Articoli di riviste sul tema "Radcliffe Institute"

Sideshow, for amplified octet and electronics by American composer Steven Takasugi, was given its US premiere by Talea Ensemble in Cambridge, Massachusetts, on 1 December 2015. A 2010 Guggenheim Foundation grant launched Takasugi's work on this hour-long piece, and the Bludenzer Tage zeitgemäßer Musik programmed the first performance in their November 2015 festival. The piece was eagerly anticipated, not least because an excerpt of it featured in Manchester-based Distractfold Ensemble's programme at Darmstadt in 2014, a performance that earned them the Kranichsteiner performance prize that year.

Abstract This essay examines the changing landscape in Gilman studies and suggests future directions that scholars might take to further our understanding of this often-enigmatic fin-de-siècle author. Since 2009, the Schlesinger Library at Radcliffe Institute has acquired a sizeable collection of new material from Gilman's descendants, including letters, photographs, inscribed books, miscellaneous documents, and numerous family keepsakes. The new material adds yet another layer to recovery efforts made in recent years. Scholars might continue to evaluate Gilman's mixed legacy, including her racism, classism, ethnocentrism, and support of eugenics. Future research might also continue to situate Gilman in a less nationalistic and more global context; her work continues to be compelling, as well as controversial, to readers and scholars well beyond the United States.

Abstract This essay examines the changing landscape in Gilman studies and suggests future directions that scholars might take to further our understanding of this often-enigmatic fin-de-siècle author. Since 2009, the Schlesinger Library at Radcliffe Institute has acquired a sizeable collection of new material from Gilman's descendants, including letters, photographs, inscribed books, miscellaneous documents, and numerous family keepsakes. The new material adds yet another layer to recovery efforts made in recent years. Scholars might continue to evaluate Gilman's mixed legacy, including her racism, classism, ethnocentrism, and support of eugenics. Future research might also continue to situate Gilman in a less nationalistic and more global context; her work continues to be compelling, as well as controversial, to readers and scholars well beyond the United States.

Anne Sexton Met Her Psychiatrist, Martin Orne, in 1956, After Her Second Suicide Attempt. They Started Recording Their twice- (sometimes thrice-)weekly therapy sessions in early 1961, continuing until 1964, and Orne advised Sexton to listen to these recordings and write down her responses while listening and later relistening to them. Several hundred recordings of these therapy sessions have survived and reside in the Sexton collection at the Arthur and Elizabeth Schlesinger Library on the History of Women in America at the Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study, and Sexton's responses have been preserved in four handwritten and typed journals, dating from January 1961 to August 1964, held at the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas, Austin. Arguably, playing the sessions back to herself shaped Sexton's memories, her evolving understanding of her past, and her sense of identity. The extant ensemble of texts, comprising the audio recordings, typed and handwritten journal entries, and poetry, illustrate how playback influenced this evolution.

A remembrance and reconsideration of Dione Lucas (1909–1971), one of America's first television-cooking-show hosts. Credited with being the first to introduce the techniques and traditions of French cuisine to the American home kitchen in the late 1940s, Lucas was superseded by Julia Child and today has been largely forgotten. Worse, food-world insiders who do remember her don't often have kind things to say. Working with her papers, donated to the Schlesinger Library at the Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study at Harvard University, and in extensive interviews with her elder son, Mark Lucas, the author sets straight many questions about one of our first culinary celebrities, a woman who saw cooking as an art and believed herself to be an artist—a stance distinctly at odds with the idea of television's mass appeal and with the approach of many of her colleagues. Yet, the author argues Lucas deserves her modest place in culinary history and was, in Mark's words, “an extraordinarily complex person, but essentially unsophisticated in the best sense of the term.”

Abstract This report details the proceedings and conclusions from the 3rd International Congress on Unexplained Deaths in Infants and Children, held November 26–27, 2018 at the Radcliffe Institute at Harvard University. The Congress was motivated by the increasing rejection of the diagnosis Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) in the medical examiner community, leading to falsely depressed reported SIDS rates and undermining the validity and reliability of the diagnosis, which remains a leading cause of infant and child mortality. We describe the diagnostic shift away from SIDS and the practical issues contributing to it. The Congress was attended by major figures and opinion leaders in this area from countries significantly engaged in this problem. Four categories (International Classification of Diseases (ICD)-11 categories of MH11, MH12, MH14, PB00-PB0Z) were recommended for classification, and explicit definitions and guidance were provided for death certifiers. SIDS was reframed as unexplained sudden death in infancy or SIDS/MH11 to emphasize that either term signifies the lack of explanation following a rigorous investigation. A distinct category for children over the age of 1 was recommended (MH12). Definitions and exclusions were provided for the alternative categories of accidental asphyxia and undetermined. As recommended, unexplained sudden death in infancy or SIDS on a death certificate will code a unique, trackable entity, accurately reflecting the inability to determine a definitive explanation, while satisfying surveillance needs and reliable identification for research efforts. The conclusions will be submitted to the World Health Organization for inclusion in the upcoming ICD-11.

AimsTo identify the prevalence of delirium and/or dementia on complex medicine wards.To assess the use non-pharmacological prevention and management options in these patients.BackgroundDelirium, a common hospital syndrome, is often multi-factorial. So, the management needs not only treating a reversible cause but also minimising the factors that could increase the risk of developing delirium, or worsen its course.The Scottish-Intercollegiate-Guidelines-Network (SIGN) and National-Institute-for-Health-and-Care-Excellence (NICE) guidelines outline non-pharmacological factors to reduce the risk of developing delirium, and for its management once established.These factors include orientation, ensuring patients have their glasses and hearing aids, promoting sleep hygiene, maintaining optimal hydration and nutrition, early mobilisation, appropriate lighting and providing cognitively stimulating activities.MethodSIGN, NICE and local guidelines were used to develop a checklist of core non-pharmacological factors that minimise the risk of developing delirium and help in its management. Adherence to recommendations from these guidelines was thus evaluated in 4 Complex Medical Units of The John-Radcliffe Hospital (Oxford University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust), cross sectionally. The data were collected by interviewing nursing staff on the wards, assessing the ward environment, reviewing nursing charts and electronic patient records.ResultThere were 57 patients aged >65 years across all four wards, with average percentages of delirium and dementia patients being 46% and 34%, respectively. Nurses were unsure about their patients having hearing or visual aids in 41% and 29%, respectively. On all four wards there was no clear signage, no digital clock, no calendar, and earplugs were not offered. Overall, the use of non-pharmacological recommendations was sub-optimal across a number of items. After a month, when the notes were reviewed, it was found that 18 out of those 57 patients had passed away (32%) and the average length of stay for delirium/dementia patients was way more than the other patients during that admission.ConclusionWe found high rates of delirium and dementia and a lack of consistent use of recommended non-pharmacological strategies for their management. Better adherence to these could help shorten length of stay and improve patient outcomes.Recommendations for patients with/at risk of delirium: –Bedside board for each patient with the name of the ward/hospital, picture of the named nurse.–Ensuring visible clock/calendar.–Non-pharmacological delirium management checklist to be added to the daily nursing notes.Emphasis on visual/hearing aids and daily reorientation. –Appropriate lighting in the bays.–Offer earplugs if not sleeping at night.

Background Identifying better pain management strategies for painful procedures performed in neonatal care is a clinical priority. Retinopathy of prematurity screening and heel-lance blood tests are essential clinical procedures, but adequate pain relief is not currently provided because of a lack of evidence-based analgesia. Morphine provides effective analgesia in older children and adults, but efficacy in infants is controversial. Morphine is, however, commonly used intravenously for sedation in ventilated infants. Objective The primary objective was to investigate whether or not a single 100 µg/kg morphine sulphate dose administered orally prior to painful clinical procedures provides effective analgesia. Design Single-centre, prospective, randomised controlled trial. Setting John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, UK. Participants Thirty-one infants of 34–42 weeks’ gestational age, requiring a heel lance and retinopathy of prematurity screening on the same test occasion. Interventions The study interventions were 100 µg/kg of oral morphine sulphate (intervention arm) or placebo (control arm) 1 hour before the clinically required procedures. Main outcome measures There were two co-primary outcomes: Premature Infant Pain Profile-Revised score (a higher score implies more nociceptive processing) during the 30-second period after retinopathy of prematurity screening, and the magnitude of noxious-evoked brain activity (a higher activity implies more nociceptive processing) following the heel lance. Physiological stability and safety were secondary outcomes. Results After 31 participants were randomised (30 studied and one withdrew), the predefined safety stopping boundary was passed as 3 of the 15 infants who received morphine had apnoeas requiring resuscitation with non-invasive positive-pressure ventilation in the 24 hours after drug administration, compared with 0 of the 15 infants who received placebo [difference in proportion 0.2, 80% confidence interval (adjusted to allow for planned multiple analyses) 0.05 to 1.00; p = 0.085]. The trial was therefore stopped because of profound respiratory adverse effects of morphine without suggestion of analgesic efficacy. There was no significant difference between the trial arms for either primary outcome (Premature Infant Profile-Revised score following retinopathy of prematurity screening mean score ± standard deviation – morphine: 11.1 ± 3.2; Premature Infant Pain Profile-Revised score following retinopathy of prematurity screening mean score ± standard deviation – placebo: 10.5 ± 3.4; mean difference in Premature Infant Pain Profile-Revised score following retinopathy of prematurity screening score 0.5, 95% confidence interval –2.0 to 3.0, p = 0.66; noxious-evoked brain activity following heel lancing median activity – morphine: 0.99, interquartile range 0.40–1.56; noxious-evoked brain activity following heel lancing median activity – placebo: 0.75, interquartile range 0.33–1.22; and median difference in noxious-evoked brain activity following heel lancing 0.25, 95% confidence interval –0.16 to 0.80, p = 0.25). Limitations The trial lacked power for the primary outcome measures because of early cessation. However, there was a trend across modalities favouring placebo, suggesting that it was unlikely that a clinically significant analgesic benefit would have been detected in the original proposed sample of 156 infants. Conclusions The administration of 100 µg/kg of oral morphine to non-ventilated premature infants has the potential for harm without analgesic benefit. Oral morphine is not recommended for retinopathy of prematurity screening, and caution is strongly advised if this is being considering for other acute painful procedures in non-ventilated premature infants. Future work Further clinical trials are essential to ascertain effective pain management for retinopathy of prematurity screening. Using multimodal measures with detailed physiological recordings provides a rigorous approach to assess analgesic efficacy and adverse effects, leading to greater mechanistic understanding of the drug effects. This is essential in future clinical trials of analgesics in infants. Patient and public involvement The research team worked closely with an on-site charity during the trial design, conduct, oversight and dissemination. Trial registration Clinical Controlled Trials ISRCTN82342359; EudraCT 2014-003237-25. Funding This project was funded by the Efficacy and Mechanism Evaluation programme, a Medical Research Council and National Institute for Health Research partnership. Funding was also received for the trial from the Wellcome Trust (reference numbers 095802 and 102076). The report will be published in full in Efficacy and Mechanism; Vol. 6, No. 9. See the National Institute for Health Research’s Journals Library website for further project information.

