Tesi: "Proteaceae"

1

Denman, Sandra. "Botryosphaeria diseases of proteaceae". Thesis, Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2002. http://hdl.handle.net/10019.1/52721.

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Dissertation (PhD (Agric))--University of Stellenbosch, 2002.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Fungi belonging to the genus Botryosphaeria are heterotrophic micromycetes that can be pathogens on woody plants. They cause serious, and in some cases devastating losses to crops through leaf necrosis, stem cankers and plant death. The Proteaceae cut-flower industry in South Africa accounts for 70% of the national cut-flower enterprise. Botryosphaeria diseases are a major impediment to production and trade of Proteaceae and there is an urgent need to investigate the etiology, epidemiology and control of these diseases. Losses of one of the most important proteas, P. magnifica, amount to 50% or more, locally. The main aims of this study were therefore to establish the etiology and aspects of epidemiology of Botryosphaeria stem cankers on P. magnifica and other Proteaceae, and to investigate methods of disease control. Although there is a vast body of information pertaining to this fungus, which was reviewed in Chapter 1, there is relatively little information available on Botryosphaeria on Proteaceae. The taxonomy of Botryosphaeria requires thorough review, and molecular techniques need to be employed to resolve species identities. In Chapter 2, it was found that Phyllachora proteae, a leaf pathogen of proteas, produced a Fusicoccum anamorph, which is described as F. proteae. A sphaeropsis-like synanamorph was associated with F. proteae and a new combination for P. proteae is proposed in Botryosphaeria, as B. proteae. The taxonomy of Botryosphaeria is in disarray at both the generic and the specific level. In Chapter 3 the taxonomic history of Botryosphaeria is reviewed, and the genus circumscribed and distinguished from other morphologically similar genera. Although several anamorph genera have been linked to Botryosphaeria, based on morphological observations and phylogenetic analysis of lTS rDNA sequence data, two anamorph genera are now recognised, those with pigmented conidia (Diplodia), and those with hyaline conidia (Fusicoccum). Botryosphaeria proteae should thus be excluded from Botryosphaeria. Several pathogenic Botryosphaeria spp. have an endophytic phase within their hosts. They are therefore imported unwittingly into other countries where they may pose a risk to agriculture and indigenous vegetation. The current global distribution of Botryosphaeria spp. associated with Proteaceae is clarified and a key to these taxa associated with Proteaceae is provided in Chapter 4. Five Botryosphaeria spp. are associated with cut-flower Proteaceae worldwide viz. B. lute a, B. obtusa, B. protearum, B. proteae and B. rib is. B. protearum is described as a new species. A thorough understanding of disease epidemiology is essential to effect a reduction of losses. In Chapter 5, I show that on P. magnifica, lesions caused by Botryosphaeria protearum, which lead to the formation of stem cankers, are initiated in the mid-rib vein or margin of leaves. Koch's postulates were satisfied and it was found that the number of lesions that developed from artificial inoculations correlated with starch levels present in leaves at the time of inoculation. In Chapter 6 it is shown that B. protearum exists as an endophyte in leaves of P. magnifica in naturally occurring as well as cultivated plants. In natural stands of proteas stem cankers are rare, but in cultivated plantations the incidence is high. Nutritional analyses indicate that higher levels of nitrogen occur in leaves of cultivated plants in spring, which could enhance disease development. High levels of sodium in the leaves of wild plants may restrict disease development. The severe economic losses caused by B. protearum make the search for improved methods of disease control essential. Fungicide applications form an important component of an integrated approach to disease management. In Chapter 7, in vitro tests demonstrate that tebuconazole, benomyl, prochloraz me, iprodione and fenarimol reduce the mycelial growth of B. protearum effectively. In the field there was a 25-85% reduction in the occurrence of stem cankers by applying fungicides or sanitation pruning. The best control was achieved by using benomyl, bitertanol, fenarimol, iprodione, prochloraz manganese chloride alternated with mancozeb and tebuconazole prophylactically. If sanitation pruning is combined with regular applications of fungicides, disease can be combated.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Mikrofungi wat tot die genus Botryosphaeria behoort, is heterotrofiese organismes, wat patogenies op houtagtige plante kan wees. Hulle veroorsaak ernstige, en in sommige gevalle, verwoestende verliese, deur blaarnekrose, stamkankers en plantafsterwing. Die Proteaceae snyblom-industrie in Suid-Afrika maak 70% van die nasionale snyblomindustrie uit. Botryosphaeria siektes is 'n belangrike struikelblok in die produksie en handeldryf van Proteaceae, en daar is 'n ernstige behoefte om die etiologie, epidemiologie en beheer van siektes te ondersoek. Verliese van een van die belangrikste proteas, P. magnifica, beloop plaaslik 50% of meer. Die hoof doelstellings van hierdie studie was dus om die etiologie en epidemiologie van Botryosphaeria stamkankers op P. magnifica en ander Proteaceae vas te stel en metodes van siektebeheer te ondersoek. Hoewel daar 'n wye hoeveelheid inligting rakende die swam bestaan, wat in Hoofstuk I hersien is, is daar relatief min inligting oor Botryosphaeria op Proteaceae beskikbaar. Die taksonomie van Botryosphaeria benodig deeglike hersiening, en molekulêre tegnieke word benodig om spesie-identiteite op te klaar. In Hoofstuk 2 is gevind dat Phyllachora proteae, 'n blaarpatogeen van proteas, 'n Fusicoccum anamorf produseer, wat as F. proteae beskryf word. 'n Sphaeropsis-agtige synanamorf is met F. proteae geassosieer en 'n nuwe kombinasie vir P. proteae is as B. proteae in Botryosphaeria voorgestel. Die taksonomie van Botryosphaeria is, beide op die genus- as die spesievlak, in wanorde. In Hoofstuk 3 word die taksonomiese geskiedenis van Botryosphaeria hersien, en die genus word omskryf en van ander morfologies soortgelyke genera onderskei. Hoewel verskeie anamorf genera al met Botryosphaeria op grond van morfologiese waarnemings en filogenetiese analise van ITS rDNA volgorde data verbind is, word twee anamorf genera nou herken, dié met gepigmenteerde konidia (Diplodia), en dié met deurskynende konidia (Fusicoccum). Botryosphaeria proteae moet dus van Botryosphaeria uitgesluit word. Verskeie patogeniese Botryosphaeria spp. het 'n endofitiese fase in hul lewenssiklus. Hulle word dus onwetend in ander lande ingevoer waar hulle 'n gevaar vir landbou en inheemse plantegroei kan inhou. Die huidige wêreldverspreiding van Botryosphaeria spp. wat met Proteaceae geassosieer word is opgeklaar, en in Hoofstuk 4 word 'n sleutel tot die taksa wat met Proteaceae geassosieer word verskaf. Vyf Botryosphaeria spp. word met snyblom Proteaceae wêreldwyd geassosieer, naamlik B. lutea, B. protearum, B. proteae, B. ribis en B. obtusa. B. protearum word as 'n nuwe spesie beskryf. 'n Deeglike kennis van siekte-epidemiologie is noodsaaklik ten einde verliese te verminder. In Hoofstuk 5 dui ek aan dat letsels wat lei tot stamkankers, veroorsaak deur Botryosphaeria protearum op P. magnifica, in die hoofnerf of rant van blare ontstaan. Koch se postulate is uitgevoer en daar is vasgestel dat die aantal letsels wat vanuit kunsmatige inokulasies ontwikkel het korreleer met die styselvlakke teenwoordig in die blare ten tye van die inokulasie. In Hoofstuk 6 word getoon dat B. protearum as 'n endofiet in die blare van P. magnifica. In natuurlike standplase van proteas is stamkankers skaars, maar in verboude plantasies is die voorkoms hoog. Voedingsanalises dui aan dat hoër vlakke van stikstof in die blare van verboude plante in die lente voorkom, wat siekte-ontwikkeling moontlik kan bevorder. Hoë vlakke van natrium in die blare van natuurlike plante mag siekteontwikkeling beperk. Die ernstige ekonomiese verliese wat deur B. protearum veroorsaak word, maak die soektog na verbeterde metodes van siektebeheer noodsaaklik. Fungisiedtoedienings maak 'n belangrike deel uit van 'n geïntegreerde benadering tot siektebeheer. In Hoofstuk 7 dui in vitro toetse aan dat tebuconazole, benomyl, prochloraz me, iprodione en fenarimol die miseliumgroei van B. protearum effektief verminder. 'n Vermindering van 25-85% is aangetoon in die voorkoms van stamkankers in die veld, deur die toediening van fungisiedes en sanitasiesnoei. Die beste beheer is verkry deur die voorkomende toediening van benomyl, bitertanol, fenarimol, iprodione en prochloraz manganese chloride, afgewissel met mancozeb en tebuconazole, op plante in die veld. Indien sanitasiesnoei met gereelde toedienings van fungisiedes gekombineer word, kan die siekte bekamp word.

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2

Schmeisser, Michael. "Anthocyanins in selected Proteaceae". Thesis, Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2002. http://hdl.handle.net/10019.1/52685.

