regal period in Augustean literature /". Oxford : Clarendon press, 1996. http://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb37670567g.
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Franconi, Tyler Vaill. "The economic development of the Rhine river basin in the Roman period (30 BC - AD 406)". Thesis, University of Oxford, 2014. http://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:5f6cc4b5-ecb5-4a34-97b6-d5da14073e08.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
The economic development of frontier regions has been neglected in the study of the Roman economy. Traditional core/periphery models suggest that frontiers were marginal zones dependent on a wealthy Mediterranean core, and this view has dominated scholarship for more than thirty years. In light of recent work on the Roman economy, it is clear that many old models need to be reappraised; this thesis examines the economic development of frontiers through the case study of the Rhine River Basin. This region formed one of Rome’s northern frontiers for more than 400 years and has a rich tradition of detailed archaeological and historical research. Using data from the Rhine frontier, this thesis re-examines the nature of frontier economies, arguing that they were dynamic, versatile, and complex rather than subaltern and undeveloped. A new model, based in the analytic framework of economic geography, is suggested as a replacement in order to appreciate the realities and potential of frontier economies.
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Hellings, Benjamin D. R. "The monetary integration of northwest Europe during the Roman period". Thesis, University of Oxford, 2016. https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:fa95a92d-eba1-4ca0-8d13-a2d02d311a9a.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
This thesis presents a study of the monetary integration of northwest continental Europe over the course of the Roman period (c. 50 BC - AD 410). 'Integration' is employed here to describe the relationship, as conveyed by the deposition of material culture, between heterogeneous regions and their inhabitants. In order to examine integration, the study combines an unprecedented amount of data from previous regional studies as well as numerous databases and catalogues to survey coin-finds within and beyond the Roman Empire. It places the coin-finds in the context of settlement development in order to understand the nature of the coin-finds. Several approaches are employed to ensure a foundational and extensive overview of coin-finds in the study-region. The period-based case studies consider the Roman provinces and their environs as a single complex geographical unit, rather than as two separate units as a result of a distinguishable (political) frontier between Rome and the 'other'. However, the case studies identify differences within the study-region and smaller regional variations. A chapter is exploring to highlighting the limitations of the main two coin-find types employed in the thesis. The conclusion builds on the necessary and established overall patterns of coin-finds to provide some examples of how coins may have been used by the inhabitants of the study-region. The final two chapters also tie together the results from the previous period case-studies and use Denmark as a comparative case-study to compare the various degrees of integration of barbaricum and the Roman Empire. This thesis provides a much needed and long awaited overview of the Roman coin-finds from the northwest and seeks to demonstrate its use to future research.
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De, Jersey Philip. "La Tène and early Gallo-Roman north-west France". Thesis, University of Oxford, 1992. http://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:30ad673a-ad1b-4480-9e4e-0a0001878dc3.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
The basis of this research is the compilation of a gazetteer of sites and finds of the La Tène and early Gallo-Roman periods (c. 475 BC - c. 31 BC) in north-west France. Two aspects of the evidence thus collected are examined in detail: settlement and coinage. For the early La Tène period, burial evidence provides the only significant source of information, and at present it is not of sufficient quality or quantity to do more than shed light on a few specific aspects of regional development. Similarly, the settlement evidence from the later periods is also relatively scarce. However the introduction of coinage in the middle La Tène, probably via mercenaries returning from service in the Greek world, provides a much more substantial body of information on developments between the third and first centuries BC. Following a consideration of the theoretical aspects of coin use and function, all the major types of coinage in north-west France are examined in detail, and a number of problems of attribution and interpretation are discussed. It is apparent from the study of settlement and coinage that several traditional interpretations of aspects of the La Tène and early Gallo-Roman periods in north-west France need to be reassessed, in particular questions concerning the development of oppida, and the function of coinage. In the concluding chapter a model of the development of coinage in the region is suggested, illuminated where possible by the application of settlement evidence. The result demonstrates clearly the extraordinarily cohesive nature of this area, which has been termed "greater Armorica", throughout the later Iron Age and into the Gallo-Roman era.
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Eid, Nicholas. "The Roman imperial cult in Alexandria during the Julio-Claudian period /". Title page, contents and abstract only, 1995. http://web4.library.adelaide.edu.au/theses/09ARM/09arme34.pdf.
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Herring, Gerard Nicholas. "The society & economy of Poitou-Charentes in the Roman period". Thesis, University of Oxford, 1988. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.670353.