The band of gentlemen pensioners, a body which, diminished in size and its functions altered almost beyond recognition, still survives at the English royal court under the title of “The Honourable Corps of Her Majesty's Gentlemen at Arms,” was instituted on Christmas Eve 1539 as part of a reform of the royal household. The group was a revival of the “spears” or “spears of honour,” an elite, sumptuously-outfitted royal bodyguard of gentlemen founded by Henry VIII in 1509, shortly after his accession, which appears to have lapsed in 1515 or 1516, because of the great charges involved in their maintenance, according to Hall's chronicle. The revived group was provided for in a rather more modest manner than its predecessor had been, but its members served much the same purposes. They were the king's elite bodyguard, his personal companions in arms when he went to war, the principal participants in tournaments and other martial sports at court and, more generally, a courtly and military finishing school for the sons of nobility and gentry.From 1540 until 1670, when the band underwent its first reduction in size, its structural organization remained unchanged in all essentials. It consisted of fifty men and five officers, a captain, lieutenant, standard-bearer, clerk of the check and harbinger. The last two were ancillary offices, the keeper of the “check-list” or attendance roll and his deputy, and were not strictly speaking members of the corps, but its servants. The lieutenant and the standard-bearer were normally men who had served for a time as gentlemen pensioners before being appointed to these offices, while the captain, on the contrary, was a figure of some importance at court in his own right, and one who had not previously served in the band. After the death of the first captain, Sir Anthony Browne, Henry VIII's master of the horse, in 1548, subsequent captains under the Tudor and early Stuart monarchs were all peers and almost always held other great offices of state. Browne's successor, William Parr, marquess of Northampton, was Edward VI's lord chamberlain; he lost all of his offices and titles on Mary's accession and was lucky to escape with his life. Thomas Radcliffe, lord Fitzwalter, later earl of Sussex, succeeded him in the captaincy, holding it continuously until his death in 1583. From 1572 he held the office of lord chamberlain to the queen. His Elizabethan successors in the captaincy, the first and second lords Hunsdon, father and son, the queen's kinsmen, also held the lord chamberlainship.

Wendy Hui Kyong Chun is Simon Fraser University’s Canada 150 Research Chair in New Media in the School of Communication. She has studied both systems design engineering and English literature, which she combines and mutates in her current work on digital media. She is author of Control and Freedom: Power and Paranoia in the Age of Fiber Optics (Chun, 2006), Programmed Visions: Software and Memory (MIT, 2011), Updating to Remain the Same: Habitual New Media (Chun, 2016), and co-author of Pattern Discrimination (Apprich, Chun, Cramer, & Steyerl, 2018). She has been Professor and Chair of the Department of Modern Culture and Media at Brown University, where she worked for almost two decades and where she is currently a Visiting Professor. She has also been a Visiting Scholar at the Annenberg School at the University of Pennsylvania, a member of the Institute for Advanced Study (Princeton), and she has held fellowships from the Guggenheim, ACLS, the American Academy of Berlin, and the Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study at Harvard. She has been a Visiting Professor at AI Now at New York University, the Velux Visiting Professor of Management, Politics and Philosophy at the Copenhagen Business School, the Wayne Morse Chair for Law and Politics at the University of Oregon, Visiting Professor at Leuphana University (Luneburg, Germany), and a Visiting Associate Professor in the History of Science Department at Harvard, where she is an Associate.

AbstractDespite the relevance and prevalence of research that produced knowledge about stigmatised groups and communities throughout the 1980s and 1990s, in the United States, studies that investigated the relationship between HIV/AIDS, intersectional stigma, and health-illness status among groups considered hegemonic are incipient—i.e., heterosexual, and white groups, who did not suffer stigma due to sexuality and race/colour, for example. In this study, such a gap is examined in order to observe the effects of stigma in non-exposed communities. Additionally, the article (i) explores the formation of a pioneering group of caregivers in New York City, the Mothers of Patients with AIDS (MPWA), created in 1986; and (ii) analyses narratives about health disease from a collective care agenda established by middle-aged and elderly mothers dealing with the challenges and needs of adult children and people with moderate and high degrees of dependence. This study is part of a larger project that investigated the emergence of non-profit organisations and gerontology care groups in the context of the HIV-AIDS epidemic in New York in the 1980s and 1990s. Documentary research was developed in the Florence Rush collection, made available by the Arthur and Elizabeth Schlesinger Library at Harvard University’s Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study. The selected materials bring together qualitative empirical sources from reports, personal histories, and interviews conducted by Florence Rush and other mothers, social workers, and health professionals. As the results attest, the narratives produced by Florence Rush’s interlocutors during the AIDS health crisis make it possible to understand how social and cultural dynamics of recognising the disease did not result in autonomous, individual, and objective processes for exposing the pathological state. The strategic use of the term “cancer” instead of “AIDS” as an umbrella definition, and one less demarcated by aspects involving gender and sexual behaviour, evidenced the sociality of the illness. Conclusions show how negative representations were associated with AIDS—perceived as harmful, immoral, or deviant behaviours — and produced new meanings and demands among patients who feared stigmatising classifications in the midst of sexual panic until the commercial availability of the antiretroviral cocktail in 1997.

Abstract Background Orthodontic and surgical technical advances in recent years have resulted in treatment opportunities for a whole range of craniofacial skeletal disorders either in the adolescent or adult patient. In the growing child, these can include myofunctional orthodontic appliance therapy or distraction osteogenesis procedures, while in the adult, the mainstay approach revolves around orthognathic surgery. The literature agrees that for a change in craniofacial morphology to remain stable, the muscles acting upon the facial skeleton must be capable of adaptation in their structure and, therefore, their function. Failure of the muscles to adapt to the change in their length or orientation will place undesirable forces on the muscle attachments leading to potential instability of the skeleton. Adaptation can occur through various processes including those within the neuromuscular feedback mechanism, through changes within muscle structure or through altered muscle physiology, and through changes at the muscle/bone interface. It is now accepted that because there is no single method of assessing masticatory function, several measures should be taken, and whenever possible, simultaneously. Methods This investigation was designed to apply several, newly developed and more sophisticated methods of measuring muscle structure and function to a situation where adaptation of muscle is pivotal to the success of a therapeutic approach. Patients attending the combined orthodontic/orthognathic surgery clinic at the Clitrofa – Centro Médico, Dentário e Cirúrgico, in Trofa, Portugal, were screened. Ten patients scheduled for a bimaxillary osteotomy involving a combination of maxillary Le Fort I impaction procedure coupled with a sagittal split advancement of the mandible were selected to form the study group. The patients have MRI of the masseter muscle to evaluate the masseter muscle volume and fibre orientation changes. This exam was taken before surgery (T0), 6 to 12 months after surgery (T1), and 3 years after surgery (T2), by two independent observers, according to the protocol jointly developed between the Eastman Dental Institute – University of London and the MRI Centre - Department of Radiology at John Radcliffe Hospital – University of Oxford. Results Significant differences (p < 0.05) have been identified between Time 0 (pre-op) and Time 1 (6–12 months post-op) regarding the masseter area (mm2). The differences against Time 0 (pre-op) seem to disappear at Time 2 (3 years post-op). Conclusions MRI therefore seems to be a valid tool for measuring differences in the masseter muscle area and volume associated with high-severity occlusal deformities, although showing not to be as efficient in detecting the same differences in cases of low-severity occlusal deformities.

Background: Diabetic Cardiomyopathy (DbCM) is a form of Stage B heart failure (HF). Concentrations of N-terminal pro-B type natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP) may predict risk for HF progression in persons with DbCM. The ARISE-HF study (NCT04083339) is evaluating efficacy of AT-001, a highly selective aldose reductase inhibitor (AT-001) to improve exercise tolerance in affected patients. The aim of this analysis was to assess association between baseline NT-proBNP and cardiac status in type 2 diabetes participants with DbCM. Methods: Impaired exercise tolerance and baseline characteristics were evaluated in 679 patients with DbCM as a function of NT-proBNP at enrollment. Results: Median NT-proBNP in the overall study population was 71 ng/L (IQR 35-133). Baseline characteristics were similar across NT-proBNP concentrations, however, participants with higher NT-proBNP had higher left atrial volume (p&lt;0.001) and higher right ventricular systolic pressure (p=0.04) on baseline echocardiogram. Higher NT-proBNP concentrations were associated with reduced physical activity reflected in lower PASE Score and a worse functional capacity reflected in lower peak VO2 (p&lt;0.001) (Table 1). Conclusion: Among patients with DbCM, elevated NT-proBNP is associated with echocardiographic abnormalities and worse cardiac functional capacity and inversely associated with activity. Disclosure J.Butler: Consultant; Abbott,, Amgen, Applied Therapeutics, Array, Astra Zeneca, Bayer,, Boehringer Ingelheim, Bristol Myers Squibb, CVRx, G3 Pharma,, Impulse Dynamics, Innolife, Janssen, LivaNova, Luitpold, Medtronic, Merck, Novartis, NovoNordisk, Relypsa, Roche, Sequana Medical, Vifor, Speaker's Bureau; Novartis, Boehringer Ingelheim-Lilly, Astra Zeneca, Janssen. F.Zannad: Advisory Panel; BMS, Novo Nordisk, Pfizer Inc., Servier Laboratories, Other Relationship; Applied Therapeutics Inc., Bayer Inc., Boehringer Ingelheim and Eli Lilly Alliance, Merck & Co., Inc., Novartis. J.L.Januzzi: Consultant; Boehringer Ingelheim Inc., Janssen Pharmaceuticals, Inc., AstraZeneca, Research Support; Applied Therapeutics Inc., Abbott, Roche Diagnostics, Novartis, Innolife Co., Ltd. S.Del prato: Advisory Panel; Abbott Diagnostics, Altimmune, Amarin Corporation, Applied Therapeutics Inc., Eli Lilly and Company, Merck & Co., Inc., Novo Nordisk A/S, Vertex Pharmaceuticals Incorporated, Novartis, Consultant; A. Menarini Diagnostics, Research Support; AstraZeneca, Boehringer Ingelheim International GmbH, Speaker's Bureau; AstraZeneca, Boehringer Ingelheim International GmbH, Eli Lilly and Company, Merck & Co., Inc., Novo Nordisk A/S, Sanofi. J.Ezekowitz: Advisory Panel; Applied Therapeutics Inc. N.E.Ibrahim: None. C.S.Lam: Other Relationship; Actelion, Alleviant Medical, Allysta Pharma, Amgen, AnaCardio, Applied Therapeutics, AstraZeneca, Bayer, Boehringer-Ingelheim, Boston Scientific, Cytokinetics, Darma Inc, EchoNous Inc, Eli Lilly, Impulse Dynamics, Intellia Therapeutics, Ionis Pharmaceutical, Janssen Research & Development LLC, Medscape/WebMD Global LLC, Merck, Novartis, Novo Nordisk, Prosciento Inc, Radcliffe Group Ltd, Recardio Inc, ReCor Medical, Roche Diagnostics, Sanofi, Siemens Healthcare Diagnostics, Us2.ai. R.Perfetti: None. J.Rosenstock: Advisory Panel; Applied Therapeutics Inc., Boehringer Ingelheim Inc., Eli Lilly and Company, Novo Nordisk, Oramed Pharmaceuticals, Sanofi, Zealand Pharma A/S, Intarcia Therapeutics, Inc., Hanmi Pharm. Co., Ltd., Research Support; Applied Therapeutics Inc., Boehringer Ingelheim Inc., Eli Lilly and Company, Merck & Co., Inc., Novartis, Novo Nordisk, Pfizer Inc., Sanofi, Intarcia Therapeutics, Inc. W.Tang: Consultant; Sequana Medical NV, Cardiol Therapeutics, Genomics plc, Zehna Therapeutics LLC, Renovacor, Boston Scientific Corporation, Kiniksa Pharmaceuticals Inc, WhiteSwell Inc, CardiaTec Biosciences Inc, Other Relationship; American Board of Internal Medicine, Springer Nature, Research Support; National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. A.Urbinati: None.