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Thesis (MScAgric)--University of Stellenbosch, 2002.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Trials were conducted to follow colour development during the growth season of the commercial Leucadendron cultivar 'Siivan' Red', as well as the Protea cultivars 'Ivy', 'Carnival' and 'Sylvia'. HPLC analysis showed that pigments responsible for red colour in Leucadendron and Protea cultivars are anthocyanins. Initial extraction of anthocyan ins from freeze-dried and finely ground Leucadendron leaves, using 5% formic acid in methanol, resulted in the precipitation of gel-like compounds, making the extracts impossible to filter for HPLC. Trials were conducted to determine the optimum extraction solvent and extraction time for anthocyanin quantification in Leucadendron, using 'Safari Sunset' (Leucadendron sa/ignurn x L. /aureo/urn) as reference material. Acetone, 80% acetone, 5% formic acid in water and 5% formic acid in methanol were added to freeze dried leaf samples and allowed to extract for one hour. Extracts were analysed by reverse-phase HPLC. Extractions with methanol and water yielded extracts with a high content of pectin-like compounds, making them difficult to purify for HPLC. 80% acetone proved to be the most efficient extraction solvent, yielding the highest anthocyanin concentration, and showing the least amount of insoluble compounds. Optimal extraction time was determined for 80% acetone by testing 1, 6 and 24-hour extractions respectively. Although 6 hour extraction showed a slightly higher yield, a 1-hour extraction should suffice for quantification of anthocyanin changes over time, as trends will clearly be evident. 'Siivan Red' shoots meeting export quality can generally be harvested from mid February to mid April (late summer to autumn). The harvesting period ends as the colour of the distal leaves forming the flower head change from red to green. Anthocyanin, chlorophyll and carotenoid fluctuations were investigated in 'Siivan Red' during the 2000 growth season. The observed red colour loss is the result of the net degradation of anthocyanins and appeared to be correlated to the phenological development of the shoot. Although a positive correlation was noted between anthocyanin content and average daily temperature and mean daily sunlight hours, it appears unlikely that they are the causal factors for the observed colour change. Anthocyanin degradation started during conditions of long exposure to high light intensities and continued during a period of low temperature (autumn), both which are known to favour anthocyanin synthesis rather than its degradation. Therefore it appears that colour development in 'Silvan Red' is developmentally regulated. The Leucadendron cultivar 'Safari Sunset' with the same parentage as 'Siivan Red', is noted for its more intense red-purple colouration, which it does not lose during its development. The more intense colouration of 'Safari Sunset' has been ascribed to the higher total anthocyanin concentration, which was almost double that encountered in 'Siivan Red'. 'Safari Sunset' was shown to contain the same major types of anthocyanins, and hence the purple colouration (not seen in 'Siivan Red') can not be explained in terms of different types of anthocyanins being present. However, the ratio between the two major anthocyanins present in both 'Safari Sunset' and 'Siivan Red' were significantly different in that 'Safari Sunset' showed a considerably higher concentration of peak 1, which is most likely responsible for the observed purple colouration. High anthocyanin concentrations have been noted to buffer against visual changes in colour, which is the most probable reason that a colour loss is not observed in 'Safari Sunset'. Colour development of the innermost involucral bracts of three Protea cultivars was followed from an initially selected inflorescence size to commercial harvest (when flowers have opened slightly). 'Ivy', 'Carnival' and 'Sylvia' show a light pink, dark pink and red colouration respectively, which has been ascribed to differences in total anthocyanin concentration. Colour development in 'Carnival' showed a quadratic trend with time, with the highest rate of anthocyanin synthesis occurring a week prior to harvest. Colour development in 'Ivy' and 'Sylvia' were shown to be linear with time. As inflorescences are closed during their development and anthocyanin synthesis in the innermost involucral bracts occurred in darkness, light does not appear to have a major influence on colour development. Temperature did not appear to have a significant effect on flower colour, as flowers developing later in the season, when ambient temperatures were lower, showed no significant differences in anthocyanin concentration to those harvested earlier. Hence, it appears that colour development in all three cultivars is developmentally regulated.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie studie is onderneem om kleurontwikkeling van die Leucadendron kultivar 'Silvan Red' en die Protea kultivars 'Ivy', 'Carnival' en 'Sylvia' te ondersoek. Die rooi kleur van distale 'Siivan Red' blare en Protea omwindselblare is te wyte aan antosianiene. Eerstens is gepoog om die ektraksie van antosianiene vir kwantifisering deur hoë druk vloeistof chromatografie (HPLC) te verfyn. Aanvanklik is 5% mieresuur in metanol gebruik om antosianien vanuit gefriesdroogde en fyngemaalde Leucadendron blare te ekstraheer. 'n Gelagtige neerslag het dit egter onmoontlik gemaak om die ekstrak te filtreer. Vervolgens is eksperimente uitgevoer om die geskiktheid van asetoon, 80% asetoon, 5% mieresuur in water en 5% mieresuur in metanol as alternatiewe vir 5% mieresuur in metanol te bepaal. Antosianiene is deur middel van HPLC gekwantifiseer na 'n uurlange ekstraksie vanuit 'Safari Sunset' (Leucadendron sa/ignurn x L. /aureo/urn) blaarmonsters. 'n Onoplosbare neerslag van onsuiwerhede na ekstraksie met metanol en water het filtrasie bemoeilik. 80% asetoon was die doeltreffendste ekstraheermiddel deurdat dit beide die hoogste opbrengs van antosianiene en die minste onsuiwerhede gelewer het. Vervolgens is die optimale duur van antosianienekstraksie met 80% asetoon bepaal deur vir een, ses en 24 uur te ekstraheer. Resultate het getoon dat, alhoewel ses uur ekstraksie 'n effense hoër antosianienkonsentrasie lewer, 'n uur voldoende behoort te wees vir kwantifisering van antosianien. Uitvoergehalte 'Siivan Red' lote word gewoonlik vanaf middel Februarie tot middel April (Iaat somer tot herfs) geoes. Die oestyd eindig met 'n verandering in die kleur van distale blare van rooi na groen wat die bemarkbaarheid van lote verlaag. Ten einde hierdie kleurverandering te kwantifiseer is veranderinge in die konsentrasies van antosianien, chlorofiel en karotenoide in distale 'Siivan Red' blare gedurende die 2000 groeiseisoen gemeet en in verband gebring met omgewingstoestande en ontwikkelingstadiums. Rooi kleurverlies van distale 'Silvan Red' blare hou klaarblyklik verband met 'n geleidelike afname in hul antosianienkonsentrasies vanweë netto degradasie. Veranderinge in die kleur en antosianienkonsentrasie van blare het saamgeval met spesifieke ontwikkelingsperiodes. Kleurveranderinge in 'Siivan Red' kon nie met omgewingstoestande verbind word nie. Kleuronwikkeling word klaarblyklik intern gereguleer om saam te val met spesifieke ontwikkelingstadia. Die Leucadendron kultivars 'Safari Sunset' en 'Siivan Red' het dieselfde ouers. Eersgenoemde kultivar het egter In intenser rooi-pers kleur wat ook stabiel blyoor die hele groeiseisoen. Die intenser kleur kan toegeskryf word aan die bykans twee keer hoër antosianienkonsentrasies wat 'Safari Sunset' blare oor die groeisoen handhaaf. Hierdie hoër antosianienkonsentrasie is moontlik ook die rede vir die oëskynlik groter kleurstabiliteit van 'Safari Sunset' aangesien hoë pigmentvlakke kleur buffer teen veranderinge in pigmentkonsentrasie. 'Safari Sunset' se pers skynsel is moontlik te wyte aan die relatief groter bydrae van piek 1 op die chromatogram tot die totale antosianienkonsentrasie. Andersins het die twee kultivars 'n soortgelyke antosianienprofiel. Ten einde die regulering van kleurontwikkeling in Protea te ondersoek, is antosianienkonsentrasies in die binneste bloeiwyse-omwindelsblare van die Protea kultivars 'Ivy', 'Carnival' en 'Sylvia' gemeet vanaf 'n pre-geselekteerde blomgrootte tot en met kommersiële oestyd wanneer die blomme begin oopgaan. Die drie kultivars wisselonderskeidelik in kleur van lig pienk en donker pienk tot rooi. Hierdie kleurverskille was te wyte aan verskille in antosianienkonsentrasie. Antosianienkonsentrasies in 'Ivy' en 'Sylvia' het lineêr toegeneem oor tyd, terwyl in die geval van 'Carnival', maksimum antosianienvlakke reeds 'n week voor oes bereik is. Blomme wat by laer temperature later in die seisoen of vroeër by hoër temperature ontwikkel het, het nie betekenisvol verskil in antosianienkonsentrasie nie. Gevolglik is lig en temperatuur klaarblyklik van mindere belang vir Protea kleurontwikkeling. Soos met Leucadendron die geval was, word kleurontwikkeling in Protea dus ook intern gereguleer.

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3

Lubbe, Carolien M. "Colletotrichum diseases of Proteaceae". Thesis, Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2004. http://hdl.handle.net/10019.1/53732.

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Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2004.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This thesis consists of four chapters that present research findings on Colletotrichum diseases associated with Proteaceae worldwide. The first chapter is a review of literature regarding the taxonomy and histology of Colletotrichum species associated with Proteaceae. The literature is not restricted to Proteaceae hosts, as information regarding Colletotrichum on Proteaceae is very limited. In chapter two, Colletotrichum spp. associated with proteaceous hosts growing in various parts of the world were identified based on morphology, sequence data of the internal transcribed spacer region (ITS-I, ITS-2), the 5.8S gene, and partial sequences of the B-tubulin gene. Four species of Colletotrichum were associated with Proteaceae. Colletotrichum gloeosporioides was isolated from Protea cynaroides cultivated in South Africa and Zimbabwe and from a Leucospermum sp. in Portugal, but is known to occur worldwide on numerous hosts. A recently described species, C. boninense, was associated with Zimbabwean and Australian Proteaceae, but also occurred on a Eucalyptus sp. in South Africa. This represents a major geographical and host extension for the species, and a description of the African strains is provided. Colletotrichum crassipes was represented by a single isolate obtained from a Dryandra plant in Madeira. Colletotrichum acutatum was isolated from Protea and Leucadendron in South Africa as well as from other proteaceous hosts occurring elsewhere. Colletotrichum acutatum f. sp. hakea was isolated from Hakea in South Africa. In chapter three, pathogenicity of these Colletotrichum species to certain proteas was established, relative aggressiveness of the different species tested and host response to them were compared as well as the effect that wounding had on host response. From the results obtained it is concluded that C. acutatum and C. gloeosporioides are the primary pathogens associated with Colletotrichum leaf necrosis, and C. acutatum is the main cause of anthracnose and stem necrosis of Proteaceae in South Africa. A histological study was performed in chapter four in response to the findings from the previous chapter. The behaviour of two C. acutatum isolates (one originating from Protea and the other from Hakea, C. acuataum f.sp. hakea) was studied on inoculated Protea leaf surfaces using light and scanning electron microscopy. Colletotrichum acutatum from Protea formed melanised appressoria on the leaf surface, whereas C. acutatum from Hakea formed very low numbers of both melanised and unmelanised appressoria. Most of the appressoria formed by C. acutatum from Protea were formed on the cell junctions and on the periclinal walls of the epidermal cells. From this study it is clear that C. acutatum f. sp. hakea is not a pathogen of Protea. Consequently the current use of this isolate as a biological control agent of Hakea in South Africa poses no threat to indigenous Protea species. Colletotrichum acutatum from Protea (although closely related to C. acutatum f. sp. hakea), is a pathogen of Protea, which was confirmed by histological observations. In conclusion, the present study has shown that several species of Colletotrichum are associated with diseased Proteaceae. These species differed in their pathogenicity and aggressiveness when inoculated onto certain protea cultivars. These differences could be partially explained by examining the behaviour of C. acutatum on the leaf surface. It is clear, however, that the distribution of the different species, their aggressrveness on different Proteaceae and their modes of infection needs to be investigated further. This work provides a basis for future research on the long-term effective management of these pathogens in fynbos production.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie tesis bestaan uit vier hoofstukke wat handeloor navorsing van Colletotrichum siektes van Proteaceae wêreldwyd. Die eerste hoofstuk is 'n oorsig van literatuur rakende die taksonomie en histologie van die Colletotrichum spesies wat met Proteaceae geassosieer word. Die literatuur oorsig is nie beperk tot die Proteaceae nie aangesien baie min inligting rakende Colletotrichum op Proteaceae bestaan. In die tweede hoofstuk word die Colletotrichum spesies wat met proteas in verskeie dele van die wêreld geassosieer word, op grond van morfologie, DNS volgorde data van die interne getranskribeerde spasieerder area ("ITS-I, ITS-2"), die 5.8S geen, en gedeeltelike DNS volgordes van die B-tubulin geen geïdentifiseer. Vier Colletotrichum spesies is met die Proteaceae geassosieer. Colletotrichum gloeosporioides is geïsoleer vanaf Protea cynaroides wat in Suid-Afrika en Zimbabwe gekweek is en vanaf 'n Leucospermum sp. in Portugal, maar is bekend op verskeie gashere wêreldwyd. 'n Spesie wat onlangs beskryf is, C. boninense, is met Zimbabwiese en Australiaanse Proteaceae geassosieer, maar kom ook op 'n Eucalyptus sp. in Suid-Afrika voor. Dit is 'n groot uitbreiding van die geografiese voorkoms en gasheerreeks van hierdie spesie en 'n beskrywing van die Afrikaanse rasse word gegee. Colletotrichum crassipes is verteenwoordig deur 'n enkele isolaat wat vanaf 'n Dryandra plant in Madeira verkry is. Colletotrichum acutatum is vanaf Protea en Leucadendron in Suid-Afrika asook vanaf ander proteas wat elders voorkom, geïsoleer. Colletotrichum acutatum f. sp. hakea is vanaf Hakea in Suid-Afrika geïsoleer. In hoofstuk drie is die patogenisiteit van hierdie Colletotrichum spesies teenoor sekere proteas getoets, die relatiewe aggressiwiteit van die verskillende spesies is vergelyk, asook die gasheer se reaksie teenoor die spesies en die effek wat verwonding op die gasheer gehad het. Daar kan afgelei word vanaf die resultate dat C. acutatum en C. gloeosporioides die primêre patogene is wat met Colletotrichum blaarnekrose geassosieer word, en dat C. acutatum die hoof oorsaak is van antraknose en lootnekrose van Proteaceae in Suid-Afrika. 'n Histologiese studie is in hoofstuk vier uitgevoer in reaksie op die bevindings van die vorige hoofstuk. Die gedrag van twee C. acutatum isolate (een vanaf Protea en die ander vanaf Hakea, C. acutatum f.sp. hakea) op die oppervlaktes van geïnokuleerde Protea blare is bestudeer deur gebruik te maak van lig- en skandeer-elektronmikroskopie. Colletotrichum acutatum vanaf Protea vorm gemelaniseerde appressoria op die blaaroppervlak, terwyl C. acutatum vanaf Hakea klein hoeveelhede van beide gemelaniseerde en ongemelaniseerde appressoria vorm. Meeste van die appressoria wat deur C. acutatum vanaf Protea gevorm word, vorm op die aanhegtingspunte tussen selle en op die periklinale wande van die epidermale selle. Vanuit hierdie studie is dit duidelik dat C. acutatum f. sp. hakea nie 'n patogeen van Protea is nie. Gevolglik hou die huidige gebruik van hierdie isolaat as biologiese beheer agent van Hakea in Suid-Afrika geen gevaar in vir inheemse Protea spesies nie. Colletotrichum acutatum vanaf Protea (alhoewel dit naverwant is aan C. acutatum f. sp. hakea) is 'n patogeen van Protea en hierdie stelling is ook bevestig deur histologiese waarnemmgs. Ter samevatting het hierdie studie getoon dat verskeie Colletotrichum spesies geassosieer word met siektes van Proteaceae. Hierdie spesies het van mekaar verskil rakende patogenisiteit en aggressiwiteit nadat hulle op sekere protea kultivars geïnokuleer is. Hierdie verskille kon gedeeltelik verklaar word deur die gedrag van C. acutatum op die blaaroppervlaktes van verskillende protea kultivars. Dit is duidelik dat die verspreiding van die verskillende spesies, hulle aggressiwiteit op verskillende Proteaceae en hul infeksie metodes verder ondersoek moet word. Hierdie studie verskaf 'n basis vir toekomstige navorsing rakende lang-termyn effektiewe bestuur van hierdie patogene in fynbos aanplantings.

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4

Matthews, Merran Lisa. "Breeding systems and pistil structure in the family proteaceae". Title page, contents and abstract only, 1998. http://web4.library.adelaide.edu.au/theses/09PH/09phm441.pdf.

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Bibliography: leaves 173-184. This study aimed to broaden understanding of breeding systems in Australian Proteaceae and to study the optimum requirements for promotion of seed germination in two lesser researched genera with horticultural potential, Dryandra quercifolia and Dryandra formosa. The timing and pattern of stigma receptivity was determined using a combination of techniques. Findings can be used to breed and improve these species for further commercialisation in cut flower and garden industries. The study of pistil structure further identified the potential of this structure to affect the capacity of a proteaceous flower to be fertilised. Aspects such as the morphology and size of the stigmatic cavity and the quantity of transmitting tissue in the style were highlighted as filters to pollen tube passage. Comparative studies with other angiosperm species confirmed the unusual structure of the pistil of the proteaceous flower. Seed germination was found to be promoted by exposure of seeds to controlled temperatures of 15°C.