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Mailleur, Stephanie. "Imagining roman ports : the contribution of iconography to the reconstruction of roman mediterranean portscapes of the impérial period". Thesis, Lyon, 2020. http://www.theses.fr/2020LYSE2049.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
Au cours des trois premiers siècles de notre ère, Rome connaît son apogée et la domination romaine continue de s'établir tout autour de la Méditerranée. Le contrôle de la Mare Nostrum et la connexion entre Rome et ses provinces sont assurés grâce aux réseaux de ports. À l’époque impériale, les ports jouent ainsi un rôle crucial puisqu’ils permettent de maintenir un rayonnement économique et commercial tout autour de l’Empire. Plus qu’une simple interface entre la mer et laterre, les ports font l’objet d’une attention particulière et forment un réel paysage urbain, constitué de bâtiments et de monuments organisés autour de l’espace portuaire de façon scénographique et programmée, que l’on peut qualifier de « portscape » (paysage portuaire). Cette notion théorique, que j’ai développée dans cette thèse, est dérivée du concept de «townscape » (paysage de la ville) introduit par P. Zanker dans sa publication sur l’urbanisme de Pompéi publiée en 19981. Elle consiste à analyser l’organisation spatiale des bâtiments et monuments, individuellement et dans l’ensemble de l’espace portuaire, ainsi que leurs fonctions respectives. Cette approche a également pour objectif d’étudier la relation entre la fabrication de cet espace urbain et la société. Cette réflexion holistique est combinée au concept de « maritimecultural landscape » (paysage culturel maritime), introduit par C. Westerdhal en 19922, qui permet d’aborder les aspects culturels de cet espace construit constituant le cadre de vie des sociétés portuaires et de leurs activités.Le développement disciplinaire de l’archéologie sous-marine et l’intérêt croissant pour les réseaux et le commerce maritime ont mené à la multiplication des études portant sur les infrastructures portuaires au cours des dernières décennies. Malgré cela, la réalité des infrastructures portuaires reste assez mal comprise car les vestiges ne sont généralement pas très bien conservés. Il est donc fondamental d’utiliser d’autres types de sources, comme l’iconographie,pour mieux appréhender les « portscapes » romains. Sous l’Empire, les ports apparaissent fréquemment dans les représentations artistiques. Au cours de cette recherche, j’ai rassemblé un corpus de 264 images portuaires sur des supports variés : lampes, monnaies, peintures, mosaïques, sculptures, verres incisés, pierres gravées etc. Sur ces documents figurent des vues générales de paysages maritimes, des éléments architecturaux isolés de ports (tels que des phares) et des activités portuaires suggérant les infrastructures portuaires (comme des scènes de pesée ou bien des scènes de chargement/déchargement de marchandises). Bien que l’essentiel du corpus date de l’époque impériale, l’intégration de documents appartenant aux périodes préromaines et à l’Antiquité tardive permet d’établir des comparaisons diachroniques.Cette recherche constitue la première tentative d’évaluation, à grande échelle, du potentiel documentaire des sources iconographiques pour comprendre l'aspect, la disposition et le design des ports romains. Considérer les images comme sources historiques est un concept assez récent puisque l'art, longtemps considéré comme étant simplement illustratif, n’occupait qu’une place marginale dans les études d’histoire ancienne. Les images peuvent apporter, en effet, unecontribution importante pour l'étude de l'aspect architectural et urbain des principaux ports de Méditerranée car elles montrent ce qui n'existe plus archéologiquement, telles que les élévations de bâtiments portuaires, souvent réduits aujourd’hui à leurs seuls niveaux de fondations. Ainsi, cette thèse de doctorat soulève les questions de recherche suivantes : - Quelle contribution l'iconographie peut-elle apporter à notre compréhension des paysagesportuaires de l’époque impériale ? Quelles sont les caractéristiques du portscape romain selon les sources iconographiques ? Quels sont les éléments réels et quels sont les éléments standardisés ? D’où viennent cesstandards ?Under the Roman Empire, harbours played an important role for the image of the city. They were more than utilitarian constructions. The buildings and monuments were organised within the space of the port in a programmatic way that made up a genuine urban landscape that I have described as a “portscape”. This term, derived from Zanker’s townscape concept, is understood as the urban aspect, layout and design of Roman ports but also as the lived environment with its societies reflected by its cultural characteristics. Despite recent excavations conducted at Roman ports, our knowledge of portscapes under the Roman Empire is very unclear and the reality of port monuments remains poorly understood. Most known ancient Mediterranean ports are not well preserved, and often only preserved archaeologically at the level of their foundations. Whilearchaeologists are able to reconstruct a plan, understanding ports three dimensionally is at best a challenge. What did Roman ports really look like?Due to the lack of ancient sources relating to Roman ports, using iconography could be useful. This research aims to demonstrate that port depictions, quite abundant during the Imperial period and decorating various type of artistic media (coins, ceramics, mosaics, paintings, gemstones etc.), can make an important contribution for learning more about ports as they are the only source of information that allows us to understand volumetrically, the architecture of portsthat no longer survives archaeologically.Through this work, I will see how