Background: Diabetic Cardiomyopathy (DbCM) is a severe complication of diabetes and a cause of heart failure (HF) occurring in the absence of other causes of cardiac dysfunction. Methods and Results: ARISE-HF (NCT04083339) is a global Phase 3 randomized study evaluating the safety and efficacy of a novel highly selective aldose reductase inhibitor (AT-001) versus placebo to improve exercise capacity in individuals with DbCM (defined by elevated cardiac biomarkers or structural/functional cardiac abnormalities along with impaired exercise capacity). Table 1 details the 684 study participants with DbCM in the study: 50% female, with a mean age 67.5 years. Glycemic control at enrollment was excellent (HbA1c of 6.99%). At baseline, the median NT-proBNP was 71 ng/L and hs-cTnT was 9 ng/L. Among echocardiographic abnormalities evaluated at enrollment, the most common were abnormal global longitudinal strain and impaired diastolic relaxation. Daily physical activity was low (mean PASE score of 154.3 + 89.6). Significant impairment in cardiac functional capacity was present at enrollment with a peak VO2 of 15.7 + 3.8 ml/kg/min. Conclusion: The ARISE-HF trial is an ongoing phase 3 clinical trial evaluating the safety and efficacy of aldose reductase inhibition on exercise capacity in patients with DbCM. The baseline analysis of the study cohort provides a unique characterization of individuals with DbCM. Disclosure J.Butler: Consultant; Abbott,, Amgen, Applied Therapeutics, Array, Astra Zeneca, Bayer,, Boehringer Ingelheim, Bristol Myers Squibb, CVRx, G3 Pharma,, Impulse Dynamics, Innolife, Janssen, LivaNova, Luitpold, Medtronic, Merck, Novartis, NovoNordisk, Relypsa, Roche, Sequana Medical, Vifor, Speaker's Bureau; Novartis, Boehringer Ingelheim-Lilly, Astra Zeneca, Janssen. F.Zannad: Advisory Panel; BMS, Novo Nordisk, Pfizer Inc., Servier Laboratories, Other Relationship; Applied Therapeutics Inc., Bayer Inc., Boehringer Ingelheim and Eli Lilly Alliance, Merck & Co., Inc., Novartis. J.L.Januzzi: Consultant; Boehringer Ingelheim Inc., Janssen Pharmaceuticals, Inc., AstraZeneca, Research Support; Applied Therapeutics Inc., Abbott, Roche Diagnostics, Novartis, Innolife Co., Ltd. S.Del prato: Advisory Panel; Abbott Diagnostics, Altimmune, Amarin Corporation, Applied Therapeutics Inc., Eli Lilly and Company, Merck & Co., Inc., Novo Nordisk A/S, Vertex Pharmaceuticals Incorporated, Novartis, Consultant; A. Menarini Diagnostics, Research Support; AstraZeneca, Boehringer Ingelheim International GmbH, Speaker's Bureau; AstraZeneca, Boehringer Ingelheim International GmbH, Eli Lilly and Company, Merck & Co., Inc., Novo Nordisk A/S, Sanofi. J.Ezekowitz: Advisory Panel; Applied Therapeutics Inc. N.E.Ibrahim: None. C.S.Lam: Other Relationship; Actelion, Alleviant Medical, Allysta Pharma, Amgen, AnaCardio, Applied Therapeutics, AstraZeneca, Bayer, Boehringer-Ingelheim, Boston Scientific, Cytokinetics, Darma Inc, EchoNous Inc, Eli Lilly, Impulse Dynamics, Intellia Therapeutics, Ionis Pharmaceutical, Janssen Research & Development LLC, Medscape/WebMD Global LLC, Merck, Novartis, Novo Nordisk, Prosciento Inc, Radcliffe Group Ltd, Recardio Inc, ReCor Medical, Roche Diagnostics, Sanofi, Siemens Healthcare Diagnostics, Us2.ai. R.Perfetti: None. J.Rosenstock: Advisory Panel; Applied Therapeutics Inc., Boehringer Ingelheim Inc., Eli Lilly and Company, Novo Nordisk, Oramed Pharmaceuticals, Sanofi, Zealand Pharma A/S, Intarcia Therapeutics, Inc., Hanmi Pharm. Co., Ltd., Research Support; Applied Therapeutics Inc., Boehringer Ingelheim Inc., Eli Lilly and Company, Merck & Co., Inc., Novartis, Novo Nordisk, Pfizer Inc., Sanofi, Intarcia Therapeutics, Inc. W.Tang: Consultant; Sequana Medical NV, Cardiol Therapeutics, Genomics plc, Zehna Therapeutics LLC, Renovacor, Boston Scientific Corporation, Kiniksa Pharmaceuticals Inc, WhiteSwell Inc, CardiaTec Biosciences Inc, Other Relationship; American Board of Internal Medicine, Springer Nature, Research Support; National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. A.Urbinati: None.

Daniel Brandhorst,1,2 Heide Brandhorst,1,2 Samuel Acreman,1,2 Yukari Kimura,1,2 Shannon Layland,3 Katja Schenke-Layland,3 Paul R.V. Johnson1,2 1 Research Group for Islet Transplantation, Nuffield Department of Surgical Sciences, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom 2 Oxford Consortium for Islet Transplantation, Oxford Centre for Diabetes, Endocrinology, and Metabolism (OCDEM), Churchill Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom 3 Natural and Medical Sciences Institute, Eberhard Karls University, Tübingen, Germany Aim Islet isolation essentially requires dissociation of the islet basement membrane by collagenolytic enzymes. Basement membrane loss is associated with reduced islet function and viability. Previous studies demonstrated that individual extracellular matrix proteins (ECMPs) can increase islet survival pre- and post-transplant. In the present study, we tested our hypothesis, that the combination of different ECMPs, particularly those forming suprastructures, are more efficient than individual ECMPs to protect human islets from hypoxia-induced damage. In contrast to previous studies, we dissolved ECMPs in the media rather than to coat culture surfaces. Methods Islets, isolated from pancreases of 11 human DBD donors (50±2 years, 29.3±1.2 BMI, 5.7±0.3 hours CIT), were cultured for 3–4 days in 2% oxygen and suspended in CMRL 1066 (2% FCS) supplemented with either 40 µg/mL of dissolved collagen-IV, 10 µg/mL laminin-521 or 12.5 µg/mL nidogen-1 used individually or as combination. Sham-treated islets (STIs) cultured without ECMPs served as controls. Post-culture characterisation included IEQ yield or islet number (IN), viability (FDA-PI), early plus late apoptosis (annexin V-PI), glucose stimulation index (SI: 2 vs 20 mM) and reactive oxygen species production. Parameters were normalised to IEQ, related to pre-culture data if appropriate and presented as mean ± SEM. Statistical analysis was performed by Friedman test followed by Dunn’s multiple comparison. Results Compared with STI (41±7%), post-culture recovery was higher when hypoxic islets were treated with collagen-IV (64±7%, p<0.001), laminin-521 (57±6%, p<0.01) or nidogen-1 (65±6%, p<0.001) used individually or combined (61±7% p<0.001). This correlated with islet fragmentation (IN/IEQ ratio) that was lower when collagen-IV (116±13%, p<0.001), laminin-521 (114±12%, p<0.01), nidogen-1 (121±12%, p<0.01) or combined ECMPs (119±13%, p<0.001) were compared with STIs (155±16%). Reactive oxygen species production in STIs was substantially reduced by 71±6% (NS), 73±6% (p<0.05), 90±2% (p<0.001), and 87±4% (p<0.001) in presence of collagen-IV, laminin-521, nidogen-1 or combined ECMPs, respectively. This resulted in improved viability (83±7% [p<0.01], 79±9% [p<0.01], 84±7% [p<0.001], 83±8% [p<0.001]) compared with STIs (63±7%). While individual ECMPs stabilised or reduced pre-culture apoptosis (94±17% [p<0.05], 117±16% [p<0.05], 68±13% [p<0.001]), combined ECMPs (171±18%, NS) were equal to STIs (196±28%). STIs did not adequately secrete insulin after glucose challenge (SI 0.97±0.13) in contrast to the physiological insulin response after treatment with collagen-IV (1.76±1.18 [p<0.01]), laminin-521 (1.53±0.25 [NS]), nidogen-1 (2.27±0.67 [p<0.01]) or combined ECMPs (1.95±0.25 [p<0.05]). Conclusion Among the three individual ECMPs tested, nidogen-1 appears to be most effective to protect human islets from hypoxia-induced damage. As its protective efficiency partially exceeds that of combined ECMPs, we have to reject our hypothesis. Further studies are required to clarify whether collagen-IV, laminin-521 and nidogen-1 spontaneously assemble to suprastructures in vitro.

Daniel Brandhorst,1,2 Limor Baruch,3 Heide Brandhorst,1,2 Stasia Krishtul,3 Marcelle Machluf,3 Paul R.V. Johnson1,2 1Research Group for Islet Transplantation, Nuffield Department of Surgical Sciences, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom 2Oxford Consortium for Islet Transplantation, Oxford Centre for Diabetes, Endocrinology, and Metabolism (OCDEM), Churchill Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom 3Laboratory for Cancer Drug Delivery and Cell Based Technologies, Faculty of Biotechnology and Food Engineering, Technion, Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel Aim Islet isolation essentially requires dissociation of islet basement membranes by collagenolytic enzymes. This is associated with reduced islet function and increased cell death. Previous ex-vivo and in-vivo studies demonstrated that individual extracellular matrix proteins (ECMPs) can increase islet survival. As the natural ECM is a tissue-defined complex network we propose a novel concept for creating a specific islet matrix by using the whole pancreatic ECM (WPM). In contrast to previous studies, ECMPs were dissolved in media rather than coating of culture vessel surfaces. Methods Islets, isolated from pancreases of 6 human DBD donors (52±3 years, 28.5±1.5 BMI, 6.4±0.7 hours CIT), were cultured for 4–5 days in hypoxic atmosphere (2% oxygen). Islets were suspended in CMRL 1066 supplemented with 2% FCS and WPM-gel (200 µg/mL) extracted and purified from porcine pancreases. The WPM-gel was compared with a pre-tested combination of human ECMPs composed of 80 µg/mL collagen-IV, 10 µg/mL laminin-521, and 10 µg/mL nidogen-1. Sham-treated islets (STIs) cultured without ECMPs or WPM-gel served as controls. Post-culture characterisation included IEQ yield or islet number (IN), viability (FDA-PI), early plus late apoptosis (annexin V-PI), glucose stimulation index (SI: 2 vs 20 vs 2 mM) and reactive oxygen species production. All parameters were normalised to IEQ, related to pre-culture data if appropriate and presented as mean ± SEM. Statistical analysis was performed by Friedman test and Dunn’s multiple comparison. Results Post-culture recovery was highest when hypoxic human islets were cultured in WPM-gel and compared with STIs (65±10% vs 38±10%, p<0.01). Although fragmentation (IN/IEQ ratio) increased after all treatments, this increase was lowest in the presence of WPM-gel (0.62±0.05 vs 0.80±0.14 vs 0.93±0.27, NS). Pre-culture viability was nearly completely preserved when human ECMPs (99±10% vs 79±10%, p<0.01) or WPM-gel (92±8%, p<0.05) were administered. Reactive oxygen species production in STIs increased nearly three-fold (127±15 AU/IEQ) but was halved in the presence of ECMPs (61±14 AU/IEQ, p<0.01) or WPM-gel (65±18 AU/IEQ, p<0.05). While initial early apoptosis remained stable when human islets were treated with human ECMPs (90±13% vs 136±14%, p<0.01) or WPM-gel (84±10%, p<0.01), apo-necrosis increased substantially in the presence of human ECMPs (172±33%, NS) or WPM-gel (154±195 vs 214±24%, p<0.05). Glucose-stimulated islets did not respond adequately after sham-treatment (SI 0.85±0.14). In contrast, supplementation with human ECMPs (1.29±0.09, p<0.05) or WPM-gel (1.34±0.09, p<0.01) preserved the physiological insulin response during hypoxia. Overall survival, considering the recovery of viable cells only, was increased by human ECMPs (56±8% vs 34±8%, p<0.01) or WPM-gel (58±8%, p<0.01). Conclusion This initial study presents a new approach to protect human islets from hypoxia-induced damage by supplementing culture media with selected ECMPs or with the whole pancreatic ECM. We assume, that the outcome of our approach will be further improved when the ECM is extracted from human pancreases. These promising findings can be used to develop advanced culture media and innovative encapsulation techniques to protect transplanted islets.