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5

Rhode, Adele. "Studies on fertility and crossability of species in the genus Leucadendron". Thesis, Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2004. http://hdl.handle.net/10019.1/50110.

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Abstract (sommario):

Thesis (MScAgric)--University of Stellenbosch, 2004.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The exomorphology and size of Leucadendron pollen was examined using a scanning electron and light microscope respectively. Pollen was found to have a consistent triangular shape with three apertures. Pollen grain size however, show difference between species, sections and subsections on Leucadendron. Pollen of all species examined had a woven appearance like the intertwined threads of a fabric with orbicules present on the surface of L. chamelaea, L. elimense subsp. elimense and L. galpinii. Pollen viability was successfully assessed using a solidified agar medium containing 2g agar and 109 sucrose. Pollen germination for all species was found to be above 55% viability. A diallellayout of crosses has demonstrated conclusively that fecundity differs when crossing between species of the genus Leucadendron. Artificial hand pollination was applied successfully on Leucadendron and showed repeatedly that seed set following intraspecific crosses between the male and female inflorescence of the same species gave the same high rate of seed set as found in nature. However, seed numbers declined sharply when crossing between species of the section 'Leucadendron'. Seed set following crosses between species of different sections or sub-sections was the lowest and in most cross combinations there was no seed harvested or no seed germination. The diallellayout was useful in identifying incompatible species and for locating possible incompatibility barriers to interspecific seed development. The morphology of the stigma was examined with a scanning electron microscope. Stigma appearance of all species had a consistent round to oval shape, except for L. rubrum, which had an elongated shape. Stigma surfaces of all species were densely covered with a large number of unicellular papilar cells on the swollen base. The aniline blue staining technique, together with the fluorescent microscope technique was used to follow the growth of the pollen tube following compatible and incompatible cross combinations. Pollen on the stigmas of compatible and incompatible species examined showed signs of germination. Pollen tubes grew between the papilla cells in all directions and only the most vigorous ones reached the upper part of the style. From the upper region of the style, yellow green tubes grew cohesively in the middle of the style towards the ovule. In compatible combinations a not more than 4 tubes reached the ovule region, but was difficult to observe when they entered the micropyle for fertilization. In incompatible species a large number of abnormalities occurred beyond the upper region of the style.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die morfologie en grootte van Leucadendron stuifmeel is deur middel van 'n skandeerelektron - en ligmikroskoop bestudeer. Baie klein verskille in stuifmeel morfologie het voorgekom. Diverse verskille in stuifmeelgrootte het wel voorgekom tussen spesies, groepe en subgroepe van Leucadendron. Stuifmeelvorm was deurgaans driehoekig en die oppervlakte van die stuifmeelkorrel het die voorkoms van geweefde vesels gehad. Klein, bolvormige struktuurtjies was teen verskillende digthede oor die stuifmeeloppervlak van L. chamelaea, L. elimense subsp. elimense en L. galpinii versprei. Stuifmeelkiemkragtigheid is bepaal deur dit op soliede agar medium te ontkiem en was deurgaans bo 55% kiemkragtig. Onderlings dialleliese kruisings van Leucadendron spesies het variasie in saad set getoon. Handbestuiwing is suksesvol uitgevoer en saadset in intraspesie kruisings hoog en soortgelyk aan natuurlike bestuiwing. Saadset en saad ontwikkeling het drasties verswak toe verder vewante spesies as ouers gebruik. As gevolg van hulondeurdringbare saadhuid is neutagtige sade gewoonlik moeiliker ontkiembaar. Die diallel uitleg was ook nuttig om verenigbare en onverenigbare kruisingskombinasies te identifiseer en om onverenigbaarheidskanse op te spoor. 'n Skandeerelektronmiskoop is gebruik om die morfologie van die stigma te bestudeer. Stigmas was deurgaans rond tot ovaalvormig, behalwe die van L. rubrum wat 'n verlengde voorkoms gehad het. Die stigma bestaan uit 'n groot aantal eensellige papilla, wat dig teen mekaar gepak is op 'n geswolle basis. Aniline-blou fluoresserende kleurstof en 'n fluoressensie mikroskoop is gebruik om die pad van die stuifmeelbuis in verenigbare en onverenigbare kruisingskombinasies in Leucadendron te volg. Stuifmeelontkieming het in alle kruisingskombinasies geskied. Stuifmeelbuise het in alle rigtings tussen die papilla gegroei en slegs die mees kiemkragtige stuifmeelbuise het die boonste deel van die styl bereik. In die styl het die buise dig teen mekaar gegroei en was dit moeilik telbaar. 'n Maksimum van vier buise het die vrugbeginsel bereik, maar dit was moeilik om verder te volg nadat hulle die poortjie bereik het. In onverenigbare kruisingskombinasies het stuifmeelbuise abnormale groeipatrone in die boonste gedeelte van die styl getoon.

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6

Moodley, Desika. "Determinants of introduction and invasion success for Proteaceae". Thesis, Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2013. http://hdl.handle.net/10019.1/79851.

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Abstract (sommario):

Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2013.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Successful biological invasions take place when species introduced to regions outside their natural dispersal range overcome several barriers and establish, persist, proliferate and spread potentially resulting in major threats to biodiversity. The success of invasive alien plants depends on species-specific traits and characteristics of the introduced environment. In this thesis I explore which species traits are important and which environmental barriers need to be overcome for an invasion to occur using Proteaceae as a test case. Firstly, I assessed the global introduction history and invasion ecology of Proteaceae - a large plant family with many taxa that have been widely disseminated by humans, but with few known invaders. This revealed that at least 402 species (i.e. 24% of 1674 species in this family) are known to have been moved by humans out of their native ranges, 58 species (14%) have become naturalized and 8 species (2%) are invasive. The probability of naturalization was greatest for species with large native range sizes, low susceptibility to Phytophthora root-rot disease, larger seeds, mammal-dispersed seeds and those with the capacity to resprout after fire or other disturbances. The probability of naturalized species becoming invasive was greater for species with larger range sizes, species used as barrier plants, taller species, species with smaller seeds, serotinous species, and those that regenerated mainly through re-seeding. Secondly, I looked at mechanisms underlying naturalization on a regional scale, using species which are not already classified as major invaders. At least 26 non-native Proteaceae species have been introduced to, and are cultivated in, South Africa. Propagule pressure facilitated the naturalization of Hakea salicifolia populations in climatically suitable areas, but in suboptimal climates human-mediated land disturbance and land management activities are important for naturalization. Similar drivers are important for naturalization of other alien Proteaceae: a long residence time, fire regimes, poor land management, and propagule pressure were important mechanisms for naturalization. Thirdly, I determined whether reproduction, which in part drives propagule pressure, serves as a barrier for naturalization. I examined several Australian Proteaceae species introduced to South Africa and observed that all species were heavily utilized by native nectar-feeding birds and insects. The five Banksia species that were assessed are self-compatible but four species have a significantly higher reproductive output when pollinators visit inflorescences. Fruit production in H. salicifolia does not differ between naturally-pollinated and autonomously-fertilized flowers. Moreover, no significant difference in fruit production was observed between the five pollination treatments (i.e. natural, pollen-supplementation, autonomous, hand-selfed and hand-crossed treatments) and naturalized and non-naturalized populations. However, pollen limitation was detected in non-naturalized populations which received fewer pollinator visits than naturalized populations. Thus, reproduction limits but is not a fundamental barrier to invasion for H. salicifolia. I conclude that reproductive success of the studied Proteaceae, which is a key barrier determining invasiveness, is not limited by autonomous seed set or mutualisms in the introduced range. In this thesis I highlight biogeographical characteristics, a set of life-history traits and ecological traits as important determinants of invasiveness. These traits are in turn dependent on the stage of invasion. Characteristics of the recipient environment are also important drivers of invasions. This study provides a better understanding of plant invasions in general, but the patterns and processes of invasions highlighted in this thesis will be particularly useful for the current and future management of alien Proteaceae in South Africa and elsewhere, as well as, other species that are adapted to Mediterranean and nutrient poor ecosystems. For example, combining traits of invasiveness and susceptible environments will help to identify which non-native species pose a high risk of becoming invasive (e.g. species with large home ranges and barrier plants) and which conditions in the target area are likely to facilitate or exacerbate invasions (e.g. strong climate match and high propagule pressure).
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Suksesvolle biologiese indringing vind plaas wanneer ŉ spesie geïntroduseer word in ŉ area buite sy natuurlike verspreidings area, sekere versperrings oorkom, vestig, bly voortbestaan, vermenigvuldig en versprei en potensieel ŉ groot bedreiging inhou vir biodiversiteit. Die sukses van uitheemse indringer plante hang af van spesifieke kenmerke van die spesie en kenmerke van die omgewing waarin dit geïntroduseer word. In hierdie tesis maak ek gebruik van Proteaceae om te ondersoek watter kenmerke is belangrik en watter omgewing versperrings moet oorkom word vir indringing om plaas te vind. Ten eerste assesseer ek die wêreldwye introduksie geskiedenis en indringers ekologie van Proteaceae – ŉ groot plant familie wat wyd gebruik word deur mense, maar met min indringer spesies. Dit het gewys dat mense ten minste 402 spesies (dus 24% van die 1674 spesies in die familie) uit die inheemse areas verskuif het, 58 spesies (14%) genaturaliseer het en 8 spesies (2%) indringers geword het. Die moontlikheid van naturalisasie was die grootste vir spesies met ŉ groot inheemse streek, lae vatbaarheid vir Phytophthora wortelvrot, groter sade, dier verspreide sade en die met ŉ vermoë om weer uit te spruit na ŉ vuur of ander versteuring. Die moontlikheid van genaturaliseerde spesies om indringers te word, was groter vir spesies met groter streek grootte, spesies wat as versperring plante gebruik word, hoër spesies, spesies met kleiner sade, serotiniese spesies, en die wat hoofsaaklik voortbestaan as saadspruiters. Tweedens, het ek gekyk na onderliggende meganismes op ŉ regionale skaal, deur gebruik te maak van spesies wat nie alreeds as belangrike indringers geklassifiseer is nie. Ten minste 26 nie-inheemse Proteaceae spesies is alreeds geïntroduseer en word gekultiveer in Suid Afrika. Propaguul druk fasiliteer die naturalisering van Hakea salicifolia populasies in areas met geskikte klimaat, terwyl in areas met ŉ sub optimale klimaat, versteurings deur mense en grond bestuurs aktiwiteite belangrik is vir naturalisering. Die selfde drywers is belangrik vir die naturalisering van ander uitheemse Proteaceae: lang verblyftyd, vuur bestel, swak land bestuur en propaguul druk. Derdens het ek bepaal of reproduksie, wat gedeeltelik propaguul druk dryf, ŉ versperring is vir naturalisasie. Ek het gekyk na verskeie Australiese Proteaceae spesies wat geïntroduseer is in Suid Afrika, en het gevind dat al die spesies besoek word deur inheemse nektar etende voëls en insekte. Die vyf Banksia spesies wat geassesseer is, kan self bestuif, maar vier van die spesies het ŉ betekenisvolle hoër reproduksie wanneer bloeiwyses deur bestuiwers besoek word. Vrug produksie verskil nie tussen natuurlik bestuifde en self bestuifde blomme in H. salicifolia nie. Verder was daar geen verskil tussen vrug produksie van die vyf bestuiwings behandelinge (naamlik: natuurlik, stuifmeel bygevoeg, self, hand self en hand kruis) en tussen genaturaliseerde en nie genaturaliseerde populasies. Ewenwel, stuifmeel beperking is gevind in nie-genaturaliseerde populasies wat egter ook minder besoeke ontvang het dan die genaturaliseerde populasies. Dus, reproduksie kan die verspreiding beperk maar is nie ŉ fundamentele versperring vir indringing van H. salicifolia nie. My konklusies is dat die reproduktiewe sukses, wat andersins ŉ sleutel versperring is vir indringing, in die bestudeerde Proteaceae nie beperk word deur outonomiese saad produksie of mutualismes in die geïntroduseerde gebied nie. In hierdie tesis beklemtoon ek die biogeografiese karakters, lewens geskiedenis kenmerke en ekologiese kenmerke as belangrike bepalers van indringing. Hierdie kenmerke is op hulle beurt weer afhanklik van die stadium van indringing. Karakters van die ontvangende omgewing is ook belangrike dryfvere van indringing. Hierdie studie verbeter hoe ons plant indringing in die algemeen verstaan, maar die patrone en prosesse van indringing wat beklemtoon word in hierdie tesis sal besonder bruikbaar wees vir huidige en toekomstige bestuur van uitheemse Proteaceae in Suid Afrika en op ander plekke, asook vir ander spesies wat aangepas is tot Mediterreense en nutriënt arm ekosisteme. Byvoorbeeld, die kombinasie van kenmerke van indringing en vatbare omgewings sal help om te identifiseer watter uitheemse spesies ŉ hoë risiko inhou om ŉ indringer te word (byvoorbeeld spesies met ŉ groot streek grootte en versperring spesies) en watter kondisies in die teiken area die waarskynlikste indringing fasiliteer of vererger (byvoorbeeld sterk klimaat ooreenstemming en hoë propaguul druk).