the pictorial genre of maritime landscape emerged during the Augustan period as well as the process of its diffusion, reception and standardisation in art during the Imperial period. I will also address the issue of the contexts in which port-themed decoration has been found. I will focus on the main characteristics of portscapes by means of a linguistic approach that distinguishes the different messages conveyed by images according to their contexts (domestic, funeral, politics, etc.).By means of three specific case studies, I will demonstrate how it is possible to deal with the iconographic and epigraphic evidence in order to better understand the components of Roman portscapes. Case-study 1 focuses on the weighing control systems (sacomaria). Case-study 2 studies the single monuments that decorated the portscape, such as freestanding column monuments and honorific arches. Case-study 3 aims to better understand cult spaces in portcontexts by using the example of the sanctuaries of Isis.Finally, I will focus on the urban syntax of the portscape through the case-study of the port of Leptis Magna. Enquiry will ascertain the extent to which the urban programme of its portscape corresponded to a standard design in reality and in iconography
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Wright, Nigel Richard Reginald. "Separating Romans and barbarians : rural settlement and Romano-British material culture in North Britain". University of Western Australia. School of Humanities, 2008. http://theses.library.uwa.edu.au/adt-WU2008.0124.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
This thesis investigates the role which Roman artefacts played within rural settlements in North Britain during the Romano-British period. The possibility that Roman artefacts were used by native Britons as markers of prestige is explored through the presence or absence of Roman artefact types. The more prestigious the occupants of the rural settlements were, the more likely they were to have access to a variety of exotic trade items. The methodology employed in this study has been adapted from previous studies on pottery types and settlement remains from Scotland. This thesis examines an area that centres on Hadrian's Wall, which at various times in its history acted as the frontier for the Roman Empire, as well as being a staging post for troops and a means of controlling the local population's movement. The study region includes land up to 50 kilometres either side of Hadrian's Wall, and examines rural settlements located within one or two days travel from the Wall. The excavation reports of rural settlements were examined, and include settlement types such as homesteads, hillforts and villas. From these sites, Roman artefact types were quantified and used to generate data for analysis. The results agree with the hypothesis that social hierarchy can be detected through the comparative presence or absence of Roman artefact types. It is also apparent that the settlements on either side of Hadrian's Wall, and either side of the Pennines mountain chain, were not part of a simple, homogenous culture. This thesis begins with an outline of the geographic and environmental nature of the region (Chapter 2), and an examination of settlement and society in North Britain during the preceding Bronze and Iron Ages (Chapter 3). An essay on Romano-British society and settlement is included (Chapter 4), and is followed by a brief discussion of post- Roman Britain (Chapter 5). Following an outline of the methodology used (Chapter 6), the results of analysis are presented in detail (Chapter 7). The Discussion chapter explores how the results of analysis meet existing theories of rural settlement and society, and compares North Britain with continental data from Germany and North Gaul (Chapter 8).
Libri sul tema "Roman period"
1
Tublin, Valentin. Zakli͡u︡chitelʹnyĭ period: Rasskazy, povestʹ, roman. Leningrad: Sov. pisatelʹ, Leningradskoe otd-nie, 1990.
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2
Clark, E. C. Early Roman law: The regal period. Littleton, Colo: F.B. Rothman, 1987.
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3
Sindrey, Geoff. Roman Dean: The Forest of Dean in the Roman period. Lydney: Dean Archaeological Group, 1990.
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4
ha-ʻatiḳot, Israel Rashut, e Israel. Minhal ha-ezraḥi-ezor Yehudah ṿe-Shomron, a cura di. Flavia Neapolis: Shechem in the Roman period. Jerusalem: Staff Officer of Archaeology-Civil Administration of Judea and Samaria, 2009.
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1932-, Neusner Jacob, a cura di. Jewish symbols in the Greco-Roman period. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988.
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1920-, Talmon Shemaryahu, e International Center for University Teaching of Jewish Civilization., a cura di. Jewish civilization in the Hellenistic-Roman period. Philadelphia: Trinity Press International, 1991.
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J, Jones R. F., a cura di. Britain in the Roman period: Recent trends. Sheffield): J.R. Collis, 1991.
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1920-, Talmon Shemaryahu, e International Center for University Teaching of Jewish Civilization., a cura di. Jewish civilization in the Hellenistic-Roman period. Sheffield: JSOT in cooperation with the International Center for University Teaching of Jewish Civilization, 1991.
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Hirschfeld, Yizhar. The Palestinian dwelling in the Roman-Byzantine period. Jerusalem: Franciscan Printing Press, 1995.
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Perkins, Judith. Roman imperial identities in the early Christian period. Milton Park, Abingdon: Routledge, 2009.