The modern secondary school curriculum teaching 20th century women’s history, the first and second feminist waves, has been designed circularly hegemonic, and for decades following the advancement of academic fields such as radcial feminism, gender studies, and intersectionality, this current cirrculam has neglected the work of multi-racial feminist groups as well as the dangers of the race-sex analogy. This paper focuses on drawing awareness to the systemic exclusion women faced, the contributions of non-white feminist groups, and how such divisions limited all woman from achieving their goals of equality, recognition, and justice as well as possible conclusions to why the educational field has narrowed perspectuves for secondary school teaching. by using a comparative apprach to his essay, the paper was conducted from researching the corrospondence, legal documents, and recordings of these respective non-white organizations housed in the Schlesinger Library archive at the Radcliff Institude for Advanced Study.

Inculturation emerged as a result of paradigm shifts in the missionary outlook of the Church necessitated by a heightened sense of culture, especially the plurality of cultures. This outlook saw culture as a tool for the transmission of the Gospel message to different frontiers. In view of this, dialogue with culture has passed from being an exception to the rule to becoming normative. Inculturation is a complex process, which must be undertaken gradually and critically. Overall, it aims to incarnate the Gospel in every culture by maintaining a healthy balance between tradition and progress. In this paper, the method of inculturation that is highlighted is the one developed by Charles Kraft and Anscar Chupungco known as “dynamic equivalence,” which seeks to build a “communicational bridge” between the Gospel message and human experience. This paper, therefore, embarks upon the discussion of faith-culture dialogue, keeping in mind Church’s efforts to proclaim the message of the Gospel: first, by first tracing the historical development of Inculturation, highlighting the Church’s disposition towards faith culture dialogue; second, by discussing the nature and dynamics of inculturation, focusing on its essential characteristics; and lastly, delineating the process of inculturation, which underscores dynamic equivalence as method. References Acevedo, Marcelo S.J., Inculturation and the Challenge of Modernity. Rome: Pontifical Gregorian University, 1982. Alberigo, Giuseppe “The Announcement of the Council: From Security of the Fortress to the Lure of Quest,” in History of Vatican II, 1 Announcing and Preparing Vatican II: Toward a New Era in Catholicism, ed. Giuseppe Alberigo and Joseph A. Komonchak. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis. 1-54. Aleaz, K.P. “The Theology of Inculturation Re-Examined,” Asia Journal of Theology 25, 2 (2011):232. Amalorpavadass, D.S. “Indian Culture. Integrating Cultural Elements into Spirituality” in Indian Christian Spirituality ed. By D.S. Amalorpvadass, Bangalore: NBCLC, 1982, 100. Arbuckle, Gerard A. “Christianity, Identity, and Cultures: A Case Study” The Australasian Catholic Report (January, 2013): 41-43. Arbuckle, Gerard Earthing the Gospel: An Inculturation Handbook for the Pastoral Worker. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1990. Arevalo, Catalino “Inculturation in the Church: The Asian Context,” Landas 25 (2011): 83-134. Arrupe, P. 1978, “Letter to the Whole Society on Inculturation” Aixala (ed.) 3, 172-181. Barnes, Michael SJ, Theology and the Dialogue of Religions. Cambridge: Cambridge Unviersity Press, 2002. Bevans, Stephen SVD. “Revisiting Mission as Vatican II: Theology and Practice for Today’s Mission Church” Theological Studies 74 (2013): 26. Chupungco, Anscar. “Two Methods of Liturgical Inculturation: Creative Assimilation and Dynamic Equivalence” in Liturgy for the Filipino Church: A Collection of Talks of Anscar J. Chupungco, OSB given at the National Meeting of Diocesan Directors of Liturgy (1986-2004), ed. Josefina M. Manabat, SLD. Mendiola. Manila: San Beda College, Graduate School of Liturgy, 2004. 18-33. Chupungco, Anscar Liturgies of the Future: the Process and Methods of Inculturation. Collegeville Minnesota: A Pueblo Book, 1989. Chupungco, Anscar. “Liturgy and Inculturation,” East Asian Pastoral Review 18 (1981): 264. Costa R.O. (ed.) One Faith, Many Cultures: Inculturation, Indigenization, and Contextualization. Maryknoll: NY Orbis, 1988. Chupungco, Anscar in “Liturgy and Inculturation,” East Asian Pastoral Review 18 (1981): 264. De la Rosa, Rolando V. Beginnings of the Filipino Dominicans: History of the Filipinization of the Religious Orders in the Philippines, Revised Edition. Manila: UST Publishing House, 1990. De Mesa, Jose M. Why Theology is Never Far from Home. Manila: De La Salle University Press, Inc., 2003. Eilers, Franz-Josef. Communicating Between Cultures: An Introduction to Intercultural Communication. Fourth Updated Edition. Manila: Logos, Divine Word Publication, 2012. Federation of Asian Bishops’ Conferences, Resource Manual for Catholics in Asia: Dialogue. Thailand: FABC-OEIA, 2001. Follo, Francesco “Inculturation and Interculturality in John Paul II and Benedict XVI.” Retrieved 5 February 2014 from http://www.oasiscenter.eu/articles/interreligious-dialogue/2010/03/29/inculturation-and-interculturality-in-john-paul-ii-and-benedict-xvi quoting Ratzinger’s speech during the 25th anniversary of the John Paul II Institute for Studies on Marriage and Family, 11 May 2006. Genero, Bartolome. ed. Inculturazione della fede: Sagi Interdisciplinarii. Naple: Edizioni ehoniane, 1981. Gorski, John F. M.M., “Christology, Inculturation, and Their Missiological Implications: A Latin American Perspective,” International Bulletin of Missionary Research 28, 2 (2004): 61, Javier, Edgar G. SVD, Dialogue: Our Mission Today. Quezon City: Claretian Publication and ICLA Publications, 2006. Jeremiah, Anderson “Inculturation: A Sub-Altern Critique of K.P. Aleaz’ ‘Indian Christian Vedanta,’ The Asia Journal of Theology 21, 2. (October 2007): 398-411. Kraft, Charles H. Christianity in Culture: A Study in Biblical Theologizing in Cross-Cultural Perspective. New York: Orbis Books, 1980. Kroeger, James, H., “The Faith-Culture Dialogue in Asia: Ten FABC Insights on Inculturation,” oletin Eclesiastico de Filipinas 85, 870 (2009): 7-28. Masson, Joseph ‘L Église ouverte ser le monde’in NRT, 84 (1962) 1038. Mercado, Leonardo N. Inculturation and Filipino Theology, Asia Pacific Missiological Series 2. Manila: Divine Word Publication, 1992. Mercado, Leonardo N. Elements of Filipino Theology. Tacloban City, Philippines: Divine Word University, 1975. Mitchell, Nathan “Culture, Inculturation, and Sacrosanctum Concilium,” Worship 77, 2 (March 2003): 171-181. Pietrzak, Daniel Interculturality and Internationality: A Utopia or a Constructive Tension for a Franciscan Missiology? Retrieved September 9, 2014 from http://www2.ofmconv.pcn.net/docs/en/general/miscon06_india/Interculturality%20and%20Internationality%20%20a%20utopia%20or%20a%20constructive%20tension%20for%20a%20Franciscan%20Missiology.pdf Radcliffe, Timothy. “Inculturation,” Review for Religious (Sept – Oct 1994): 646-657. Schreiter, Robert. “The Legacy of St. Francis Xavier: Inculturation of the Gospel Then and Now” East Asian Pastoral Review 44 (2007): 17-31. Schreiter, Robert J. Constructing Local Theologies. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1993. Shorter, Aylward Toward a Theology of Inculturation. Eugene, Oregon: Wipf and Stock Publishers, 1999. Stanley, Brian. “Inculturation: Historical Background, Theological Foundations and Contemporary Questions,” Transformation 24, 1 (January 2007): 21-27. Timoner, Gerard F. “Intercultural Theology as a Way of Doing Theology” in Philippiniana Sacra XLI, 121 (January-April, 2006): 75-46. Timoner, Gerard. “Theology of Inculturation: A Critical Appraisal,” Philippiniana Sacra XL no. 119 (2005): 322-325. Ustorf, Werner “The Cultural Origins of Intercultural Theology” Mission Studies 25 (2008): 229-251. Wijsen, Frans “Intercultural Theology” Exchange 30, 3 (2001): 222-230.