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7

Catling, Dorothy Margaret. "The systematic anatomy of Grevilleeae and Persooniinae (Proteaceae)". Thesis, Durham University, 1996. http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/5354/.

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Abstract (sommario):

The anatomy of leaves was described for 91 species In the Grevilleeae and 15 species in the Persooniinae. The anatomy of the stem-node-leaf continuum was described for 57 species in the Grevilleeae and 6 species in the Persooniinae. Anatomical features were discussed in the context of taxonomic relationships in genera and, briefly, at higher levels. In Hakea, anatomical data supported the groupings proposed by taxonomists. In Grevillea, recognised natural groups were supported and anatomical features were useful in demonstrating homologies in the leaves of some Groups. In Persoonia anatomy supported some proposed groupings but, in others, anatomical characteristics showed considerable diversity. The variability of character states, homologies and homoplasies and the suitability of anatomical data for cladistic analyses was considered. A preliminary cladistic analysis was made and discussed.

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8

Mustart, Penny. "Seed and seedling ecology of four Agulhas Proteaceae". Doctoral thesis, University of Cape Town, 1991. http://hdl.handle.net/11427/9671.

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Abstract (sommario):

Includes bibliographical references
Serotinous (canopy-stored seed) Proteaceae, Protea obtusifolia and Leucadendron meridianum occur on shallow, alkaline soils overlying limestone, and P.susannae and L.coniferum on adjacent, deep, weakly acidic sands, in fire-prone fynbos. Seed reciprocal transplants were used to test whether regeneration niche requirements were determinants of adult distributions. There were no germination niche differences, but limestone species showed greater seedling mortality on the transplanted colluvial sands than limestone. There were also greater relative growth rates of seedlings on their own soil than counterparts on transplanted soil.

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9

Itzstein-Davey, Freea. "Changes in the abundance and diversity of the Proteaceae over the Cainozoic in south-western Australia". University of Western Australia. School of Earth and Geographical Sciences, 2003. http://theses.library.uwa.edu.au/adt-WU2004.0040.

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Abstract (sommario):

South-western Australia is a globally significant hotspot of plant species diversity, with high endemism and many rare plant species. Proteaceae is a major component of the south-western flora, though little is known about how its diversity developed. This prompted the present study to investigate changes in the abundance and diversity of Proteaceae, in south-western Australia, by concurrently studying three sediment sequences of different ages over the Cainozoic and a modern pollen rain study. Modern pollen-vegetation relationships in the two Proteaceae species rich nodes of the northern and southern sandplains were quantified. It was found that Proteaceous genera can contribute up to 50% of the total pollen rain. Banksia/Dryandra pollen was the most abundant with Isopogon, Petrophile and Lambertia also commonly noted. The vegetation and environmental setting during three pivotal periods of the Cainozoic: Holocene, Pliocene and Eocene, were investigated. Eocene sediment from Lake Lefroy confirmed the presence of a Nothofagus dominated rainforest in the Middle to Late Eocene. At this time Proteaceae species were at least as diverse as today, if not more so, contributing up to a maximum of 42% of the total pollen rain. Taxa recorded included: Banksieaeidites arcuatus, Propylipollis biporus, Proteacidites confragosus, Proteacidites crassus, Proteacidites nasus and Proteacidites pachypolus. Several taxa remain undescribed and unnamed. This study also identified that Proteaceae pollen representation varies across small lateral distances. Thus as samples varied spatially and temporally, single core samples are not sufficient to identify spatial patterns in Proteaceae or other low pollen producing taxa. Some 7.91 cm of laminated Pliocene sediment from Yallalie, south-western Australia, was also examined. It covers 84 years of record and confirmed other regional reports that south-western Australia was covered by a rich vegetation mosaic consisting of heathy and wet rainforest elements. Although Proteaceae species were a consistent component of the pollen counts, diversity and abundance (maximum of 5%) was low throughout the studied section. Banksia/Dryandra types were most commonly noted. A 2 m core was retrieved from Two Mile Lake, near the Stirling Ranges and provided an early Holocene vegetation history. Geochemical and palynological evidence recorded little change, suggesting the environment of deposition was relatively uniform. Proteaceae species were noted throughout the core, though in low numbers, at a maximum of 3.5 % of the total pollen rain. Banksia/Dryandra was the most abundant while Isopogon, Lambertia, Petrophile and Franklandia were also noted. A regression model was developed through the modern pollen rain study to predict the number of Proteaceae in the vegetation. This was also applied to the fossil pollen records. The estimated number of Proteaceae species in the Eocene suggests a maximum of 20 and a minimum of 10 taxa. For the Pliocene record, an estimated 7 - 9 species was found and for the Holocene pollen, between 7 - 8 were present. Thus the Eocene was similar in Proteaceae diversity to today. The results from the Pliocene and Holocene suggest that Proteaceae diversity was lower than today. Findings of this research indicate that Proteaceae species are an important and consistent component of vegetation in south-western Australia over the Cainozoic. It is likely that both changing pollination mechanisms and changes in associated vegetation are important in the determining the dispersal of Proteaceaous pollen. By understanding how the vegetation has changed and developed in south-western Australia, present vegetation can be managed to include intra-specific variation and ensure the majority of species are conserved for present and future generations to enjoy.

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10

Van, Leeuwen Stephen J. "Reproductive biology and mating system of Banksia tricuspis (Proteaceae)". Curtin University of Technology, School of Environmental Biology, 1997. http://espace.library.curtin.edu.au:80/R/?func=dbin-jump-full&object_id=10994.

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Abstract (sommario):

An understanding of the role of genetic and ecological factors that influence demographic change is paramount for the conservation of plant populations. These genetic and ecological factors often act in concert to influence reproductive success and thus the ability of a species to maintain its presence in the community. Paramount among the array of factors influencing a species' fitness are mating system considerations and their interaction with ecological processes. Both mating systems and ecological processes are influenced by intrinsic and extrinsic forces that may operate synergistically to constrain pollen transfer, gametic union and the provisioning of progeny. Plants respond to these constraining forces, which typically vacillate, through mechanisms that minimise random effects while maximising the quality and quantity of progeny.Mating system values indicated that B. tricuspis is an obligate outbreeder. The extent to which populations of this Banksia indulged in mixed mating was associated with habitat disturbance and its impact on pollinators. A reduction in outcrossing in one disturbed population was ascribed to an increase in inbreeding promoted through pollinator/pollen limitation. Conversely, a reduction in the diversity of pollinator types which enhanced the opportunity for outbreeding was the favoured interpretation of elevated outcrossing in another disturbed population.Disparity in outcrossing among inflorescences was driven by pollinator/pollen limitation considerations. Inconsistency among outcrossing values between inflorescences was ascribed to incongruity in floral attractiveness and sympatric assortative pollinator/pollen limitations. Augmentation of the floral display, as inferred through greater inflorescence size and presentation height, was positively associated with maternal fecundity and progeny fitness. This advance in quality and ++
quantity was attained despite greater attractive displays increasing the probability of geitonogamous and consanguineous matings. This accomplishment indicated that attractiveness of the floral display in B. tricuspis enhanced the opportunity for sorting among possible mates, a proposition supported by the increased abandonment of zygotes with increasing display effort. The increases in maternal fecundity and progeny provisioning with increasing inflorescence size and height indicated that maternal resource considerations were not limiting reproductive success.Attractiveness of the floral display was also credited with the moderation of pollinator/pollen limitations within an inflorescence. The apparent increase in floral display with progress of the 'advancing front' towards the peduncle significantly altered pollinator foraging behaviour and differentially enhanced the opportunity for pollen receipt and export, especially of pollen types which promoted outbreeding. Commensurate with this moderation in pollinator/pollen limitation was an increase in maternal fecundity and progeny provisioning, although selection among zygotes was tempered and outbreeding declined slightly. The availability of nutritional resources within an inflorescence and sink strength relationships are submitted as proximate causes for this moderation, which conforms with the notion of mate choice and the proposition that the genetic threshold determining selection alternates with resource provisions.Scenarios propelled by selection among compatible mates which are commensurate with maternal resource considerations imply a high level of intrinsic control over reproductive success in B. tricuspis. Reproductive synchrony, continuity and predicability in fecundity and the compensatory repartitioning of resources following floral damage also signify a high level of intrinsic control. This control is ++
required to mitigate extrinsic proximate constraints which impinge on reproductive success thereby synchronising maternal investment with resources and maximising fitness. The randomness of pollination was advanced as the proximate constraint affecting reproductive success in this species. This constraint was mitigated firstly by a mating system which sorted among compatible mates and tolerated deleterious matings, and secondly through an decrease in the opportunity for deleterious matings afforded by increases in the attractiveness of the floral display.The production of 'surplus' flowers by B. tricuspis was proposed as the principal adaptive response to the forces constraining reproductive success. 'Surplus' flowers primarily served, at various levels of organisation with the species, to enhance attractiveness, thereby moderating the influence of pollinator/pollen limitations on plant fitness. Maternal fecundity and progeny fitness within and between inflorescences was augmented by increases in attractiveness while conversely, at the population level, decreases in attractiveness deleteriously impinged on fitness. 'Surplus' flowers also conferred other functional advantages in this species which operated synergistically with the enhancement to floral attractiveness. These advantages were primarily related to the opportunities that 'surplus' flowers conferred for selective abortion and bet hedging.Caution is required in attributing 'surplus' flowers primarily to the mitigation of pollinator/pollen limitation considerations as other forces may represent stronger selective process. While the attractiveness of the floral display undoubtedly increases fitness, it also inherently increases the opportunity for floral damage by birds and insects as the discrimination among displays by damaging agents was driven by attractiveness cues. The impact of floral herbivores ranged ++
from minimal for parrots and cockatoos to severe for insects, with the pattern of floral damage by both birds being determined by the pattern of insect floral herbivory. The predicability in floral damage between seasons and serial adjustment between successive reproductive development stages in B. tricuspis, as evident by compensatory responses in fecundity, moderates the influence of floral damage as a selective force influencing reproductive success.The production of 'surplus' flowers in B. tricuspis has facilitated the development of intrinsic maternal processes which, in reply to genetic and ecological stimuli, operate to maximise fitness through mitigating the deleterious impacts on reproductive success of floral damage and pollinator/pollen limitations. These maternal processes strategically maximise the utilisation of maternal resources and allow progeny with low fitness expectations to be tolerated. Ultimately, these maternal processes and deterministic genetic and ecological stimuli promote reproductive assurance which contributes to population and species persistence through advances in fitness.

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11

Gibson, Stephen. "Seed morphology and colour variation in derotinous Cape Proteaceae". Bachelor's thesis, University of Cape Town, 1999. http://hdl.handle.net/11427/23625.

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Abstract (sommario):

I investigated seed colour polymorphism in Leucadendron is investigated for the possibility of crypsis in a post fire environment. Results were inconclusive, possibly due to a missed opportunity, but do not exclude the possibility of crypsis. Seed predation by birds may be an as yet undescribed and significant phenomenon. Seed morphology and its impact on second phase dispersal is little known, except in a few cases. This was investigated in a comparison of hairy brown Protea and black winged Leucadendron seeds. This showed that these two types of seed tend to germinate in different habitats. This has implications for interspecific competition and species distribution limits.

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12

Zoeller, Kim Christie. "The reproductive biology of four geoflorous Protea species (Proteaceae)". Master's thesis, University of Cape Town, 2014. http://hdl.handle.net/11427/13255.

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Abstract (sommario):

Includes bibliographical references.
Pollination systems of previously unstudied plant species are often inferred from floral traits that are shared among unrelated plant taxa. However, these ‘pollination syndromes’ are often not reliable predictors of the primary pollinator of a plant species, and may in fact represent adaptations to multiple pollinator groups or even minor pollinators. As such, conducting comprehensive field-based research into the pollination and breeding system of unstudied plant species is important for furthering our understanding of evolutionary processes underlying shifts in pollination systems within plant lineages. Protea cordata, P. decurrens, P. scabra and P. subulifolia are cryptic, geoflorous shrubs that are predicted to be pollinated by non-flying mammals based on their floral traits, although there has been no experimental evidence in support of this. The aims of this study were to quantify key functional traits that mediate interactions between these four Protea species and their pollinators, as well as to experimentally determine their pollination and breeding systems. We further aim to establish the main vertebrate pollinators of the study species, their relative rates of visitation and their temporal patterns of activity using remote camera footage. Rodents were found to be the most frequent visitors to the flower heads of the study species. Floral morphology, nectar volume and sugar concentration of the study species conform to the general syndrome of non-flying mammal pollination system in this genus. In particular, the short (14-20 mm) distance between pollen and nectar ensures pollen deposition on the body of rodent foragers. Excluding small mammals from flower heads did not significantly reduced seed set, suggesting that insects can play an important role in cross-pollination in the study species. Breeding system experiments revealed that Protea cordata and P. scabra are self- incompatible, and are reliant on animal vectors for successful seed set. Supplemental hand pollination on P. cordata and P. scabra indicated that resource limitation is prevalent among these plant species. This study adds to the growing knowledge of the reproductive biology of Protea and will improve our ability to reconstruct the history of pollinator shifts in the genus.

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13

van, Leeuwen Stephen J. "Reproductive biology and mating system of Banksia tricuspis (Proteaceae)". Thesis, Curtin University, 1997. http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11937/639.