Cerca il testo completoCapitoli di libri sul tema "Roman period"
1
Salkield, Leonard Unthank. "The Roman period". In A technical history of the Rio Tinto mines: some notes on exploitation from pre-Phoenician times to the 1950s, 9–17. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 1987. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-3377-4_3.
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Capponi, Livia. "The Roman Period". In A Companion to Ancient Egypt, 180–98. Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781444320053.ch10.
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Boehringer, Sandra. "The Roman period". In Female Homosexuality in Ancient Greece and Rome, 187–330. London: Routledge, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781003158080-4.
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Salkield, Leonard Unthank. "The pre-Roman period". In A technical history of the Rio Tinto mines: some notes on exploitation from pre-Phoenician times to the 1950s, 5–8. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 1987. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-3377-4_2.
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Barbera, Joseph. "The Greco-Roman Period". In Sleep Medicine, 47–53. New York, NY: Springer New York, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-2089-1_8.
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Xia, Nai. "The Greco–Roman Period". In Ancient Egyptian Beads, 137–45. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-54868-0_23.
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Caponera, Dante A., e Marcella Nanni. "Roman and intermediate period". In Principles of Water Law and Administration, 33–60. 3rd edition / revised and updated by Marcella Nanni. | Boca Raton : CRC Press/Balkema, [2019]: Routledge, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/9780429465703-3.
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Thomas, Edmund V. "The Severan Period". In A Companion to Roman Architecture, 82–105. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781118325117.ch5.
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Lafond, Yves. "Sparta in the Roman Period". In A Companion to Sparta, a cura di Anton Powell, 403–22. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781119072379.ch15.
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Raja, Rubina. "Complex Sanctuaries in the Roman Period". In A Companion to the Archaeology of Religion in the Ancient World, 305–19. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781118886809.ch23.
Testo completoAtti di convegni sul tema "Roman period"
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Mrđenović, Ksenija. "REPRESENTATION IN ROMAN LAW". In International scientific conference challenges and open issues of service law. Vol. 2. University of Kragujevac, Faculty of law, 2024. http://dx.doi.org/10.46793/xxmajsko2.743m.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
In Roman legal tradition, representation emerges and evolves as a significant institution that facilitates and expedites legal relationships among individuals. Representation during the Roman law period was not merely a legal instrument but also a reflection of the social norms and values of that time. The indirect representation developed by the Romans implied that the representative would conclude a transaction in their own name but on behalf of another, transferring all effects of the performed task to the represented party. The study highlights the development of representation and its various forms that evolved as needs and circumstances changed within the state, emphasizing its importance in the daily lives of Romans and its influence on contemporary legal representation as we know it today.
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Малышев, А. А. "THE ABRAU PENINSULA IN THE ROMAN PERIOD". In Hypanis. Труды отдела классической археологии ИА РАН. Crossref, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.25681/iaras.2021.978-5-94375-350-3.147-170.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
Находка в начале 20 века среди античных развалин в урочище Широкая Балка бюста царицы Динамии вызвала интерес к местности между Анапой и Новороссийском. Она свидетельствовала о значимости этого региона в истории Боспорского государства в бурное раннеримское время, которое, как известно, заложило основу боспорской экономической и политической системы этого периода. Дальнейшие археологические исследования подтвердили, что эта территория, наряду с регионом в устье Дона, является одним из периферийных районов Азиатского Боспора. В статье систематизированы материалы по истории и археологии юго-восточной периферии Азиатского Боспора с 1 в. до н. э. по 4 в. н. э. Ведущая роль в истории региона, который получил название п-ова Абрау, на протяжении всего античного периода принадлежала Горгиппии, расположенной в северной части полуострова, в обширной Анапско-Натухаевской долине. Южную часть п-ова Абрау отличает более сложный ландшафт: ее веером разрезают долины рек, которые берут начало на Гудзевой горе и ее отрогах. Археологические ма териалы позволяют выделить два локальных варианта (региона): обширный континен тальный и прибрежный, который протянулся узкой полосой на 50 км от Цемесской бухты до хребта Семисам. О местоположении и значимости политических и экономических центров (Раевское и Верхнегостагаевское гороищаща, поселения в долине реки Мысхако и в Широкой Балке) можно судить на основе археологических материалов. Нумизматические материалы стали не только основой периодизации, но и одним из основных источников по истории развития экономической и политической ситуации в