SCULLY: I said, I got the lab to rush the results of the Szczesny autopsy, if you're interested.MULDER: I heard you, Scully.SCULLY: And Szczesny did indeed drown, but not as the result of the inhalation of ectoplasm as you so vehemently suggested.MULDER: Well, what else could she possibly have drowned in?SCULLY: Margarita mix, upchucked with about 40 ounces of Corcovado Gold tequila which, as it turns out, she and her friends rapidly consumed in the woods while trying to reenact the Blair Witch Project.MULDER: Well, I think that demands a little deeper investigation, don't you?SCULLY: No, I don't.— The X-Files, “All Things” (0717) IntroductionMikel J. Koven argues that “The X-Files [1993-2002, films 2005, 2010, revived 2016-2018] was the American television series that defined the zeitgeist of the 1990s” (337) by tapping into “pre-millenium paranoia and the collapse of traditional beliefs” (338). In each episode, “True Believer” and FBI agent Fox Mulder (David Duchovny) and his partner, the skeptical and rational Dr Dana Scully (Gillian Anderson), travel through a post-Cold War American landscape that is manifesting varying levels of anxiety about the century to come. The series is preoccupied with a series of questions that have, by the second decade of the twenty-first century, come to be answered fairly definitively. Have aliens visited Earth? (Well, if you believe a team of Harvard scientists, maybe [see Freeman], but there is no evidence of alien colonisation just yet.) Does the US government have its citizens’ best interests at heart? (In its current incarnation, no.) Will climate change have monstrous consequences? (Yes, we’re seeing them.) What do we do about the shady forces operating in post-Soviet Union Russia? (God knows, but they seem to be doing a good job of changing the shape of “democracy” in an increasing number of countries.)These broader socio-political aspects of The X-Files have been explored in a number of studies (see Koven; Moses; Wildermuth). In this article, I focus in more closely on some of the ways in which the character of Scully can be read as a complex engagement with a particularly 1990s version of third-wave feminism. I suggest that the type of feminism embodied in the character of Scully taps into the zeitgeist of the 1990s, a decade characterised not only by a growing media-driven “backlash” against feminism (see Faludi), but also by emergent third wave of feminism driven by movements such as “Riot Grrrl” (centred on openly feminist bands like Bikini Kill and Huggy Bear) and the various, and often contested, feminisms endorsed by a new generation of writers like Susan Faludi, Naomi Wolf, and even Katie Roiphe. Part of Scully’s longevity as a feminist icon can be attributed to the fact that while she is not without her own contradictions and complexities, she emerged from a televisual landscape dominated by particularly insipid representations of professional women. Scully, with her combination of lively wit and serious scientific mind, represented a radical imagining of professional femininity in the 1990s.Working against the Backlash: Scully and the Power of ProfessionalismBy the late 1980s, the political gains made by the second-wave feminism in the 1960s and early 1970s had come increasingly under fire in a “backlash” that “worked to revoke the gains made by the feminist movement” (Genz and Brabon 53). L.S. Kim argues this backlash is reflected in the fact that while strong female characters had always been a feature of US television (e.g. Mary Tyler Moore), in the 1990s televisual landscape feminism was often made popular in a type of “postfeminist discourse in which it is acceptable to be pro-woman but not to be feminist” (319). The quintessential example of this trend was David E. Kelley’s series about a Boston lawyer, Ally McBeal (1997-2002), in which McBeal’s primary dilemma is presented as being that she has “too many choices, too much freedom, and too much desire” which leads to “never-ending searching and even to depression and dysfunction” (Kim 319). McBeal’s professional success never seems to compensate for her various romantic disappointments and these remain the focal point of Kelley’s series.Part of what sets Scully apart from a character like McBeal is her unerring professionalism, and her strong commitment to equality in her relationship with Mulder. Scully displays none of McBeal’s neuroses, and she is unapologetically feminist in her disposition. She also understands implicitly the pivotal role she plays in the partnership at the heart of the X-Files. Scully is, then, a capable, professional woman who not only remains professional at all times, but who also works as a powerful grounding force to her partner’s more outlandish approaches and theories. As series creator Chris Carter has been forced to concede on numerous occasions, without the rational and practical figure of Scully in the morgue to (usually) prove and (sometimes) disprove Mulder’s theories, The X-Files as we know them would cease to exist. In fact, and somewhat paradoxically, in order to best understand Scully as a character, one needs to recognise the significance of the relationship between Scully and Mulder that lies at the heart of the series. The sheer force of Scully’s professionalism, and its resistance to being conscripted straightforwardly into a traditional romantic plot, becomes an important contributor to the powerful sexual tension between Mulder and Scully that came to define the series. Scully also, as critics and commentators were quick to point out, takes on the traditionally masculine role of skeptical scientist on the series, with Mulder positioned in the typically feminine role of intuitive “believer” (in, among other things, aliens, Chupacabra, big foot, and psychic powers). There are, of course, problems with this approach, but for now it is enough to simply point out that this positioning of Mulder and Scully is an important feature of the internal structure of The X-Files and speaks to an awareness of, and desire to challenge, the traditional association of women with intuition and men with rationality. Indeed, Linda Badley points out that the relationship between the two agents is “remarkably egalitarian, challenging traditional gender roles as portrayed on television” (63).Scully and Mulder’s relationship, a relationship that is at once personal and professional, is also grounded in genuine equality and respect. Mulder never undermines Scully, he (occasionally) knows when to bow to her superior scientific reasoning, and his eventual love for his partner is based in his understanding that Scully’s skepticism offers the perfect counterpart to his openness to the paranormal. In fact, one might say that Mulder, at least in part, falls in love with Scully’s professionalism and with her commitment to scientific reasoning. Mulder admits as much himself in the film The X-Files: Fight the Future (1998): “as difficult and frustrating as it’s been sometimes, your goddamn strict rationalism and science have saved me a thousand times over. You kept me honest. You made me a whole person.” In this calculation, Scully is not only Mulder’s equal, she is his missing piece. While she might sometimes grumble about merely playing Watson to Mulder’s Holmes (see “Fight Club” [0720]), Scully’s role is much more important than this, and Mulder (and the viewer) knows it.In the context of the televisual landscape of the 1990s, this representation of Scully as a character who is every bit as intelligent and as integral to the action of the series as her male partner, was incredibly powerful. It marked Scully as a third-wave feminist character in an era dominated by women who seemed to conform to the kind of problematic post-feminism embodied by Ally McBeal. In a recent interview, Gillian Anderson acknowledged the significant role Scully played in opening up possibilities for the representation of women on television in the 1990s. She observed, “a lot of women felt that they saw something recognisable for the first time [in Scully and] there were a lot of young women whose eyes were opened to feeling like they were finally represented in some way on television” (Anderson in Idato n.p.) Many women saw themselves in this character, and there can be little doubt The X-Files spearheaded a shift towards a more representative approach to the writing of female roles in US television in which layered and complex characters such as Scully became the norm rather than the exception. Rosalind Gill, for example, notes that “quality television” has “evolved since the 1990s into a site of rich and complex representations of gender including Homeland, Veep, House of Cards, Orange is the New Black, Transparent, and The Good Wife” (620).One of the other pervasive positive effects associated with the character of Scully is that she functioned, and indeed continues to function, as a role model for women in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics). A recent report commissioned by 21st Century Fox, the Geena Davis Institute on Gender in Media, and J. Walter Thompson Intelligence found that “Scully’s media depiction of a high-achieving woman in STEM asked a generation of girls and women to imagine new professional options… Scully also influenced a generation of young women to study and pursue careers in STEM” (3). Although this report is not entirely impartial (21th Century Fox owns The X-Files), it found that “among women who are familiar with Scully’s character, 91% say she is a role model for girls and women” (5). This finding tallies with those of a variety of earlier online observers who noticed Scully had become a touchstone character “who inspired an entire generation of young women to pursue medical, scientific, and law enforcement degrees as positions” (Consalvi). To an extent not seen before in the history of television, Scully became an important role model for young women in the STEM professions. Scully’s fictional professionalism helped to create a new generation of real-life female STEM professionals.But it is worth remembering that in other respects, Scully is a complicated feminist heroine. This is largely because The X-Files’ production team’s own feminist credentials were often less-than-inspiring. The series was created by a man, and was written and directed predominantly by men in all of its various filmic and televisual incarnations. As Anderson herself pointed out on her Twitter feed for 29 June 2017, of the 207 episodes of X-Files produced, only 2 were directed by women (fig. 1). Famously, when the X-Files began in the early 1990s, Anderson was paid far less than her co-star Duchovny and was even asked to stand behind him on camera. The actor agitated successfully for equal pay after three years in the role, and for the right to stand beside her televisual partner, rather than behind him, even if, somewhat astonishingly, Twenty First Century Fox also offered Anderson less than Duchovny to reprise her famous role in 2016. (Anderson eventually received equal pay for equal billing.)Fig. 1: Gillian Anderson tweet, 29 June 2017.It ought to be remembered, then, that Scully’s feminism is predominantly a construction of men, overlaid with the undoubted feminine empowerment brought to the role by Anderson. As