Testo completo

Abstract (sommario):

An understanding of the role of genetic and ecological factors that influence demographic change is paramount for the conservation of plant populations. These genetic and ecological factors often act in concert to influence reproductive success and thus the ability of a species to maintain its presence in the community. Paramount among the array of factors influencing a species' fitness are mating system considerations and their interaction with ecological processes. Both mating systems and ecological processes are influenced by intrinsic and extrinsic forces that may operate synergistically to constrain pollen transfer, gametic union and the provisioning of progeny. Plants respond to these constraining forces, which typically vacillate, through mechanisms that minimise random effects while maximising the quality and quantity of progeny.Mating system values indicated that B. tricuspis is an obligate outbreeder. The extent to which populations of this Banksia indulged in mixed mating was associated with habitat disturbance and its impact on pollinators. A reduction in outcrossing in one disturbed population was ascribed to an increase in inbreeding promoted through pollinator/pollen limitation. Conversely, a reduction in the diversity of pollinator types which enhanced the opportunity for outbreeding was the favoured interpretation of elevated outcrossing in another disturbed population.Disparity in outcrossing among inflorescences was driven by pollinator/pollen limitation considerations. Inconsistency among outcrossing values between inflorescences was ascribed to incongruity in floral attractiveness and sympatric assortative pollinator/pollen limitations. Augmentation of the floral display, as inferred through greater inflorescence size and presentation height, was positively associated with maternal fecundity and progeny fitness. This advance in quality and quantity was attained despite greater attractive displays increasing the probability of geitonogamous and consanguineous matings. This accomplishment indicated that attractiveness of the floral display in B. tricuspis enhanced the opportunity for sorting among possible mates, a proposition supported by the increased abandonment of zygotes with increasing display effort. The increases in maternal fecundity and progeny provisioning with increasing inflorescence size and height indicated that maternal resource considerations were not limiting reproductive success.Attractiveness of the floral display was also credited with the moderation of pollinator/pollen limitations within an inflorescence. The apparent increase in floral display with progress of the 'advancing front' towards the peduncle significantly altered pollinator foraging behaviour and differentially enhanced the opportunity for pollen receipt and export, especially of pollen types which promoted outbreeding. Commensurate with this moderation in pollinator/pollen limitation was an increase in maternal fecundity and progeny provisioning, although selection among zygotes was tempered and outbreeding declined slightly. The availability of nutritional resources within an inflorescence and sink strength relationships are submitted as proximate causes for this moderation, which conforms with the notion of mate choice and the proposition that the genetic threshold determining selection alternates with resource provisions.Scenarios propelled by selection among compatible mates which are commensurate with maternal resource considerations imply a high level of intrinsic control over reproductive success in B. tricuspis. Reproductive synchrony, continuity and predicability in fecundity and the compensatory repartitioning of resources following floral damage also signify a high level of intrinsic control. This control is required to mitigate extrinsic proximate constraints which impinge on reproductive success thereby synchronising maternal investment with resources and maximising fitness. The randomness of pollination was advanced as the proximate constraint affecting reproductive success in this species. This constraint was mitigated firstly by a mating system which sorted among compatible mates and tolerated deleterious matings, and secondly through an decrease in the opportunity for deleterious matings afforded by increases in the attractiveness of the floral display.The production of 'surplus' flowers by B. tricuspis was proposed as the principal adaptive response to the forces constraining reproductive success. 'Surplus' flowers primarily served, at various levels of organisation with the species, to enhance attractiveness, thereby moderating the influence of pollinator/pollen limitations on plant fitness. Maternal fecundity and progeny fitness within and between inflorescences was augmented by increases in attractiveness while conversely, at the population level, decreases in attractiveness deleteriously impinged on fitness. 'Surplus' flowers also conferred other functional advantages in this species which operated synergistically with the enhancement to floral attractiveness. These advantages were primarily related to the opportunities that 'surplus' flowers conferred for selective abortion and bet hedging.Caution is required in attributing 'surplus' flowers primarily to the mitigation of pollinator/pollen limitation considerations as other forces may represent stronger selective process. While the attractiveness of the floral display undoubtedly increases fitness, it also inherently increases the opportunity for floral damage by birds and insects as the discrimination among displays by damaging agents was driven by attractiveness cues. The impact of floral herbivores ranged from minimal for parrots and cockatoos to severe for insects, with the pattern of floral damage by both birds being determined by the pattern of insect floral herbivory. The predicability in floral damage between seasons and serial adjustment between successive reproductive development stages in B. tricuspis, as evident by compensatory responses in fecundity, moderates the influence of floral damage as a selective force influencing reproductive success.The production of 'surplus' flowers in B. tricuspis has facilitated the development of intrinsic maternal processes which, in reply to genetic and ecological stimuli, operate to maximise fitness through mitigating the deleterious impacts on reproductive success of floral damage and pollinator/pollen limitations. These maternal processes strategically maximise the utilisation of maternal resources and allow progeny with low fitness expectations to be tolerated. Ultimately, these maternal processes and deterministic genetic and ecological stimuli promote reproductive assurance which contributes to population and species persistence through advances in fitness.

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14

Maguire, Tina Louise. "Genetic diversity and interspecific relationships in Banksia L.f., (Proteaceae)". Title page, contents and abstract only, 1996. http://web4.library.adelaide.edu.au/theses/09PH/09phm2132.pdf.

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Copy of author's previously presented paper inserted. Bibliography: leaves 187-218. This thesis aims to increase knowledge essential for conservation biology and for focused and efficient breeding of banksias. Interspecific hybridisation is assessed as a potential breeding tool, and for the assessment of species relationships within the genus. Species relationships within Banksia are also assessed using molecular techniques. Random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers are assessed for their usefulness at various taxonomic levels within the genus. The results indicate a close relationship between Banksia and Dryandra, which are sister genera in the tribe Banksiae, family Proteaceae.

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15

McKenna, David J. "Demographic and ecological indicators of rarity in a suite of obligate-seeding Persoonia (Proteaceae) shrubs". Access electronically, 2007. http://www.library.uow.edu.au/adt-NWU/public/adt-NWU20080131.142010/index.html.

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16

Starr, Gary. "Population genetics of Hakea carinata F. Muell. ex Meissner (Proteaceae)". Title page, table of contents and abstract only, 2001. http://web4.library.adelaide.edu.au/theses/09PH/09phs796.pdf.

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17

Parks, Sophie Emma, University of Western Sydney e Faculty of Science and Technology. "Proteaceae nutrition and the phosphorus requirements of Banksia ericifolia L.f". THESIS_FST_xxx_Park_S.xml, 2000. http://handle.uws.edu.au:8081/1959.7/103.

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The basic mineral nutritional requirements of Proteaceae are not well understood.They are generally assumed to require low levels of nutrients and be susceptible to nutrient (especially Phosphorus) toxicity.This project aimed to estimate the general nutritional requirements of Proteaceae for optimum growth, with special emphasis on the Phosphorus requirement. Potted plants were grown in soilless growth media with controlled release fertiliser and were watered according to need in a naturally lit greenhouse. The nutrient requirements of Proteaceae were found to vary among species but were not lower than the reported requirements for the Ericaceae, another heath family. The variables of growth media and plant development were found to be important factors affecting the critical Phosphorus concentration and need consideration in the derivation of the Phosphorus requirement of Banksia ericifolia.
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

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18

Parks, Sophie Emma. "Proteaceae nutrition and the phosphorus requirements of Banksia ericifolia L.f. /". View thesis View thesis, 2000. http://library.uws.edu.au/adt-NUWS/public/adt-NUWS20030429.105120/index.html.

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Thesis (Ph.D.) -- University of Western Sydney, 2000.
"A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, Horticulture, University of Western Sydney, Australia, December 2000" Bibliography : leaves 206-230.

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19

Cowan, Oliver. "Co-occurrence and phenological niche separation in rodent pollinated Proteaceae". Bachelor's thesis, University of Cape Town, 2010. http://hdl.handle.net/11427/24855.

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Despite the numerous studies regarding rodent pollination in the Cape Floristic Region in the last few decades, little or no work has been done on patterns of co-occurrence and flowering phenology. The presence of three potentially rodent-pollinated Protea species at Fernkloof Nature Reserve, two of which were observed to co-occur, facilitated the following questions: i) are P. cordata, P. scabra and P. angustata therophilous? ii) do therophilous species co-exist at a fine scale? iii) do they have the same pollinator? iv) do they exhibit staggered flowering phenology? The floral characteristics of the study species suggest they were rodent pollinated and that the co-occurring species, P. cordata and P. scabra, would have staggered flowering phenologies. All three of the species' pollen was found in the faeces of Acomys subspinosus, the shared pollinator, while the phenological data provided the first empirical evidence of staggered flowering phenologies between fine scale, sympatric therophilous Protea species.

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20

Manuel, Theodore Llewellyn. "Effect of soil nutrient status on stress tolerance in Proteaceae". Bachelor's thesis, University of Cape Town, 1988. http://hdl.handle.net/11427/25615.

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Protea lepidocarpodendron grown on low, medium and high nutrient treatments exhibited the lowest, and similar evapotanspiration rates respectively over a 9 day water stress cycle (experimental period). In stressed and unstressed treatments, stomatal conductance and transpiration rates of plants grown on the low nutrient treatment was generally lower than that of plants grown on the medium and high nutrient treatments where stomatal conductance and transpiration rates were similar. Stressed plants grown on the low, medium and high nutrient treatments exhibited the lowest, intermediate and highest photosynthetic rates respectively. Stessed plants grown on the medium and high nutrient treatments exhibited a dramatic decrease in transpiration rates ands stomatal conductance from day 5 to 7, and a dramatic decrease in photosynthetic rates from day 3 to 7. Stressed plants grown on the low nutrient treatment showed a far less dramatic decrease in transpiration rate, stomatal conductance and photosynthetic rate over the 9 day period. For stressed plants, photosynthetic rates varied between 0.08-5.39 uMOLm⁻²s⁻¹, 1.17-7.48uMOlm⁻²s⁻¹ and 1.15-8.65uMOLm⁻²s⁻¹ for plants grown on low, medium and high nutient treatments respectively. Unstressed plants grown on low. medium and high nutrient treatments exhibited the lowest, highest and intermediate photosynthetic rates respectively. In all stressed treatments, photosynthetic rates showed a steady decline from day 1 to day 7, whereafter a dramatic increase occurred in the medium and high nutrient treatments, and a less dramatic increase in plants grown on the low nutrient treatment. These decreases and increases in photosynthetic rates was not parallelled in the stomatal conductance and transpiration rates of the unstressed plants. For unstressed plants, photosynthetic rates varied between 1.4s-4.4 uMOLm⁻²-s⁻¹, 1.65-6.7 uMOLm⁻²s⁻¹ and 3.42-8.76 uMoLm⁻²s⁻¹ for plants grown on low, medium and high nutrient treatments respectively. Plants grown on low nutrient treatments exhibited the highest LSW (182.3 gm⁻²), highest whole plant mass (WPM) (1.07g), followed by high (LSW=1.76 gm⁻²,WPM=0.83g) and medium (LSW=167.28 gm⁻² ,WPM=0.79g) nutrient treatments. Total plant nitrogen content was inversely related to LSW and WPM on low (3.84 mgNplant⁻¹), high (4.18 mgNplant⁻¹) and medium (5.28 mgNplant⁻¹) treatments. Root : ratio between treatments were similar.

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21

El-Ahmir, Sh-Hoob Mohamed. "Function, Ecology and Evolution of Seed Size in Hakea (Proteaceae)". Thesis, Curtin University, 2015. http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11937/2384.

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This study investigated function, ecology and evolution of variation in seed size in Hakea (Proteaceae). I first revealed that the evolution of seed size is phylogenetically constrained. Using a series of glasshouse experiments, I further demonstrated that small-seeded Hakea species gain fitness advantage in environment with dry summer through rapid germination, early seedling emergence, and early true leaves emergence; small-seeded Hakea species are also better to tolerate herbivore predation than large-seeded congeners.

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22

Gerber, Audrey I. (Audrey Inga). "Effect of pruning on economic biomass production of Protea cv. Carnival". Thesis, Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 1994. http://hdl.handle.net/10019.1/58407.