регионе. Комплекс археологических материалов (распространение традиций сыр цово-каменной архитектуры и античных приемов хозяйствования) свидетельствует об интенсивной внутрибоспорской колонизации п-ова Абрау в раннеримское время (1 в. до н. э. – середина 1 в. н. э.), которая происходила на фоне резкого сокращения поселений на горгиппийской хоре и сопровождалась повсеместным вытеснением аборигенного населения выходцами из соседнего Прикубанья. В частности, практически во всех долинах п-ова Абрау обнаружены сырцово-каменные постройки с мощными (шириной 1,5–1,7 м) стенами. Установлено, что большая часть изменивших культурный ландшафт региона башен-усадеб все же связана с Анапско-Натухаевской долиной. Среди культурных остатков рубежа эр в пребывающей тогда в запустении Горгиппии было исследовано многоуровневое сырцово-каменное сооружение (дом 60), которое совмещало функции фортификационного сооружения и жилого комплекса. Совокупность находок (пахотные орудия, серпы, жернова) в башенных сооружениях Анапско-Натухаевской долины свидетельствует о значительной роли зернового хозяйства в экономике ее жителей. Античные терракоты (статуэтки женских божеств, герма Приапа) подчеркивают связь с античными традициями в земледелии. Менее очевидна земледельческая специализация обитателей башенных сооружений в долине реки Цемес. В дальнейшем, в римское время, античные традиции постепенно приходят в упадок. Экстенсивные методы хозяйствования повлекли за собой и определенную деградацию системы расселения. The find at the beginning of the 20th century of the bust of Queen Dynamia among the ancient ruins of the site of Shyrokaya Balka attracted scholars’ interest to the territory between Anapa and Novorossiysk. The find testified to the importance of the region in the history of the Bosporan state in the turbulent Early Roman period when the background of Bosporan political and economic system was formed. Further archeological investigations proved that this territory had been one of the peripheral regions of the Asian Bosporos along with the mouth of the Don river. The article presents a systematic survey of history and archaeology of the Asian part of Bosporos from the 1st century BC to the 4th century AD. The leading part in the ancient history of the region, named after the Abrau peninsula belonged to Gorgippia in the North side of the peninsula in the vast Anapa – Natukhaevo valley. The landscape of the Southern part of the Abrau peninsula is more complicated: it is cut by river valleys starting from Guzdevaya mount and its spurs. Archaeological materials allow to distinguish two local versions: continental and coastal, a 50 km stripe from the Tsemesskaya bay to the Semisam range. Archaeology allows to fix the location and the significance of the local centers of economy (Raevskoe and Verhnegostagaevskoe sites, settlements in the Myskhako river valley and Shyrokaya Balka). Numismatic finds not only verified local chronology, but became the main source for the study of the economic and political development of the region. Archaeological materials testify intensive Bosporan colonization of the Abrau peninsula in the Early Roman time (1st century BC – mid-1st century AD) resulting in the noticeable reduction of the number of settlements in the Gorgippeankhora and the replacement of the aboriginal population by the newcomers from the neighbouring Kuban area. In particular, in all valleys of the Abrau peninsula there are structures of mud-brick and stone with thick (1,5–1,7 m) walls. It is evident that the majority of these tower-farmsteads affecting the cultural landscape of the region belong to the Anapa–Natuhaevskaya valley. Among the structures dating to the verge of the eras in Gorgippia, at that time partly deserted, there is a multi-level mud-brick and stone structure (building 60) combining functions of a defensive structure and a dwelling. The complex of finds (agrarian instruments, sickles, grinding stones) within the towers testify to the prominent role of grain production in the economy of the natives. Terracotta figurines (female deities, herm of Priapus) confirm the ties with ancient agrarian traditions. In the Tsemes river valley the ties of the tower-dwellers with the these traditions are less evident.
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Vladetić, Srđan. "THE ESTABLISHING OF ROMAN POSTAL SERVICE". In International scientific conference challenges and open issues of service law. Vol. 2. University of Kragujevac, Faculty of law, 2024. http://dx.doi.org/10.46793/xxmajsko2.207v.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
The beginnings of the postal service can be found with the Egyptians, Persians or Greeks, but nowhere did the service have such scope and such organization as it was with the ancient Romans. The conquering spirit and pragmatic character of this people was the impetus for the construction of a magnificient network of roads that was built for two basic reasons – the rapid movement of the Roman army and timely and precise communication, primarly for administrative and military needs. The paper will first point out the way of transmitting messages during the period of the republic and reexamine the possibility of the existence of a state postal service in this period, and then the reforms implemented by Augustus and their significance will be exposed.
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Kozlowska, Izabela. "RAINWATER HARVESTING IN THE TOWNS OF THE ROMAN PERIOD". In 5th SGEM International Multidisciplinary Scientific Conferences on SOCIAL SCIENCES and ARTS SGEM2018. STEF92 Technology, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.5593/sgemsocialf2018/2.3/s08.010.