far back as 1998, Linda Badley noticed that for Scully/Anderson “the transference of ‘feminist’ characteristics between character and star is unusually strong—to the extent that a discussion of one must refer to the other. And Anderson/Scully is instantly recognisable as an icon of popular feminism” (62). But in more recent years, Anderson has made even clearer her own feminist leanings. She has done this through the publication (with Jennifer Nadel) of the explicitly feminist We: The Uplifting Manuel for Women Seeking Happiness (2017); by taking up more explicitly feminist roles, such as that of Stella Gibson in the acclaimed BBC series The Fall (2013-present); and through her Twitter feed. The significance of Anderson’s online feminist presence is highlighted by Lauren Modery, who notes: “the next time you’re having a day where you’re not sure if you’re being the best feminist you can be, just ask yourself “what would Gillian Anderson do?” and go to her Twitter account” (Modery). Scully’s 1990s Feminism in a Twenty-First Century ContextFor much of the series, Scully’s feminism can be viewed as a form of the “New Feminism” that Stephanie Genz and Benjamin Brabon associate with the late 1990s and with Natasha Walter’s book The New Feminism (1998). This “New Feminism” attempts to break from second-wave feminism by decoupling the personal from the political (64). Badley, for example, points out that Scully’s feminism is strictly based on individual empowerment: “rather than challenge patriarchy directly or join forces with women activists, Scully channels her anger/ambition into fitting into the system” (70). But equally, Scully’s feminism could be seen as a prototype of the kind of “neo-liberal” feminism that theorists such as Angela McRobbie associate with the present moment, a feminism which “discards the older, welfarist and collectivist feminism of the past, in favour of individualist striving” (4). Certainly, over the course of the 25 years, The X-Files has been in existence, we have seen little evidence that Scully has female friends (or indeed, that she interacts with anyone much outside of Mulder and her family).When other women do enter the picture, such as when Mulder’s one-time lover and co-founder of the X-Files, Diana Fowley appears in the fifth season of the series (see “The End” [0520]), Scully is often positioned in an antagonistic relationship with them. In this context, it is notable that “All Things,” a seventh-season episode directed and written by Anderson, places Scully’s interaction with Colleen Azar, a woman from the American Taoist Healing Centre, at the centre of the narrative. Azar’s exhortations to Scully to “slow down” are presented as the wise words of a female ally in this episode, and Scully does well to heed them. This episode, consciously I think, works as a counter to the more typical representation of Scully as being in competition with women for Mulder’s interest, evident in episodes like “Alpha” (0616) and “Syzygy” (0313). In this respect, Anderson appears to be aligning Scully with a feminism that is much more inclusive than it appears in other, male-written, episodes.From the vantage point of the second decade of the twenty-first century, one of the more problematic elements The X-Files has to do with its representation of sex and sexuality. Sex, in the world of The X-Files, is very 1990s in orientation. In fact, it echoes the way in which sex operated in the Clinton impeachment: denial, denial, denial, even in the face of clear evidence it took place. We see this most obviously in “All Things,” which begins with a shot of Scully getting dressed in front of a mirror, that pans to a shot of an undressed Mulder in bed. This opening seems to suggest the two had spent the night together, but nothing overtly sexual actually takes place in the episode. Indeed, any sexual activity that ever takes place in the X-Files happens off camera, but it is nonetheless worth pointing out that while the equally solitary Mulder is repeatedly characterised in the series by his porn fetish, Scully’s sexuality is repeatedly denied or diminished in the series. Moreover, any overt expression of Scully’s sexuality (such as in “Milagro,” [0618] where she falls for a writer living next door to Mulder) typically ends badly, with Scully placed in peril by her sexual desires.Scully’s continued presence in the twenty-first century, however, means that while her character is rooted in what we might call a “1990s feminist disposition” (she prides herself on being a “woman in a man’s world”; she demonstrates little interest in stereotypically feminine pursuits such as shopping or make up; her focus is on work, rather than romance), she has also been allowed the room to grow and develop. Perhaps most notably, the 2018 Scully is allowed to embrace her sexuality. Sexual activity still appears off screen, of course, but in “Plus One” (1103), we see her actively pursue sex with Mulder (twice!), while her vibrator makes an unapologetic cameo appearance in “Rm9sbG93ZXJz” (1107). Given that we live in a decade saturated in sexual imagery, it makes no sense for 2018 Scully to be as chaste and buttoned up as she was in the 1990s.Finally, in a series in which the wild speculation of the conspiracy theories is almost always true, Scully’s feminist commitment to rationality, science and the power of logic might appear to be undermined at every turn. Badley, for example, reminds us that while Scully may “have medicine and the law on her side ... Mulder’s vision is validated by Chris Carter, as the prologue to nearly every episode reminds us” (67). This is highlighted in “Field Trip” (0621) when Scully wonders, “Mulder, can’t you just for once, just ... for the novelty of it, come up with the simplest explanation, the most logical one instead of automatically jumping to UFOs or Bigfoot or…” Mulder simply counters with:Scully, in six years, how … how often have I been wrong? No seriously, I mean, every time I bring you a case we go through this perfunctory dance. You tell me that I’m not being scientifically rigorous and that I’m off my nut, and then in the end who turns out to be right like 98.95 of the time? I just think I’ve ... earned the benefit of the doubt here.Interestingly enough, however, it is Scully who solves the mystery at the heart of this particular episode of X-Files—Mulder and Scully are indeed trapped inside a giant fungus, being slowly digested by its gooey secretions.And while Mulder’s viewpoint is most often endorsed in the series, the chaos of the Trump administration illustrates perfectly the dangers behind the valorisation of the irrational over the rational. In a decade in which rationality itself is coming under increasing threat—by “fake news”; through a hostility towards the science of climate change; in the desire to wind back further the gains of the feminist movement—we need to remember the importance of the strong and abiding relationship between rationality and feminism. This is a relationship that goes at least as far back as Mary Wollstonecraft’s (1759-1797) Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), is at the heart of the feminist gothic writings of women like Ann Radcliffe (1764-1823) and Mary Shelley (1797-1851). This commitment to the power of rationality lives on in the character of Dana Scully.Conclusion: Scully as Twenty-First-Century Feminist IconI have argued throughout this article that there are limitations of the kind of feminism embodied in Scully, but it is clear that she has come to represent a type of woman who refuses to let men dictate her behaviour, and who maintains her professionalism even under the most difficult of circumstances. A host of Scully memes now circulating on the web celebrate the character’s competence, intelligence, and compassion (figs. 2, 3, and 4). The character of Scully now exists far beyond the confines of the television screen and the imaginations of her predominantly male authors. Scully’s continuing relevance to twenty-first century feminists is reflected in this meme recently placed by Anderson on her Twitter account in response to the allegations of sexual misconduct directed at US Supreme Court nominee Brett Kavanagh (fig. 5). Rarely have the 1990s seemed so relevant to the present moment.Fig. 2: Scully meme, Meme Generator.Fig. 3: Rustnsplinters, “Scully Motivational.” Deviant Art.Fig. 4: E.H. Redlum, “Scully: Meme Style.” Deviant Art.Fig. 5: Gillian Anderson tweet.ReferencesBadley, Linda. “Scully Hits the Glass Ceiling: Postmodernism, Postfeminism, Posthumanism, and The X-Files.” Fantasy Girls: Gender in the New Universe of Science Fiction and Fantasy Television. Ed. Elyce Rae Helford. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2000. 61-90.Consalvi, Sydney. “The Scully Effect Continues: How The X-Files’ Dana Scully Changed Television Forever.” Odyssey. 9 Aug. 2016. 1 Dec. 2018 <https://www.theodysseyonline.com/scully-effect>.Faludi, Susan. Backlash: The Undeclared War against Women. London: Vintage, 1991.Freeman, David. “Scientists Say Mysterious ‘Oumuamua’ Object Could Be an Alien Spacecraft: Harvard Researchers Raise the Possibility That It’s a Probe Sent by Extraterrestrials.” NBCNews.com. 6 Nov. 2018. 1 Dec. 2018 <https://www.nbcnews.com/mach/science/scientists-say-mysterious-oumuamua-object-could-be-alien-spacecraft-ncna931381>.Genz, Stéphanie, and Benjamin A. Brabon. Postfeminism: Cultural Texts and Theories. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2009.Gill, Rosalind. “Post-Postfeminism? New Feminist Visibilities in Postfeminist Times.” Feminist Media Studies 16.4 (2016): 610-30.Idato, Michael. “Gillian Anderson on Why She’s Closing The X-Files after 25 Years.” The Sydney Morning Herald. 15 Jan. 2018. 1 Dec. 2018 <https://www.smh.com.au/entertainment/tv-and-radio/times-up-gillian-anderson-on-why-shes-closing-the-xfiles-after-25-years-20180115-h0iapf.html>.Kim, L.S. “‘Sex and the Single Girl’ in Postfeminism: The F Word on Television.” Television and New Media 2.4 (Nov. 2001): 319-334.Koven, Mikel J. “The X-Files.” Essential Cult TV Reader. Ed. David Lavery. Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 2010. 337-343.McRobbie, Angela. “Notes on the Perfect: Competitive Femininity in Neoliberal Times.” Australian Feminist Studies 30:83 (2015): 3-20.Modery, Lauren. “Gillian Anderson Is the Feminist Twitter Hero We Need Right Now.” Birth. Movies. Death. 25 Jan. 2018. 1 Dec. 2018 <https://birthmoviesdeath.com/2018/01/25/gillian-anderson-is-the-feminist-twitter-hero-we-need-right-now>.Moses, Michael Valdez. “Kingdom of Darkness: Autonomy and Conspiracy in The X-Files and Millenium.” The Philosophy of TV Noir. Eds. Steven M. Sanders and Aeon J. Skoble. Lexington: U. of Kentucky P., 2008. 203-228.21stCentury Fox, the Geena Davis Institute on Gender in Media, and J. Walter Thompson Intelligence. The ‘Scully Effect’: I Want to Believe… in STEM. 2018. <https://impact.21cf.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2018/03/ScullyEffectReport_21CF_1-1.pdf>.Wildermuth, Mark E. Gender, Science Fiction Television, and the American Security State: 1958-Present. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014.X-Files: Fight the Future. Dir. Rob Bowman. Perf. Gillian Anderson and David Duchovny. 20th Century Fox. 1998.