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Thesis (MScAgric)--Stellenbosch University, 1994.
Some digitised pages may appear illegible due to the condition of the Microfiche
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Many Proreaceae species indigenous to South Africa have potential as cutflower crops. Commercial production of proteas for expurt, mainly to Europe, must emphasise quality of flowers and time of production. Good export quality flowers have stems longer than 50cm and unblemished flowers. Cut-flower proteas are in greater demand and command better prices during the European winter (September to May, Southern hemisphere), when competition from flowers grown in Europe is less. Both quality and time of harvest can be manipulated by pruning techniques. Protea cv. Carnival (a natural hybrid, possibly between P. neriifolia and P. compacta) produces flowers in late summer, from February through to May. Picking flowers or pruning shoots of Proteo cv. Carnival entails removing the terminal portion of shoots with heading cuts to leave on the plant short stumps, known as bearers. Lateral shoots arising from axillary buds on bearers elongate by successive growth flushes until flowers are initiated terminally. The characteristics of the shoot determine whether or not flower initiation will take place, and will affect the quality of the resulting flower. Plants were pruned to produce bearers of different length and diameter. The characteristics of shoots arising from different bearers were recordea. Thick bearers of length 20-25cm produced the most shoots, and the longest shoots. Plants producing flowers biennially, rather than ann'Jally, produced thicker bearers, which, in turn, lead to production of better quality shoots arising from the bearers in the following season. Changing the time of pruning changed both the flowering cycle and the biomass allocation of Prorea cv. Carnival. Plants of Profea cv. Carnival were pruned on six different dates in 1991. Pruning in March, April or May, 1991, resulted in an annual flowering cycle. Less than 40% of the fresh mass produced in 1993 was reproductive, of which approximately 5% had stems long enough for export. The 1994 annual harvest was of s:milar size and quality as the 1993 annual harvest. Pruning in July, August or September, 1991, resulted in a biennial cycle of flowering. No flowers were produced in 1992, and a large crop was harvested in 1993. In 1993 lip to 70% of the fresh mass produced was reproductive, of which approximately 80% had stems long enough for export. Plants were pruned shortly after flowering in 1993, and the biennial cycle was replaced by an alternate flowering cycle, with a large crop being followed by a smaller crop. The large harvest in 1993 was significantly earlier than normal, but the small crop produced in 1994 was later. The harvest in 1994 from plants with an alternate flowering cycle was similar in size to the 1994 harvest from plants floweting annually, but flower stems were longer.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Heelwat inheemse Proteaceae spesies besit die vereiste eienskappe om as snyblomr.-le verhanctci te wod. Indien proteas kommersieel verbou sou word vir uitvoer moet die klem val op gehalte van blomme en die tyd van produksie. Goeie gehalte uitvoer blomme moet steellengte van langer as 50cm en perfek gevormde blomme besit. Daar is 'n groter aanvraag na kommersieel verboude proteas gedurende die Europese winter (September tot Mei, suidelike halfrond) en beter pryse word derhalwe ook dan verkry. Beide gehalte en die oes periode kan gemanipuleer word deur snoeitegnieke. Wanneer blomme gepluk word of lote gesnoei word van Profea cv. Carnival (waarskynlik 'n kruising tussen P. compacta x P. neriifolia) word die terminale gedeelte van die loot teruggesny. Die oorblywende gedeelte bestaan uit kort stompe wat bekend staan as draers. Laterale lote afkomstig van okselknoppe op draers verleng totdat 'n blom terminaal ontwikkel. Die eienskappe van die loot bepaal of 'n blom inisieer sal word of nie, en sal ook die gehalte van die gevormde blom beinvloed. Protea plante was gesnoei om draers van verkillende lengtes en deursnee te produseer. Die eienkappe van lote afkomstig van die verskillende tipe draers was gemeet. Dik ..draers van lengte 20-25cm het die meeste asook die langste lote geproduseer. Plante wat twee-jaarliks, in teenstelling met jaarliks, geblom het, het dikker draers geproduseer en ook gelei tot produksie van beter gehalte lote in die opeenvolgende seisoen. Die verandering in die tyd van snoei het beide die blom siklus en die biomassa verspreiding beinvloed. Plante van Protea cv. Carnival was up 6 verskillende datums in 1991 gesnoei. Snoei in Maart, April of Mei, 1991, het 'n jaarlikse blom siklus veroorsaak. Minder as 40% van die vars massa geproduseer in 1993 was reproduktief, waarvan 5% steellengte lank genoeg vir uitvoer gehad hel. Die 1994 jaarlikse oes was van dieselfde grootte en gehalte as die van 1993. Snoei in Julie, Augustus of September, 1991, het egter 'n twee-jaarlikse blom siklus veroorsaak. Geen blomme was in 1992 geproduseer nie, maar die oes in 1993 was heelwat groter as die jaarlikse oeste. In 1993 was to 70% van die vars massa geproduseer, reproduktief, waarvan 80% steellengte lank genoeg vir uitvoer gehad het. Die twee-jaarlikse blom siklus het 'n vroeer oes in 1993 veroorsaak, maar 'n later oes in 1994. Die twee-jaarlikse oes in 1994 was van dieseifde grootte as die jaarlikse oes in 1994, maar die blomstele was langer.

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23

Coetzee, J. H. (Jacobus Hendrik). "Arthropod communities of Proteaceae with special emphasis on plant-insect interactions". Thesis, Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 1989. http://hdl.handle.net/10019.1/66615.

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Thesis (PhD) -- Stellenbosch University, 1989.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Arthropod communities of five proteaceous species viz. Protea repens. P. neriifolia. P.cynaroides, Leucospermum cordifolium and Leucadendron /aureolum were studied. A faunal list of the insects was compiled according to the feeding guilds of insects. Six phytophagous guilds were recognized: flower visitors, thrips, endophages, ectophages, sap-suckers, and ants. The guild composition, species packing and seasonal distribution for the free-IMng insects, spiders and other arthropods were investigated on the different plant species. The ants, flower visitors and sap-sucking species found on the plant species, were very similar, but the number of leaf chewing species common to all the plant species was low, suggesting that some species were monophagous. Insect abundance increased during the wet winter months when the plants were in flower. Of the total number of herbivores collected, flower visitors represented 69,5%, leaf feeders 14,5% and sap-suckers 16,1 %. The chewers constituted 60,1% of the total herbivore. biomass. Leaf damage increased with age ; young leaves were practically free of herbivore damage, while older leaves were stm acceptable as food. The degree of insect damage differed amongst the plant species varying from 2% to 15%. The following leaf characteristics were investigated to determine the factors involved in defence against insect herbivory : total phenolic content, protein precipitating ability, cyanogenesis, nitrogen content, leaf toughness, woodiness and fibre content lt appears that the plant species use different mechanisms to protect their leaves. The infructescences of Protea repens were exploited by the larvae of four Coleoptera and four Lepidoptera species. The community structure of these phytophagous insects was determined largely by negative interactions. Various strategies are followed (e.g. niche segregation in time and space) to lessen interspecific competition.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: 'n Studie van die arthropoocl gemeenskap op vyf proteasoorte, naamlik Protea repens. P. neriffolia. P. cynaroides. Leucospennum cordffolium en Leucadendron laureolum is gedoen. 'n Faunalys van insekte volgens hul voedingsgDdes is saamgestel. Die insekte is in ses fitofage gDdes verdeel naamlik blombesoekers, blaaspootjies, endovoeders, ektovoeders, sapsuiers en miere. Die samestelling van die gDdes, spesie-rangskikking en seisoenale verspreiding is bepaal vir die vrylewende insekte, spinnekoppe en ander arthropode. Die miere, blombesoekers en sapsuierspesies wat op die plantsoorte gevind is, is byna dieselfde, maar verslalle in die blaarvoederspesies is gevind wat 'n aanduiding is dat sommige spesies monofaag mag wees. Gedurende die nat wintermaande toon die insekgetalle 'n toename. Blombesoekers verteenwoordig 69,5%, blaarvoeders 14,5% en sapsuiers 16,1% van die aantal insekherbivore wat versamel is. Die kouers vorm 60,1% van die totale herbivoor biomassa Soos die blare verouder, neem die skade op die blare toe; jong blare toon byna geen skade nie, terwyl ouer blare steeds geskik is vir insekvoedsel. Die insekskade op die blare wissel by die verslallende plante tussen 2% en 15%. Om te bepaal watter blaareienskappe moontlik 'n rol kan speel in blaarverdediging teen insekte is die volgende ondersoek: totale fenoliese inhoud, die vermoe om proteiene te presipiteer, sianogenese. stikstofinhoud, blaartaaiheid, houtagtigheid en veselinhoud. Dit wil voorkom asof die plante verskillende meganismes gebruik om die blare te beskerm. Saadkoppe van Protea repens word deur vier Coleoptera en vier Lepidoptera spesies benut Die gemeenskapstruktuur van die boarders word tot 'n groat mate bepaal deur negatiewe interaksies. Verskeie strategiee word gevolg (bv. nissegregasie in ~ en ruimte) om kompetisie tussen spesies te verminder.

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24

Bergh, Nicola G. "Comparative water relations of indigenous and invasive Australian Proteaceae in fynbos". Bachelor's thesis, University of Cape Town, 1998. http://hdl.handle.net/11427/26049.

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Water-use efficiency (WUE) as reflected in the leaf carbon stable isotope ratio was compared between co-occurring indigenous fynbos proteoids and invasive Australian hakeas H. sericea, H. gibbosa and H. suaveolens. At the driest site, H. suaveolens was slightly more WUE than several co-occurring proteoids; there was no significant difference between hakeas and proteas at the other sites. Transpiration rates of shoots and of whole trees were compared between Hakea sericea and Protea repens growing on Stellenboschberg northeast of Cape Town. Both measurements showed no real difference between the species and it is concluded that differences in water relations are not responsible for the highly competitive growth rates of hakeas in fynbos. It is hypothesised that hakeas may be able to vegetatively outcompete proteoids as a consequence of monopodial architecture and some ability to prevent shade-limitation of photosynthesis. A rough estimate of water loss due to transpiration and interception by H. sericea stands indicates that this species may have a significant effect on catchment water loss relative to open-canopy proteoid fynbos. This effect would be due not to transpiration rates of individual trees but to consistently high densities of mature hakea stands.

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25

Roets, Francois. "Diversity and ecology of ophiostomatoid fungi and arthropods associated with proteaceae infructescences". Thesis, Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2002. http://hdl.handle.net/10019.1/52807.

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Thesis (MSc)--University of Stellenbosch, 2002.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Five new species of ophiostomatoid fungi, colon ising the infructescences of serotinous Protea species, have recently been discovered in South Africa. Prior to this, ophostomatoid fungi were thought to be restricted to the Northern Hemisphere. The discovery of these five species thus extensively expanded the known geographical range of these fungi, now also to include the Southern Hemisphere. Since this discovery, few studies have focused on the interesting ecology of this group, which is uniquely adapted for spore dispersal by arthropods. Studies focussed on ophiostomatoid fungi provide an unique opportunity to study inter-organism interactions between fungi, their host plants and the arthropods responsible for their spore dispersal. Very few similar studies have been undertaken, particularly in the Fynbos Biome, to which most of our economically important Protea species are confined. The current study provides insight into some ecological aspects of these complex interactions. The seasonal distribution of the ophiostomatoid fungi associated with the infructescences of members of the Proteaceae was investigated. Definite seasonal patterns were observed, with peak fungal colonisation occurring during the wetter winter months. While determining the host specificity of these fungi, a new Protea host for Ophiostoma splendens was identified, and a new species of Rhyncomeliola was discovered. All ophiostomatoid species native to Fynbos in the Stellenbosch region are exclusively associated with the infructescences of species in the plant genus Protea. By employing a multiplex Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR), a set of group specific primers was developed for the identification of South African Ophiostoma and Gondwanamyces fungal DNA. This newly developed method was used to scan arthropods collected from the infructescences of P. repens for the presence of 0. splendens and G. proteae spores. By using these group-specific primers, three insects possibly responsible for long range dispersal of fungal spores were identified. Three further insect species, possibly contributing to the short-range dispersal of ophiostomatoid spores, were also implicated through this method. All arthropods associated with the fruiting structures of selected members of the Proteaceae were also investigated. A total of 62 pseudospecies (ca. 7500 individuals), belonging to 45 different arthropod families, were collected. Proteaceae species with larger fruiting structures housed more arthropod species and higher numbers of individuals than Proteaceae taxa with smaller fruiting structures. Some plant species housed similar arthropod communities, while others housed unique suites of arthropods. Seasonal patterns in arthropod numbers were observed, and it was found that, in most instances, arthropod numbers peaked during the autumn and winter months. Twenty-five fungal taxa were isolated from various Proteaceae arthropods, many of which are genera known to include Proteaceae pathogenic species. Ophiostomatoid fungi have a saprophytic relationship with their Protea hosts, and may deter some of these potentially harmful fungi from colon ising the infrutescences. Some fungi showed a high degree of specificity towards potential vectors, while others were found on a diverse range of arthropods. This study highlights the existence of complex inter-organismal interactions within the Fynbos Biome, a study area where the interactions between plants, fungi and insects have been grossly neglected. The few studies that have been conducted in this field have mostly focussed on a limited number of organisms, and no wide-scale attempts, such as presented here, have been published. It is important to obtain a holistic view in any ecological study that focuses on interactions between different suites of organisms. Ultimately this will aid in the development of better conservation strategies. This study thus provides a muchneeded start in studies on multi-organismal interactions in the Fynbos Biome.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Vyf nuwe ophiostoma-agtige fungus spesies is onlangs in die vrug-liggame van Suid Afrikaanse Protea plante ontdek. Voor hierdie ontdekking, was die algemene opvatting dat ophiostoma-agtige fungi beperk is tot die Noordelike Halfrond. Die ontdekking van hierdie vyf spesies het dus die bekende geografiese verspreiding van hierdie tipe fungi vergroot om nou ook die Suidelike Halfrond in te sluit. Sederdien het min studies gefokus op die interesante ekologie van hierdie groep, wat aangepas is vir spoorverspreiding deur geleedpotiges. Studies wat fokus op die ophiostoma-agtige fungi voorsien 'n unieke geleentheid om die inter-organismiese-interaksies tussen fungi, hul gasheer plante en die geleedpotiges wat hul spore versprei, te bestudeer. Baie min soortgelyke studies is al voorheen in die Fynbos Bioom, waar die meeste van ons ekonomies-belangrike Protea spesies voorkom, onderneem. Die huidige studie verleen meer inligting oor sommige ekologiese aspekte van hierdie komplekse interaksies. Seisoenale verspreidingspatrone van ophiostoma-agtige fungi geassosieer met die vrug-liggame van lede van die Proteaceae, is ondersoek. Daar is defnitiewe seisoenale patrone in die aanwesigheid van fungi gevind, met 'n piek in fungi kolonisasie-getalle gedurende die vogtiger wintermaande. 'n Nuwe Protea gasheer vir Ophiostoma splendens en 'n nuwe fungus spesie (Rhyncomeliola sp.), is ontdek. Alle Fynbos ophiostoma-agtige spesies in die Stellenbosch area, is beperk tot Protea spesies. 'n Multipleks Polimerase Ketting Reaksie is ontwikkel om die spesifieke DNS van ophiostoma-agtige fungi te herken. Hierdie metode is gebruik om te toets vir die aanwesigheid van spore van hierdie fungi op die liggame van geleedpotiges (geassosieerd met P. repens). Hierdeur is drie insekte wat waarskynlik verantwoordelik is vir die langafstand verspreiding van spore geidentifiseer. Drie verdere insekte wat moontlik verantwoordelik is vir die kortafstand verspreiding van ophiostoma-agtige fungi is ook aangewys. Alle geleedpotiges geassosieer met die vrugstrukture van geselekteerde lede van die Proteaceae is ondersoek. 'n Totaal van 62 pseudo-spesies (omtrent 7500 individue), wat tot 45 families behoort, is versamel. Proteaceae spesies met groter vrugstrukture het meer geleedpotige spesies en individue gehuisves as taksa met kleiner vrugstrukture. Sommige plant spesies het soortgelyke geleedpotige gemeenskappe gehuisves, terwyl unieke groepe geleedpotiges in ander plante voorgekom het. Alhoewel die geleedpotiges seisonale variasies in getalle geopenbaar het, het die meeste groepe 'n piek in getalle getoon gedurende die herfs- en wintermaande. Vyf-en-twintig fungi taksa is geïsoleer vanaf verskeie Proteaceae geleedpotiges. Sommige van hierdie is genera wat Proteaceae patogeniese spesies insluit. Sommige fungi het 'n hoë graad van spesifisiteit teenoor potensiële vektore getoon, terwyl ander weer algemeen op verskeie geleedpotige spesies gevind is. Hierdie studie dui op die bestaan van komplekse inter-organismiese-interaksies in die Fynbos Bioom, in 'n area waar die studie van interaksies tussen plante, fungi en insekte nog baie min aandag geniet het. Die beperkte aantal studies wat tot dusver in hierdie veld onderneem is, fokus gewoonlik slegs op 'n paar organismes. Geen grootskaalse studies, soos die een hier voorgelê, is al gepubliseer nie. In enige ekologiese studie wat fokus op interaksies tussen verskeie organismes, is dit belangrik om 'n holistiese siening te probeer verkry. Uiteindelik sal dit bydra tot die ontwikkeling van beter bewarings-strategië. Hierdie studie verleen dus 'n noodsaaklike begin tot studies op multiorganismiese- interaksies.