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Винокуров, Н. И. "Two layers of fire of the 44/45–49 Roman-Bosporan war on the Artezian settlement in the Azov region of Crimea". In ДРЕВНОСТИ БОСПОРА. Международный ежегодник по истории, археологии, эпиграфике, нумизматике и филологии Боспора Киммерийского. Crossref, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.25681/iaras.2018.978-5-94375-251-3.56-72.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
This publication examines the latest finds of the AAE 2015–2017 field seasons. In the central part of Artezian settlement, where the study of the early citadel has been going on for two decades, two different level layers of fire dating from the early period of the Roman-Bosporan war of 44/45–49 were discovered at excavation pit III. Fires are located outside the citadel, in the space between the fortress walls and the defensive moat. The time of their formation did not exceed the limits of 45–46/47 AD. They were well separated from each other, since fire layer 2 lies 0.38–0.45 m deeper than fire layer 1, that dates to 46/47 AD. The lower level was conventionally called “fire 2” to distinguish it from the upper “fire 1”, in which the early citadel died. “Fire 2” layer, destruction and propellant missiles damaged in the clash are evidence of yet another previously unknown episode of the war: an attempt to capture the Artezian site during the early period of the Roman-Bosporan war between 44/45 and 46/47. The attackers – troops of usurper Cotys I and the Romans – failed to take the acropolis, although the buildings near the fortress wall were burned. The early citadel of Artezian was taken by storm later in 46/47. Together with it perished the supporters of the deposed king Mithridates III. It should be noted that the discovery of the “fire 1” layer outside the fortress walls was no surprise, although the same cannot be said about the discovery of the earlier layer of “fire 2”. Thanks to this discovery we can be certain about not one but two consecutive assaults of the early citadel in the initial period of the Roman-Bosporan war of 44/45–49.
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FIKRI, Imane. "Wall Paintings from The Roman City of Volubilis in Morocco: XRF, Raman and FTIR-ATR Analyses". In Mediterranean Architectural Heritage. Materials Research Forum LLC, 2024. http://dx.doi.org/10.21741/9781644903117-17.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
Abstract The work is an in-depth investigation of painting remains from the roman city of Volubilis in Morocco, classified World Heritage. Raman and ATR-FTIR structural and XRF elemental spectroscopies were crossed to decrypt the pigments adopted by roman craftsmen in the south Mediterranean region. Red-ochre alone or in admixture with cinnabar was used in brown-red paintings, while yellow ochre, green earth and Egyptian blue pigments were used to achieve yellow, green and blue ones. All pigments highlighted had been commonly used in the roman world, among which some ones continue until the medieval period in Morocco. In addition to documenting built heritage in Morocco, the results provide a helpful background for archaeologists interested in Roman sites around the Mediterranean space.
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Filip, Schneider. "Etnografický obraz Arabov v Byzancii 10. storočia". In Orientalia antiqua nova XXI. Západočeská univerzita v Plzni, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.24132/zcu.2021.10392-97-119.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
Roman historians developed a tradition of placing ethno graphic information into their works. The “Other” was an everyday reality of the Roman state. With its expansion more nations came into its orbit and thus to the attention of its writers. Arabs were among many others whom the Romans confronted. The position of the Arabs changed rapidly since the emergence of Islam in the 7th century. From a peripheral nation they became the major superpower in the East. The Roman/Byzantine perception did change due to various factors, such as the emergence of new religion as well as military expansion of the newly founded Arab state. It was in this period when ethnographic tradition under went a major transformation. Ethnography was in decline with snippets of information throughout literary works instead of vast descriptions of the “Other” as known in antiquity. Merging the snippets, however, a more coher ent image may occur. The aim of this paper is to look on the ethnographic information about Arabs in three literary works of the 10th century Byzantium – the Taktika, De administran do imperio and History of Leo the Deacon. Arabs will be analysed under the scope of elements that affected Byzantine perception on them – religion, military, and ethnic stereotypes. With the analysis I intend not only to gain a more coherent picture about the ethnographic perception of the Arabs in Byzantium, but also the differ ence of the perception among its various social classes.
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Свиридов, А. Н., e С. В. Язиков. "The hillfort of 11 kilometer» excavations (Leninsky district of the Republic of Crimea)". In Древности Боспора. Crossref, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.25681/iaras.2018.978-5-94375-251-3.213-229.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
The paper deals with preliminary results of settlement «The hillfort of 11 kilometer» excavations (Leninsky district of the Republic of Crimea). Three excavation trenches of 16520 square meters were investigated. The settlement was appeared in the Middle Bronze Age. The most intense period of site existence is Roman times. Most of the studied structures dates to I–II centuries AD. In addition, materials of Hellenistic times, Middle and Modern ages were met. A group of Late Roman times burials was found.