Today, the incidence of type 2 diabetes mellitus is increasing rapidly on global. This disease is shown with many complications that significantly affect public health. One of them is kidney complications, which have a high incidence among diabetic patients in Vietnam (25.6-33.1%). Age, history of hypertension, and dyslipidemia are considered to be the main risk factors for diabetic nephropathy. Thus, early detection of these factors for kidney damage is significant for diagnosing, monitoring, treatment, and prognosis of diabetic patients. Our descriptive, cross-sectional study conducting on 120 diabetic patients at E Hospital has observed that blood cholesterol levels, HbA1c levels were independently related to eGFR decline below 60 mL/min/1.73m2. From those data, an equation to predict the risk of diabetic kidney disease was estimated as p = with k = Keyword: Type 2 diabetes, Diabetic nephropathy, Risk factor Today, the incidence of type 2 diabetes mellitus is increasing rapidly on global. This disease is shown with many complications that significantly affect public health. One of them is kidney complications, which have a high incidence among diabetic patients in Vietnam (25.6-33.1%). Age, history of hypertension, and dyslipidemia are considered to be the main risk factors for diabetic nephropathy. Thus, early detection of these factors for kidney damage is significant for diagnosing, monitoring, treatment, and prognosis of diabetic patients. Our descriptive, cross-sectional study conducting on 120 diabetic patients at E Hospital has observed that blood cholesterol levels, HbA1c levels were independently related to eGFR decline below 60 mL/min/1.73m2. From those data, an equation to predict the risk of diabetic kidney disease was estimated as p = with k = Keyword Type 2 diabetes, Diabetic nephropathy, Risk factor. References [1] N. H. Cho, J. Kirigia, J. C. Mnanya, K. Ogurstova, L. Guraiguata, W. Rathmann, G. Roglic, N. Forouhi, R. Dajani, A. Esteghmati, E. Boyko, L. Hambleton, O. L. M. Neto, P. A. Montoya, S. Joshi, J. Chan, J. Shaw, T.A. Samuels, M. Pavkov, A. Reja, IDF Diabetes Atlas Eight Edition, International Diabete Federation, England, 2017.[2] N. T. Khue, Diabetes – General Endocrinology, Ho Chi Minh Publisher, Ho Chi Minh city, 2003 (in Vietnamese). [3] H. H. Kiem, Clinical Nephrology, Medical Publishing House, Hanoi, 2010 (in Vietnamese). [4] T. H. Quang, Practice Diabetes - Endocrine Disease, Medical Publishing House Hanoi, Hanoi, 2010 (in Vietnamese). [5] D. T. M. Hao, T. T. A. Thu, Diabetic Kidney Disease: Attention Problems, Vietnam Journal of Diabetes and Endocrinology, Vol. 38, 2020, pp. 12-17 (in Vietnamese), https://doi.org/10.47122/vjde.2020.38.2. [6] K. Tziomalos, A. Vasilios G, Diabetic Nephropathy: New Risk Factors and Improvements in Diagnosis, The Review of Diabetic Studies: RDS, Vol. 12, No. 1-2, 2015, pp. 110-118, https://doi.org/10.1900/RDS.2015.12.110.[7] American Diabetes Association, 2. Classification and Diagnosis of Diabetes: Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes-2020, Journal Diabetes Care, Vol. 43, No. 1, 2020, pp. S14, https://doi.org/10.2337/dc20-S002.[8] A. S. Levey, J. Coresh, E. Balk, A. T. Kausz, A. Levin, M. W. Steffes, R. J. Hogg, R. D. Perrone, J. Lau, G. Eknoyan, National Kidney Foundation Practice Guidelines for Chronic Kidney Disease: Evaluation, Classification, and Stratification, Ann Intern Med, Vol. 139, 2003, pp. 137-147, https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-139-2-200307150-00013.[9] D. S. Freedman, M. Horlick, G. S. 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Olowu, T. Sadusky, N. Tandon, K. R. Tuttle, C. Wanner, K. G. Wilkens, S. Zoungas, KDIGO 2020 Clinical Practice Guideline for Diabetes Management in Chronic Kidney Disease, Kidney international, Vol. 98, No. 4S, 2020, pp. S1-S115, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.kint.2020.06.019.[13] B. T. T. Huong, N. T. Giang, Values of Cystatin C in Early Diagnosis of Renal Disease in Patients with Typ 2 Diabetes in Thai Nguyen National Hospital, Vietnam Medical Journal, Vol. 498, No. 2, 2021, pp. 13-17 (in Vietnamese).[14] L. X. Truong, N. D. Tai, T. Q. P. Linh, T. T. Nhung, The Prevalence of The Positive Microalbumin Urine in The Type 2 Diabetic Patients at District 2 Hospital, Y Hoc TP. Ho Chi Minh, Vol. 22, No. 2, 2018, pp. 139-143 (in Vietnamese).[15] S. Yi, S. Park, Y. Lee, H Park, B. Balkau, J. Yi, Association Between Fasting Glucose and All-cause Mortality According to Sex and Age: A Prospective Cohort Study, Scientific Reports, Vol. 7, No. 1, 2017, pp. 1-9, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-08498-6.[16] R. Gupta, M. Sharma, N. K. Goyal, P. S. Lodha, K. K. Sharma, Gender Differences in 7 Years Trends in Cholesterol Lipoproteins and Lipids in India: Insights From A Hospital Database, Indian Journal of Endocrinology Metabolism, Vol. 20, No. 2, 2016, pp. 211-8, https://doi.org/10.4103/2230-8210.176362.[17] X. Zhang, Z. Meng, X. Li, M. Liu, X. Ren, M. Zhu, Q. He, Q Zhang, K. Song, Q. Jia, C. Zhang, X Wang, X. Liu, The Association Between Total Bilirubin and Serum Triglyceride in Both Sexes in Chinese, Lipids In Health and Disease, Vol. 17, No. 1, 2017, pp. 1-8, https://doi.org/10.1186/s12944-018-0857-7.[18] S. Palazhy, V. Viswanathan, Lipid Abnormalities in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Patients with Overt Nephropathy, Diabetes Metabolism Journal, Vol. 41, No. 2, 2017, pp. 128-134, https://doi.org/ 10.4093/dmj.2017.41.2.128.[19] R. I. Papacocea, D. Timofte, M. Tanasescu, A. Balcangiu stroescu, D. G. Balan, A. Tulin, O. Stiru, I. A. Vacaroiu, A. Mihai, C. C. Popa, C. Cosconel, M. Enyedi, D. Miricescu, L. Raducu, D. Ionescu, Kidney Aging Process and The Management of The Elderly Patient with Renal Impairment, Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine, Vol. 21, 2021, pp. 266, https://doi.org/10.3892/etm.2021.9697.[20] R. D. Lindeman, Overview: Renal Physiology and Pathophysiology of Aging, Am J Kidney Dis, Vol. 16, 1990, pp. 275–282, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0272-6386(12)80002-3.[21] G. Zoppini, G. Targher, M. Chonchol, V. Ortalda, C. Negri, V. Stoicio, E. Bonora, Predictors of Estimated GFR Decline in Patients With Type 2 Diabetes and Preserved Kidney Function, Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology, Vol. 7, No. 3, 2012, pp. 401-408, https://doi.org/10.2215/CJN.07650711.[22] R. Trevisan, A. R. Dodesini, G. Lepore, Lipids and Renal Disease, Journal of the American Society of Nephrology, Vol. 17, No. 2-4, 2006, pp. S145-S147. https://doi.org/10.1681/ASN.2005121320.[23] V. T. Samuel, G. I. Shulman, Mechanisms for Insulin Resistance: Common Threads and Missing Links, Cell, Vol. 148, No. 5, 2012, pp. 852-871, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2012.02.017.[24] W. Patricia, D. Gloria Michelle, F. Alessia, Systemic and Renal Lipids in Kidney Disease Development and Progression, American Journal of Physiology-Renal Physiology, Vol. 310, No. 6, 2016, pp. F433-F445, https://doi.org/ 10.1152/ajprenal.00375.2015.[25] F. M. Sacks, M. P. Hermans, P. Fioretto, P. Valensi, T. Davis, E. Horton, C. Wanner, K. A. Rubeaan, I. Barzon, L. 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Shalev, Development of Risk Prediction Equations For Incident Chronic Kidney Disease, Jama, Vol. 322, No. 21, 2019, pp. 2104-2114, https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2019.17379.