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26

Sasa, Archbold. "Arthropods associated with commercial Proteaceae in the Western Cape Province, South Africa". Thesis, Stellenbosch : University of Stellenbosch, 2011. http://hdl.handle.net/10019.1/6805.

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Thesis (MSc)--University of Stellenbosch, 2011.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The commercial cultivation of Proteaceae is an important industry in the Western Cape, however, farmers are challenged with arthropod infestation which compels them to solely rely on chemical pesticides. Past studies in South Africa have shown that Proteaceae comprise a rich and diverse arthropod fauna. However, as most of these studies were conducted on wild Proteaceae, they may not be representative of cultivated proteas. Moreover, most of these species remained unidentified due to lack of identification expertise. These past studies, however, form a useful baseline for arthropod studies in proteas, e.g. the feeding guilds found in proteas. The aim of this research was to conduct an intensive and extensive survey of the arthropod-fauna associated with commercially-cultivated proteas across an entire year. Specifically, this survey was designed to document the composition of the arthropod fauna (creating a comprehensive reference collection for pest management purposes) and to assess whether the arthropod fauna differed between seasons and pesticide treatments. Infructescences, inflorescences and foliage of mainly commercial Proteaceae were sampled for arthropods seasonally for a period of twelve months by collection of plant material and direct searching. Seven commercial protea blocks, and a wild protea block (remnant patch of fynbos vegetation), were used as the sampling sites, and two sprayed blocks were used for assessing pesticide efficacy. Individual arthropods were identified as far as possible, with 37% identified to species level. A species accumulation curve showed that rare (minor) arthropod species made up of 70% of arthropods occurring in cultivated proteas. More than 8 700 individuals from more than 140 species and about 80 families were collected and identified, revealing that cultivated proteas have a rich and diverse insect fauna. These arthropods represent the full range of plant-feeding guilds: leaf miners, leaf chewers, flower bud borers, sap suckers and seed feeders. Flower visitors/free living guild was the most abundant (72%) and speciose (25%). In addition to phytophages, there was a large suite of insect predators and parasitoids. A large number of the arthropods were endemic to the Cape Floristic Region (CFR) and some (7.86%) have a pest status, in that they cause significant damage to the protea plants (for example, 60% of Safari sunset cultivar (Leucadendron salignum x L. laureolum) new flush stems and leaves were affected by Epichoristodes acerbella (Tortricidae). Capys alphaeus (Lycaenidae) and Phyllocnistis sp. (Phyllocnistidae) appear to be specialist pests, as they attack mainly Protea cynaroides and Susara cultivar (Protea magnifica x P. susannae) respectively. Arthropod abundance did not differ significantly between seasons, although significant seasonal effects were observed in species richness when the protea cultivars were examined separately. Pesticide application did not affect arthropod abundance, but did decrease species richness in sprayed blocks. Pesticides appeared to negatively affect minor (rare) species disproportionately, probably due to their lack of prior exposure to pesticides and hence sensitivity. Due to this inefficacy of pesticides in cultivated proteas, an increasing emphasis on the importance of non-chemical control measures, and our improved knowledge of the predatory and parasitic species in this system, integrated pest management strategies deserve greater research attention. Monitoring and use of threshold values for arthropod pests were suggested here, as well as the use of biological, cultural, physical and chemical (optimal use) control. For instance, in cultural control, polycropping and intercropping in proteas to increase plant diversity in the monocultures to promote a higher density of predators and parasitoids can be used. Certain flowering plants are known to provide greater temporal and spatial distribution of nectar and pollen sources, which can increase parasitoid reproductive potential and abundance of alternative hosts/prey when the pest species are scarce or at an inappropriate stage.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die kommersiële verbouing van Proteaceae (proteas) is 'n belangrike bedryf in die Wes-Kaap. Menige plantasie wemel egter van artropodes, wat boere noop om slegs van chemiese plaagdoders gebruik te maak. Vorige studies in Suid-Afrika toon dat proteas die gasheerplant vir 'n ryke en diverse artropodefauna is. Aangesien die meeste van hierdie studies egter op wilde proteas uitgevoer is, weerspieël dit moontlik nie die stand van sake met verboude proteas nie. Weens 'n gebrek aan kundigheid om die artropodes te eien word baie van die spesies boonop nooit uitgeken nie. Dié studies voorsien egter 'n nuttige grondlyn vir 'n ondersoek na die artropodes op proteas, veral vir die bestudering van die gilde wat van die protea leef (“the feeding guild”). Hierdie navorsing het ten doel om 'n intensiewe en omvattende opname te maak van die artropodefauna wat oor die tydperk van 'n jaar op kommersieel verboude proteas voorkom. Die opname is meer bepaald ontwerp om die samestelling van die artropodefauna te bestudeer (deur 'n omvattende verwysingsversameling vir plaagbestuurdoeleindes te skep), en om vas te stel of seisoene en plaagbehandelings enige beduidende uitwerking op die artropodefauna het. Oor 'n tydperk van 12 maande is seisoenale monsters van die vrug- en bloeistadia, saadkoppe en blare van hoofsaaklik kommersiële proteas gesoek en ingesamel. Sewe kommersiële proteablokke sowel as 'n blok wilde proteas het as proefpersele gedien, en twee bespuite blokke is gebruik om die doeltreffendheid van plaagdoder te beoordeel. Individuele artropodes is so noukeurig moontlik uitgeken – 37% tot op spesievlak. Volgens 'n spesieakkumulasiekurwe maak seldsame (kleiner) artropodespesies sowat 70% van die artropodes uit wat op verboude proteas voorkom. Die meer as 8 700 individue van meer as 140 spesies en sowat 80 families wat ingesamel en uitgeken is, toon die rykheid en diversiteit van die artropodefauna op verboude proteas. Hierdie artropodes verteenwoordig die volle reeks plantvreterspesies – van blaardelwers en blaarkouers tot blomknopboorders, sapsuiers en saadvreters. Blombesoeker-/vrylewende spesies was die volopste (72%) en mees divers (25%). Buiten plantvreters was daar ook 'n groot aantal roofinsekte en parasitoïede. Baie van die artropodes was inheems, en sommige (7,86%) het boonop plaagstatus, aangesien hulle beduidende skade aan die proteaplant aanrig. [By ongeveer 60% van die Safari Sunset-kultivar (Leucadendron salignum x L. laureolum) is nuwe stamme en blare byvoorbeeld deur die Epichoristodes acerbella (Tortricidae) aangetas.] Capys alphaeus (Lycaenidae) en Phyllocnistis sp. (Phyllocnistidae) blyk spesialisplae te wees wat onderskeidelik hoofsaaklik die Protea cynaroides en die Susarakultivar (Protea magnifica x P. susannae) in die visier het. Artropodegetalle het nie juis tussen seisoene gewissel nie, hoewel 'n afsonderlike ondersoek van die proteakultivars 'n beduidende seisoenale uitwerking op spesierykheid aan die lig gebring het. Eweneens het die toediening van plaagdoder nie die artropodegetalle verminder nie, maar wel spesierykheid op die bespuite blokke verswak. Plaagdoders blyk besonder negatiewe uitwerking op kleiner (seldsame) spesies te hê – waarskynlik omdat dié spesies nie voorheen aan plaagdoders blootgestel was nie, en dus gevoelig is daarvoor. Weens die oënskynlike ondoeltreffendheid van plaagdoders op verboude proteas, verg 'n toenemende klem op die belang van niechemiese beheermaatreëls, 'n behoefte aan meer kennis van die roof- en parasitiese spesies in die stelsel, en die vraag na geïntegreerde plaagbeheerstrategieë, meer navorsing. Die studie moniteer en gebruik drempelwaardes vir artropodeplae, sowel as biologiese, kulturele, fisiese én chemiese (‘optimalegebruik’-) plaagbeheer. Met kulturele beheer kan poli- en interverbouing van proteas byvoorbeeld gebruik word om plantdiversiteit in die monokulture te verbeter, ten einde só 'n hoër digtheid van roofspesies en parasitoïede in die hand te werk. Sekere blomplante bied kenmerkend 'n wyer tyd- en ruimtelike verspreiding van nektar- en stuifmeelbronne, wat parasitoïede se voortplantingsvermoë en die getalle van alternatiewe gashere/prooi kan verbeter wanneer die plaagspesies skaars is of in 'n ontoepaslike stadium verkeer.

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27

Ellis, Jacqueline A. "Nitrogen utilization in the South African fynbos shrub, Protea neriifolia R.BR. (Proteaceae)". Thesis, University of Cape Town, 1991. http://hdl.handle.net/11427/26461.

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28

Slingsby, Jasper. "Branch junction constriction and hydraulic limitation in two species in the Cape Proteaceae : a mechanism explaining the trade-off between longevity and degree of ramification in the Cape Proteaceae". Bachelor's thesis, University of Cape Town, 2004. http://hdl.handle.net/11427/26047.