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Cosenza, Federica. "I Casali e le Architetture della Campagna Romana nel Basso Medioevo. Realtà archeologica e fonti documentarie". In FORTMED2020 - Defensive Architecture of the Mediterranean. Valencia: Universitat Politàcnica de València, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.4995/fortmed2020.2020.11462.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
The Casali and the Architectures of the Campagna Romana in the Late Middle Ages. Archeaological and archive sourcesThe territory of the Roman countryside in the Late Middle Ages was extended from the city of Rome to 40 miles in the Suburb, between the coasts of the Tyrrhenian Sea, the Albani Mountains, the Lepini Mountains and the course of the Tiber. In the twelfth century various events started in this territory which will greatly influence its appearance until today: the castra arise, as forms of aggregation of a territory enclosed by defensive elements; burgi and villae, small fortified centers; and the casali, special production farmhouses characterized by the presence of a tower and other defensive, residential and productive structures. The militarization of the landscape began for reasons partly linked to the general instability of the period. Despite the basic differentiations in the forms of the population as in the functionalities themselves entrusted to the circumscribed territory, the forms of the basic architecture remained the same: the tower, the walls, albeit in variety in terms of technique, magnificence and complexity. This research can be tackled thanks to a direct analysis of the architecture of the towers which characterize the Roman countryside, occasionally accompanied by other elements, like the walls. The results of this study can be compared with the information reported in medieval sources, in which a specific language is used to describe the architecture and the characteristics of every form of human anthropization. The analysis of the differences and affinities between these territorially structures and the comparison with the contemporary urban architectures, allows to recreate a general picture of the architecture in the Roman countryside in the Low Middle Ages.
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Li, Zhikai. "The Use of Latin Literature During the Transition Period Between the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire—How Latin Literature was Utilized to Achieve Various Political Approaches". In 5th International Symposium on Social Science (ISSS 2019). Paris, France: Atlantis Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.2991/assehr.k.200312.021.
Testo completoRapporti di organizzazioni sul tema "Roman period"
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Hunter, Fraser, e Martin Carruthers. Scotland: The Roman Presence. Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, giugno 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.9750/scarf.06.2012.104.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
The main recommendations of the panel report can be summarised under five key headings: Scotland in the Roman world: Research into Roman Scotland requires an appreciation of the wider frontier and Empire-wide perspectives, and Scottish projects must be integrated into these wider, international debates. The rich data set and chronological control that Scotland has to offer can be used to inform broader understandings of the impact of Rome. Changing worlds: Roman Scotland’s rich data set should be employed to contribute to wider theoretical perspectives on topics such as identity and ethnicity, and how these changed over time. What was the experience of daily life for the various peoples in Roman Scotland and how did interactions between incomers and local communities develop and change over the period in question, and, indeed, at and after its end? Frontier Life: Questions still remain regarding the disposition and chronology of forts and forces, as well as the logistics of sustaining and supplying an army of conquest and occupation. Sites must be viewed as part of a wider, interlocking set of landscapes, and the study of movement over land and by sea incorporated within this. The Antonine Wall provides a continuing focus of research which would benefit from more comparison with frontier structures and regimes in other areas. Multiple landscapes: Roman sites need to be seen in a broader landscape context, ‘looking beyond the fort’ and explored as nested and interlocking landscapes. This will allow exploration of frontier life and the changing worlds of the Roman period. To do justice to this resource requires two elements: o Development-control archaeology should look as standard at the hinterland of forts (up to c.1 km from the ‘core’), as sensitive areas and worthy of evaluation; examples such as Inveresk show the density of activity around such nodes. The interiors of camps should be extensively excavated as standard. o Integrated approaches to military landscapes are required, bringing in where appropriate topographical and aerial survey, LIDAR, geophysics, the use of stray and metal-detected finds, as well as fieldwalking and ultimately, excavation. The Legacy of Rome: How did the longer term influence of the Romans, and their legacy, influence the formation, nature and organisation of the Pictish and other emergent kingdoms?
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Sarafian, Iliana. Key Considerations: Tackling Structural Discrimination and COVID-19 Vaccine Barriers for Roma Communities in Italy. SSHAP, maggio 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.19088/sshap.2022.014.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
This brief highlights how structural discrimination and social exclusion shape attitudes to COVID-19 vaccines among Roma communities in Italy, and the role trusted communal and public authorities can play in supporting vaccine uptake and tackling broader exclusions. Contradictions in the Italian state’s response to COVID-19, alongside ongoing forms of exclusion can increase Roma mistrust in state initiatives and prevent vaccine participation. This brief aims to aid and inform local government and public health authorities in Italy that serve populations inclusive of Roma communities. This brief is based on research conducted in-person and remotely from November 2021 to January 2022 with Roma and Sinti communities in Milan, Rome and Catania, Italy, which have distinct historical, linguistic, geographical, religious, and other forms of identification. Similarities in how the different Roma communities experience the COVID-19 pandemic, and in their vaccine decisions were identified. This brief was developed for SSHAP by Iliana Sarafian (LSE) with contributions and reviews from Elizabeth Storer (LSE), Tabitha Hrynick (IDS), Dr Marco Solimene (University of Iceland) and Dijana Pavlovic (Upre Roma). The research was funded through the British Academy COVID-19 Recovery: G7 Fund (COVG7210058). Research was based at the Firoz Lalji Institute for Africa, London School of Economics. The brief is the responsibility of SSHAP.