On a longtemps vu l’histoire et l’anthropologie comme deux disciplines très distinctes n’ayant pas grand-chose en partage. Jusqu’au début du XXe siècle, l’histoire fut essentiellement celle des « civilisés », des Européens et donc des colonisateurs. Si les colonisés n’étaient pas complètement absents du tableau, ils étaient, au mieux, des participants mineurs. L’anthropologie, pour sa part, s’est instituée en ayant pour objet la compréhension des populations lointaines, les « petites sociétés », autochtones et colonisées, ces populations vues comme hors du temps et de l’histoire. Cette situation était le produit d’une division traditionnelle (Harkin 2010 : 114) – et coloniale (Naepels 2010 : 878) – du travail entre histoire et anthropologie. Celle-ci se prolongeait dans le choix des méthodes : les historiens travaillaient en archives alors que les anthropologues s’intéressaient aux témoignages oraux et donc, s’adonnaient à l’enquête de terrain. Les deux disciplines divergeaient également quant à la temporalité : « Pour l’histoire, (…) le temps est une sorte de matière première. Les actes s’inscrivent dans le temps, modifient les choses tout autant qu’ils les répètent. (…) Pour l’anthropologue, s’il n’y prend garde, le temps passe en arrière-plan, au profit d’une saisie des phénomènes en synchronie » (Bensa 2010 : 42). Ces distinctions ne sont plus aujourd’hui essentielles, en particulier pour « l’anthropologie historique », champ de recherche dont se revendiquent tant les historiens que les anthropologues, mais il n’en fut pas de tout temps ainsi. Après s’être d’abord intéressés à l’histoire des civilisations dans une perspective évolutionniste et spéculative, au tournant du siècle dernier, les pères de l’anthropologie, tant en France (Émile Durkheim, Marcel Mauss), aux États-Unis (Franz Boas), qu’en Angleterre (Bronislaw Malinowski, Alfred Radcliffe-Brown), prendront fermement leur distance avec cette histoire. Les questions de méthode, comme le développement de l’observation participante, et l’essor de concepts qui devinrent centraux à la discipline tels que « culture » et « fonction » furent déterminants pour sortir de l’idéologie évolutionniste en privilégiant la synchronie plutôt que la diachronie et les généalogies. On se détourna alors des faits uniques pour se concentrer sur ceux qui se répètent (Bensa 2010 : 43). On s’intéressa moins à l’accidentel, à l’individuel pour s’attacher au régulier, au social et au culturel. Sans être nécessairement antihistoriques, ces précepteurs furent largement ahistoriques (Evans-Pritchard 1962 : 172), une exception ayant été Franz Boas – et certains de ses étudiants, tels Robert Lowie ou Melville J. Herskovits – avec son intérêt pour les contacts culturels et les particularismes historiques. Du côté de l’histoire, on priorisait la politique, l’événement et les grands hommes, ce qui donnait lieu à des récits plutôt factuels et athéoriques (Krech 1991 : 349) basés sur les événements « vrais » et uniques qui se démarquaient de la vie « ordinaire ». Les premiers essais pour réformer l’histoire eurent lieu en France, du côté des historiens qui seront associés aux « Annales », un nom qui réfère à la fois à une revue scientifique fondée en 1929 par Marc Bloch et Lucien Febvre et à une École d’historiens français qui renouvela la façon de penser et d’écrire l’histoire, en particulier après la Seconde Guerre mondiale (Krech 1991; Schöttler 2010). L’anthropologie et la sociologie naissantes suscitèrent alors l’intérêt chez ce groupe d’historiens à cause de la variété de leurs domaines d’enquête, mais également par leur capacité à enrichir une histoire qui n’est plus conçue comme un tableau ou un simple inventaire. Les fondateurs de la nouvelle École française des Annales décrivent leur approche comme une « histoire totale », expression qui renvoie à l’idée de totalité développée par les durkheimiens, mais également à l’idée de synthèse du philosophe et historien Henry Berr (Schöttler 2010: 34-37). L’histoire fut dès lors envisagée comme une science sociale à part entière, s’intéressant aux tendances sociales qui orientent les singularités. L’ouvrage fondateur de Marc Bloch, Les rois thaumaturges (1983 [1924]), pose les jalons de ce dépassement du conjoncturel. Il utilise notamment la comparaison avec d’autres formes d’expériences humaines décrites notamment dans Le Rameau d’Or (1998 [1924; 1890 pour l’édition originale en anglais]) de James G. Frazer et explore le folklore européen pour dévoiler les arcanes religieux du pouvoir royal en France et en Angleterre (Bensa 2010; Goody 1997). Il s’agit alors de faire l’histoire des « mentalités », notion qui se rapproche de celle de « représentation collective » chère à Durkheim et Mauss (sur ce rapprochement entre les deux notions et la critique qui en a été faite, voir Lloyd 1994). Les travaux de la deuxième génération des historiens des Annales, marqués par la publication de l’ouvrage de Fernand Braudel La Méditerranée et le monde méditerranéen à l’époque de Philippe II en 1949 et de son arrivée en 1956 à la direction de la revue, peuvent encore une fois mieux se comprendre dans l’horizon du dialogue avec l’anthropologie, d’une part, et avec les area studiesqui se développèrent aux États-Unis après la Seconde Guerre mondiale, de l’autre (Braudel 1958). Le projet est de rapporter « la spécificité des acteurs singuliers, des dates et des événements à des considérations plus vastes sur la transformation lente des mœurs et des représentations. Le travail ne consiste pas seulement à capter au projet de l’histoire des rubriques chères à l’anthropologie, mais aussi à caractériser une époque [et une région] par sa façon de percevoir et de penser le monde » (Bensa 2010 : 46). Il s’agit alors de faire l’histoire des structures, des conjonctures et des mentalités (Schöttler 2010 : 38). Les travaux de cette deuxième génération des Annales s’inscrivent dans un vif débat avec l’anthropologie structuraliste de Claude Lévi-Strauss. Si tant Braudel que Lévi-Strauss voulaient considérer les choses de façon globale, Lévi-Strauss situait la globalité dans un temps des sociétés des origines, comme si tout s’était joué au départ et comme si l’histoire n’en serait qu’un développement insignifiant. Pour sa part, Braudel, qui s’intéressait à l’histoire sérielle et à la longue durée, situait plutôt la globalité dans un passé qui sert à comprendre le présent et, jusqu’à un certain point, à prévoir ce qui peut se passer dans le futur. Ce qui constitue le fond de leur opposition est que l’un s’intéresse à l’histoire immobile alors que l’autre s’intéresse à l’histoire de longue durée, soit l’histoire quasi immobile selon laquelle, derrière les apparences de la reproduction à l’identique, se produisent toujours des changements, même très minimes. Dans les deux cas, l’ « événementiel » ou ce qui se passe à la « surface » sont à l’opposé de leur intérêt pour la structure et la profondeur, même si ces dernières ne sont pas saisies de la même façon. Pour Braudel, la structure est pleinement dans l’histoire ; elle est réalité concrète et observable qui se décèle notamment dans les réseaux de relations, de marchandises et de capitaux qui se déploient dans l’espace et qui commandent les autres faits dans la longue durée (Dosse 1986 : 89). Les travaux de Braudel et son concept d’ « économie-monde » inspireront plusieurs anthropologues dont un Marshall Sahlins et un Jonathan Friedman à partir du tournant des années 1980. Pour Lévi-Strauss, la structure profonde, celle qui correspond aux enceintes mentales humaines, « ne s’assimile pas à la structure empirique, mais aux modèles construits à partir de celle-ci » (Dosse 1986 : 85). Elle est donc hors de l’histoire. Comme le rappelait François Hartog (2014 [2004] : 287), Lévi-Strauss a souvent dit « rien ne m’intéresse plus que l’histoire. Et depuis fort longtemps! » (1988 : 168; voir d’ailleurs notamment Lévi-Strauss 1958, 1983), tout en ajoutant « l’histoire mène à tout, mais à condition d’en sortir » (Lévi-Strauss 1962 : 348) ! Parallèlement à l’entreprise déhistoricisante de Lévi-Strauss, d’autres anthropologues insistent au contraire à la même époque sur l’importance de réinsérer les institutions étudiées dans le mouvement du temps. Ainsi, Edward E. Evans-Pritchard, dans sa célèbre conférence Marett de 1950 qui sera publiée en 1962 sous le titre « Anthropology and history », dénonce le fait que les généralisations en anthropologie autour des structures sociales, de la religion, de la parenté soient devenues tellement généralisées qu’elles perdent toute valeur. Il insiste sur la nécessité de faire ressortir le caractère unique de toute formation sociale. C’est pour cette raison qu’il souligne l’importance de l’histoire pour l’anthropologie, non pas comme succession d’événements, mais comme liens entre eux dans un contexte où on s’intéresse aux mouvements de masse et aux grands changements sociaux. En invitant notamment les anthropologues à faire un usage critique des sources documentaires et à une prise en considération des traditions orales pour comprendre le passé et donc la nature des institutions étudiées, Evans-Pritchard (1962 : 189) en appelle à une combinaison des points de vue historique et fonctionnaliste. Il faut s’intéresser à l’histoire pour éclairer le présent et comment les institutions en sont venues à être ce qu’elles sont. Les deux disciplines auraient donc été pour lui indissociables (Evans-Pritchard 1962 : 191). Au milieu du XXe siècle, d’autres anthropologues s’intéressaient aux changements sociaux et à une conception dynamique des situations sociales étudiées, ce qui entraîna un intérêt pour l’histoire, tels que ceux de l’École de Manchester, Max Gluckman (1940) en tête. En France, inspiré notamment par ce dernier, Georges Balandier (1951) insista sur la nécessité de penser dans une perspective historique les situations sociales rencontrées par les anthropologues, ce qui inaugura l’étude des situations coloniales puis postcoloniales, mais aussi de l’urbanisation et du développement. Cette importance accordée à l’histoire se retrouva chez les anthropologues africanistes de la génération suivante tels que Jean Bazin, Michel Izard et Emmanuel Terray (Naepels 2010 : 876). Le dialogue entre anthropologie et histoire s’est développé vers la même époque aux États-Unis. Après le passage de l’Indian Claims Commission Act en 1946, qui établit une commission chargée d’examiner les revendications à l’encontre de l’État américain en vue de compensations financières pour des territoires perdus par les nations autochtones à la suite de la violation de traités fédéraux, on assista au développement d’un nouveau champ de recherche, l’ethnohistoire, qui se dota d’une revue en 1954, Ethnohistory. Ce nouveau champ fut surtout investi par des anthropologues qui se familiarisèrent avec les techniques de l’historiographie. La recherche, du moins à ses débuts, avait une orientation empirique et pragmatique puisque les chercheurs étaient amenés à témoigner au tribunal pour ou contre les revendications autochtones (Harkin 2010). Les ethnohistoriens apprirent d’ailleurs à ce moment à travailler pour et avec les autochtones. Les recherches visaient une compréhension plus juste et plus holiste de l’histoire des peuples autochtones et des changements dont ils firent l’expérience. Elles ne manquèrent cependant pas de provoquer un certain scepticisme parmi les anthropologues « de terrain » pour qui rien ne valait la réalité du contact et les sources orales et pour qui les archives, parce qu’étant celles du colonisateur, étaient truffées de mensonges et d’incompréhensions (Trigger 1982 : 5). Ce scepticisme s’estompa à mesure que l’on prit conscience de l’importance d’une compréhension du contexte historique et de l’histoire coloniale plus générale pour pouvoir faire sens des données ethnologiques et archéologiques. L’ethnohistoire a particulièrement fleuri en Amérique du Nord, mais très peu en Europe (Harkin 2010; Trigger 1982). On retrouve une tradition importante d’ethnohistoriens au Québec, qu’on pense aux Bruce Trigger, Toby Morantz, Rémi Savard, François Trudel, Sylvie Vincent. L’idée est de combiner des données d’archives et des données archéologiques avec l’abondante ethnographie. Il s’agit également de prendre au sérieux l’histoire ou la tradition orale et de confronter les analyses historiques à l’interprétation qu’ont les acteurs de l’histoire coloniale et de son impact sur leurs vies. La perspective se fit de plus en plus émique au fil du temps, une attention de plus en plus grande étant portée aux sujets. Le champ de recherche attira graduellement plus d’historiens. La fin des années 1960 fut le moment de la grande rencontre entre l’anthropologie et l’histoire avec la naissance, en France, de l’« anthropologie historique » ou « nouvelle histoire » et, aux États-Unis, de la « New Cutural History ». L’attention passa des structures et des processus aux cultures et aux expériences de vie des gens ordinaires. La troisième génération des Annales fut au cœur de ce rapprochement : tout en prenant ses distances avec la « religion structuraliste » (Burguière 1999), la fascination pour l’anthropologie était toujours présente, produisant un déplacement d’une histoire économique et démographique vers une histoire culturelle et ethnographique. Burguière (1999) décrivait cette histoire comme celle des comportements et des habitudes, marquant un retour au concept de « mentalité » de Bloch. Les inspirations pour élargir le champ des problèmes posés furent multiples, en particulier dans les champs de l’anthropologie de l’imaginaire et de l’idéologique, de la parenté et des mythes (pensons aux travaux de Louis Dumont et de Maurice Godelier, de Claude Lévi-Strauss et de Françoise Héritier). Quant à la méthode, la description dense mise en avant par Clifford Geertz (1973), la microhistoire dans les traces de Carlo Ginzburg (1983) et l’histoire comparée des cultures sous l’influence de Jack Goody (1979 [1977]) permirent un retour de l’événement et du sujet, une attention aux détails qui rejoignit celle qu’y accordait l’ethnographie, une conception plus dynamique des rapports sociaux et une réinterrogation des généralisations sur le long terme (Bensa 2010 : 49 ; Schmitt 2008). Aux États-Unis, la « New Culturel History » qui s’inscrit dans les mêmes tendances inclut les travaux d’historiens comme Robert Darnon, Natalie Zemon Davis, Dominick La Capra (Iggers 1997; Krech 1991; Harkin 2010). L’association de l’histoire et de l’anthropologie est souvent vue comme ayant été pratiquée de manière exemplaire par Nathan Wachtel, historien au sens plein du terme, mais également formé à l’anthropologie, ayant suivi les séminaires de Claude Lévi-Strauss et de Maurice Godelier (Poloni-Simard et Bernand 2014 : 7). Son ouvrage La Vision des vaincus : les Indiens du Pérou devant la Conquête espagnole 1530-1570 qui parut en 1971 est le résultat d’un va-et-vient entre passé et présent, la combinaison d’un travail en archives avec des matériaux peu exploités jusque-là, comme les archives des juges de l’Inquisition et les archives administratives coloniales, et de l’enquête de terrain ethnographique. Cet ouvrage met particulièrement en valeur la capacité d’agir des Autochtones dans leur rapport avec les institutions et la culture du colonisateur. Pour se faire, il appliqua la méthode régressive mise en avant par Marc Bloch, laquelle consiste à « lire l’histoire à rebours », c’est-à-dire à « aller du mieux au moins bien connu » (Bloch 1931 : XII). Du côté des anthropologues, l’anthropologie historique est un champ de recherche en effervescence depuis les années 1980 (voir Goody 1997 et Naepels 2010 pour une recension des principaux travaux). Ce renouveau prit son essor notamment en réponse aux critiques à propos de l’essentialisme, du culturalisme, du primitivisme et de l’ahistoricisme (voir Fabian 2006 [1983]; Thomas 1989; Douglas 1998) de la discipline anthropologique aux prises avec une « crise de la représentation » (Said 1989) dans un contexte plus large de décolonisation qui l’engagea dans un « tournant réflexif » (Geertz 1973; Clifford et Marcus 1986; Fisher et Marcus 1986). Certains se tournèrent vers l’histoire en quête de nouvelles avenues de recherche pour renouveler la connaissance acquise par l’ethnographie en s’intéressant, d’un point de vue historique, aux dynamiques sociales internes, aux régimes d’historicité et aux formes sociales de la mémoire propres aux groupes auprès desquels ils travaillaient (Naepels 2010 : 877). Les anthropologues océanistes participèrent grandement à ce renouveau en discutant de la nécessité et des possibilités d’une anthropologie historiquement située (Biersack 1991; Barofsky 2000; Merle et Naepels 2003) et par la publication de plusieurs monographies portant en particulier sur la période des premiers contacts entre sociétés autochtones et Européens et les débuts de la période coloniale (entre autres, Dening 1980; Sahlins 1981, 1985; Valeri 1985; Thomas 1990). L’ouvrage maintenant classique de Marshall Sahlins, Islands of History (1985), suscita des débats vigoureux qui marquèrent l’histoire de la discipline anthropologique à propos du relativisme en anthropologie, de l’anthropologie comme acteur historique, de l’autorité ethnographique, de la critique des sources archivistiques, des conflits d’interprétation et du traitement de la capacité d’agir des populations autochtones au moment des premiers contacts avec les Européens et, plus largement, dans l’histoire (pour une synthèse, voir Kuper 2000). Pour ce qui est de la situation coloniale, le 50e anniversaire de la publication du texte fondateur de Balandier de 1951, au début des années 2000, fut l’occasion de rétablir, approfondir et, dans certains cas, renouveler le dialogue non seulement entre anthropologues et historiens, mais également, entre chercheurs français et américains. Les nouvelles études coloniales qui sont en plein essor invitent à une analyse méticuleuse des situations coloniales d’un point de vue local de façon à en révéler les complexités concrètes. On y insiste aussi sur l’importance de questionner les dichotomies strictes et souvent artificielles entre colonisateur et colonisé, Occident et Orient, Nord et Sud. Une attention est aussi portée aux convergences d’un théâtre colonial à un autre, ce qui donne une nouvelle impulsion aux analyses comparatives des colonisations (Sibeud 2004: 94) ainsi qu’au besoin de varier les échelles d’analyse en établissant des distinctions entre les dimensions coloniale et impériale (Bayart et Bertrand 2006; Cooper et Stoler 1997; Singaravélou 2013; Stoler, McGranahn et Perdue 2007) et en insérant les histoires locales dans les processus de globalisation, notamment économique et financière, comme l’ont par exemple pratiqué les anthropologues Jean et John Comaroff (2010) sur leur terrain sud-africain. Ce « jeu d’échelles », représente un défi important puisqu’il force les analystes à constamment franchir les divisions persistantes entre aires culturelles (Sibeud 2004: 95). Ce renouveau a également stimulé une réflexion déjà amorcée sur l’usage des archives coloniales ainsi que sur le contexte de production et de conservation d’une archive (Naepels 2011; Stoler 2009), mais également sur les legs coloniaux dans les mondes actuels (Bayart et Bertrand 2006; De l’Estoile 2008; Stoler 2016)