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Hunter, Fraser, e Martin Carruthers. Iron Age Scotland. Society for Antiquaries of Scotland, settembre 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.9750/scarf.09.2012.193.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
The main recommendations of the panel report can be summarised under five key headings: Building blocks: The ultimate aim should be to build rich, detailed and testable narratives situated within a European context, and addressing phenomena from the longue durée to the short-term over international to local scales. Chronological control is essential to this and effective dating strategies are required to enable generation-level analysis. The ‘serendipity factor’ of archaeological work must be enhanced by recognising and getting the most out of information-rich sites as they appear. o There is a pressing need to revisit the archives of excavated sites to extract more information from existing resources, notably through dating programmes targeted at regional sequences – the Western Isles Atlantic roundhouse sequence is an obvious target. o Many areas still lack anything beyond the baldest of settlement sequences, with little understanding of the relations between key site types. There is a need to get at least basic sequences from many more areas, either from sustained regional programmes or targeted sampling exercises. o Much of the methodologically innovative work and new insights have come from long-running research excavations. Such large-scale research projects are an important element in developing new approaches to the Iron Age. Daily life and practice: There remains great potential to improve the understanding of people’s lives in the Iron Age through fresh approaches to, and integration of, existing and newly-excavated data. o House use. Rigorous analysis and innovative approaches, including experimental archaeology, should be employed to get the most out of the understanding of daily life through the strengths of the Scottish record, such as deposits within buildings, organic preservation and waterlogging. o Material culture. Artefact studies have the potential to be far more integral to understandings of Iron Age societies, both from the rich assemblages of the Atlantic area and less-rich lowland finds. Key areas of concern are basic studies of material groups (including the function of everyday items such as stone and bone tools, and the nature of craft processes – iron, copper alloy, bone/antler and shale offer particularly good evidence). Other key topics are: the role of ‘art’ and other forms of decoration and comparative approaches to assemblages to obtain synthetic views of the uses of material culture. o Field to feast. Subsistence practices are a core area of research essential to understanding past society, but different strands of evidence need to be more fully integrated, with a ‘field to feast’ approach, from production to consumption. The working of agricultural systems is poorly understood, from agricultural processes to cooking practices and cuisine: integrated work between different specialisms would assist greatly. There is a need for conceptual as well as practical perspectives – e.g. how were wild resources conceived? o Ritual practice. There has been valuable work in identifying depositional practices, such as deposition of animals or querns, which are thought to relate to house-based ritual practices, but there is great potential for further pattern-spotting, synthesis and interpretation. Iron Age Scotland: ScARF Panel Report v Landscapes and regions: Concepts of ‘region’ or ‘province’, and how they changed over time, need to be critically explored, because they are contentious, poorly defined and highly variable. What did Iron Age people see as their geographical horizons, and how did this change? Attempts to understand the Iron Age landscape require improved, integrated survey methodologies, as existing approaches are inevitably partial. Aspects of the landscape’s physical form and cover should be investigated more fully, in terms of vegetation (known only in outline over most of the country) and sea level change in key areas such as the firths of Moray and Forth. Landscapes beyond settlement merit further work, e.g. the use of the landscape for deposition of objects or people, and what this tells us of contemporary perceptions and beliefs. Concepts of inherited landscapes (how Iron Age communities saw and used this longlived land) and socal resilience to issues such as climate change should be explored more fully. Reconstructing Iron Age societies. The changing structure of society over space and time in this period remains poorly understood. Researchers should interrogate the data for better and more explicitly-expressed understandings of social structures and relations between people. The wider context: Researchers need to engage with the big questions of change on a European level (and beyond). Relationships with neighbouring areas (e.g. England, Ireland) and analogies from other areas (e.g. Scandinavia and the Low Countries) can help inform Scottish studies. Key big topics are: o The nature and effect of the introduction of iron. o The social processes lying behind evidence for movement and contact. o Parallels and differences in social processes and developments. o The changing nature of houses and households over this period, including the role of ‘substantial houses’, from crannogs to brochs, the development and role of complex architecture, and the shift away from roundhouses. o The chronology, nature and meaning of hillforts and other enclosed settlements. o Relationships with the Roman world