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The purpose of this study was to establish if hydraulic limitation and branch junction constriction explain the trade-off between longevity and increased ramification in species of the Cape Proteaceae. This was done by establishing if branch nodes are regions of greater resistance to xylem sap flow in the study species; attempting to quantify nodal resistance for a plant as a whole; and by determining if there is any evidence for hydraulic limitation or compensation in Leucadendron laureolum (Lam.) Fourc. and Leucospermum oleifolium (Berg.) R. Br. individuals. The extent of branch junction constriction was established by comparing the ratio of the xylem sap flow rates of adjacent branch segments of equal length. The ratio of a proximal intemodal to a distal intemodal segment was compared against the ratio of a proximal intemodal segment to a distal node. Branch nodes were found to create significant resistance to xylem sap flow rates in both species (p < .005 for L. laureolum, and p < .05 for L. oleifolium). Total nodal resistance in L. laureolum was modelled as equivalent extra branch length, and as loss of sap flow rate. Equivalent extra branch length increased exponentially with increased branching order, and increased much faster in more ramified plants. Loss of flow rate increased linearly with increased branching order and was unaffected by differences in ramification. This was because the nodes in more ramified plants had smaller basal sapwood areas, and the resistance imposed by nodes decreased with decreased basal sapwood area. As more ramified plants tend to branch earlier, and/or with greater temporal frequency, they will still accumulate greater nodal hydraulic resistance faster than less ramified plants, and thus may be limited to smaller size and younger maximum age. Branch specific conductivities (kₛ), leaf specific conductivities (LSC) and transpiration rates were investigated in higher (11 nodes) and lower (10 nodes) order branches of L. laureolum. All were found to be significantly lower in higher order branches (11 nodes), which can be related to greater nodal resistance to sap flow limiting the amount of water available to the area of developing xylem, causing the vessels to have narrower diameters. There was no significant difference in leaf to sapwood area ratios (Aₗ/As) between the two branching orders. Previous studies have suggested that changes in Aₗ/Aₛratios occur to compensate for hydraulic limitation. Reductions in Aₗ/Aₛin plants with greater hydraulic restriction allow LSC values, and thus transpiration rates, to stay as high as plants with less hydraulic restriction. As there was no such compensation, LSC values, and thus transpiration rates, were much lower in branches of higher order. Transpiration rate is a good indication of rates of photosynthesis. Lower transpiration rate in higher order branches is thus a good indication of hydraulic limitation on rates of photosynthesis with increased branching order. Hydraulic resistance in nodes thus imposes an important limitation on size and/or age of L. laureolum individuals, and explains the apparent trade-off between longevity and degree of ramification in the Cape Proteaceae.

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29

Matlhoahela, Patience Tshegohatso. "Mineral nutrition of cultivated South African proteaceace". Thesis, Link to the online version, 2006. http://hdl.handle.net/10019/1106.

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30

Cronin, Kate. "A long-term record of the physiological plasticity of stomatal condactance in Proteaceae". Bachelor's thesis, University of Cape Town, 2013. http://hdl.handle.net/11427/14120.

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Bioclimatic models suggest that Protea species are likely to be severely affected by predicted increases in temperature and reductions in rainfall in the Western Cape. However, throughout their 400 million year history, land plants have been exposed to considerable climatic variations that have driven physiological adaptations promoting long-term resilience. A principal response of plants to increases in atmospheric CO2 concentration and changing rainfall regimes is to minimise water loss by reducing stomatal conductance (gs) and simultaneously increasing intrinsic water-use efficiency (iWUE). Plasticity in these two physiological traits may enhance the ability of plants to survive future climate change. There is considerable evidence in the literature for major changes in gs and iWUE in response to both short-term and long-term changes in environmental conditions. However, to date, the effects of decadal climate change on plant physiology are still largely uncertain. In this study, the responses of gs and iWUE to perturbations in rainfall and atmospheric CO2 are reconstructed from a chronological sequence of herbarium and modern Protea specimens. The results indicate that in the two high-altitude study species, P.cryophila (t= -2.44, df=7, p= 0.045) and P.venusta (t=3.08, df=5, p=0.027), stomatal conductance has significantly declined in response to increasing atmospheric CO2 concentrations over the past century. The low altitude species appears to maintain fixed stomatal conductance trajectories as a response to more xeric conditions. It is difficult to draw inferences about stomatal physiological plasticity from iWUE data as it is not possible to distinguish between the effects of physiological reductions in stomatal conductance and biochemical enhancement of photosynthesis. Microhabitat sensitivity in iWUE is a further factor confounding interpretation. This highlights the importance of using multiple parameters as analytical tools for assessing long-term physiological change. A key contribution of this study is that it has confirmed the value of using archival material and highlights methodologies that may aid future herbarium-based interpretations. In addition, despite some methodological limitations, the study has identified interesting trends at climate change-relevant timescales that point the way for further research to understand relative vulnerabilities and inform conservation strategies. Specifically, it suggests that future research and conservation efforts may need to be focused on species occurring at low altitudes because of their apparently more limited physiological plasticity.

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31

Lloyd, Samantha M. "The pollination ecology and reproductive success of the Australian shrub Grevillea macleayana". Access electronically, 2006. http://www.library.uow.edu.au/adt-NWU/public/adt-NWU20070322.163537/index.html.

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32

Pharmawati, Made. "DNA-based approaches for development of markers to assist Grevillea and Leucadendron breeding". University of Western Australia. School of Plant Biology, 2006. http://theses.library.uwa.edu.au/adt-WU2006.0110.

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[Truncated abstract] Grevillea and Leucadendron belong to Proteaceae and both have economic importance to the floriculture industry. Grevillea is a highly diverse genus endemic to Australia and very attractive for landscaping. Leucadendron is a South African Proteaceae but is cultivated in Australia and is well known as a cut flower. This thesis focuses on the application of DNA-based molecular markers to these genera. Several groupings within Grevillea were suggested by previous researchers based on morphological characteristics. In this thesis the monophyly of the groupings among 12 Grevillea species from New South Wales was tested using random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and inter simple sequence repeat (ISSR) analyses. To test the robustness of the data, UPGMA using Jaccard similarity, Neighbor Joining using total character difference and Wagner parsimony analyses were undertaken. The relationship trees generated supported monophyly of the groupings. Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) was used to develop phylogenetic relationships among Leucadendron species. Inheritance and variation of cpDNA were evaluated using PCR-RFLP. The study demonstrated that cpDNA was inherited maternally and a phylogenetic tree of Leucadendron species using parsimony analysis was constructed. ... A fingerprinting study conducted using ISSR, produced a dendrogram showing the relationships among 30 cultivars. From the results, i a fingerprinting key was developed. Three examples of synonymous cultivar pairs were identified. In Leucadendron the male and female flowers develop on separate plants, and sex identification is only possible at time of flowering. ISSR, suppression subtractive hybridisation (SSH), and SSH combined with mirror orientation selection (MOS) were used in attempts of identifying sex-dependent DNA fragments at earlier stages of plant development. Neither of these techniques was able to identify sex-specific markers in Leucadendron. Nevertheless, the results did indicate that cpDNA copy number may differentiate male and female plants. Also, it was demonstrated that the genomes of male and female plants are quite homologous, which increases the difficulty in identifying sex-specific sequences. This thesis highlights the potential of DNA-based markers to determine species relationships in Grevillea and Leucadendron, as well as to identify Leucadendron cultivars. The information produced during the research for this thesis provides a basis for Grevillea and Leucadendron variety development and may be used to assist the design of interspecific crosses, to identify cultivars and the parents of hybrids. In addition, the results offer insights into the likelihood, problems and strategies of finding sex-specific markers for genes controlling sex in Leucadendron. ii

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Erckie, Laimi Nelago Koskima. "Impacts and control of alien Proteaceae invasion in the Western Cape Province, South Africa". University of the Western Cape, 2017. http://hdl.handle.net/11394/6207.

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Magister Scientiae (Biodiversity and Conservation Biology) - MSc (Biodiv & Cons Biol)
Research focused on ecological impacts and control of invasive alien species (IAS) is gaining attention worldwide. The eradication and control of invasive alien plants (IAP) is essential for the restoration of native plant communities. Understanding ecological impacts and potential invasive risks of IAP is important for their effective management, particularly for prioritisation. Most studies concerning impacts on vegetation structure and plant-pollinator interactions have measured few ecological metrics, resulting in a superficial understanding of plant species invasion. Additionally, most studies related to the control of IAP have focused on major invaders which have demonstrated severe impacts, with less focus on emerging invaders. This study assessed ecological impacts, invasive risks and chemical control options for alien Hakea drupacea and Banksia species in the Western Cape Province, South Africa. Multiple ecological metrics data on vegetation, soil and plant-pollinator parameters were measured and compared between invaded and uninvaded sites. The invasion risk of fourteen Banksia species which have been introduced to South Africa was evaluated by conducting a weed risk assessment (WRA). The herbicide efficacy of resprouting Banksia integrifolia and Banksia serrata was determined by rating plants response to different treatments, with percentage, height and resprout vigour as measures. Results revealed significant negative impacts of alien H. drupacea and Banksia speciosa invasion on native plant species richness and diversity and on the abundance of native pollinators. The study demonstrated that 79% of Banksia species have a high risk of invading the Fynbos Biome. Chemical control with triclopyr+picloram mix provided effective means of controlling resprouting Banksia species. The high invasive risk of Banksia species and competitive effects of invasive alien B. speciosa and H. drupacea with native plant species for biotic and abiotic resources represents a major threat to biodiversity conservation in the Fynbos Biome. The removal of both naturalised and invasive alien H. drupacea and Banksia populations is recommended in order to conserve native plant communities in the Fynbos Biome.
2020-08-31

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34

Brown, Susan Ann. "Ecological correlates of rare Cape Proteaceae, South Africa, and the implications for their conservation". Master's thesis, University of Cape Town, 1988. http://hdl.handle.net/11427/18485.

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This thesis examines the ecology of rare Proteaceae of the Fynbos Biome. South Africa. The aim was to determine whether there are any unifying ecological parameters which might be significant for their conservation. The current status of all Cape Proteaceae was initially assessed. A total of 124 taxa were ascribed the I U C N status of recently extinct (3 taxa), endangered (33 taxa), vulnerable (29 taxa) and naturally rare (59 taxa). The distributions of rare taxa are characteristically small in size and range, 59 taxa occurring in only one or two populations and 63 taxa being restricted to a range of less than 5 km². Small nature reserves are proposed for the protection of such restricted taxa. An examination of the distribution of all the rare taxa shows exceptionally high concentrations in the Cape Town urban area and the lowlands north of Cape Town. This indicates the need for conservation considerations by urban and regional planners in the long term development of this area. Naturally rare taxa exhibit nodes (areas of high concentrations) over the centres of well-defined centres of endemism. Such areas merit conservation as representative and diverse habitats of fynbos plant species. Threats occurring at rare Proteaceae sites were recorded. An inappropriate fire interval and invasion by the Argentine ant. Iridomyrmex humilis, were shown to be the probable cause of rarity in Proteaceae exhibiting short lifespans and myrmecochorous seed stores. The monitoring of fire intervals at rare Proteaceae sites and the removal of the Argentine Ant are considered priorities for conservation management of rare Proteaceae.

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35

Smith, Megan. "Population genetics of South African Protea L. (Proteaceae) species associated with various pollinator guilds". Master's thesis, Faculty of Science, 2019. http://hdl.handle.net/11427/31267.

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South Africa hosts plant species with a large variety of floral traits associated with different pollinator guilds. Suites of specialised floral traits associated with particular pollinators are known as pollination systems or syndromes. However, it is often uncertain how these pollination systems affect gene flow between plant populations, mating system outcome, and subsequent genetic health of plant species. Genetic variability is an important aspect in understanding the long-term survival of a species because excessive homozygosity, as a result of high amounts of inbreeding, may restrict a species’ long-term local adaptive potential. The African genus, Protea, is an ideal study system for exploring the evolution and maintenance of mating systems, because the pollination system for many species have been confirmed by pollinator exclusion experiments. The genus has several pollination systems including birds, insects and non-flying mammals. Comparative estimates of pollinators’ outcrossing abilities are rare and confined to bird and insect guilds. Furthermore, 10 microsatellite markers have been developed for the genus, but have not been used to assess the outcrossing abilities of various pollinators. This study thus had two aims: Firstly, to use microsattelite markers to estimate the outcrossing rates and subsequent genetic diversity of Protea species primarily pollinated by either birds (P. laurifolia and P. roupelliae), insects (P. caffra and P. simplex) or non-flying mammals (P. amplexicaulis and P. humiflora). Secondly, I aimed to understand how birds and non-flying mammal pollinators affect population connectivity and gene dispersal. This was done by comparing indirect estimates of gene flow in the therophilous, P. amplexicaulis, and ornithophilous, P. laurifolia. These estimates included population differentiation (G”st) between subpopulations and spatial genetic structuring within metapopulations of each species. I expected that less vagile pollinators, such NMP’s (non-flying mammal pollinators), would contribute the least to gene flow and cause high selfing rates and low genetic diversity within therophilous populations. Contrastingly, flying pollinators would be able to travel longer distances resulting in more genetic connectivity between plant populations. The high energetic demands and interplant movements of flying animals were predicted to result in high outcrossing rates in ornithophilous and entomophilous species. Non-flying mammal-pollinated (NMP) Protea species had high (> 0.8) and non-significantly different (p > 0.05) outcrossing rates relative to species pollinated by flying animals. Similarly, hand pollen supplementation experiments also revealed that small mammals were effective pollen vectors since P. amplexicualis individuals were not pollen limited. High multilocus outcrossing rates (> 0.80) may have resulted in all sampled Protea species exhibiting high levels of heterozygosity (> 0.7) and low levels of inbreeding. However, some of the outcrossing events were between kin (approximately 14 %), giving evidence for biparental inbreeding. Furthermore, the relationship between geographic distance and genetic distance was significant for sampled P. amplexicaulis individuals. In contrast, sampled P. laurifolia individuals were genetically similar across the landscape. This pattern was reflected in fine-scale (> 500 m) spatial genetic structuring in a sampled metapopulaton of P. amplexicaulis and a homogeneous distribution of P. laurifolia genotypes. Restricted gene dispersal recorded for P. amplexicaulis in this study may have been a result of the high levels of biparental inbreeding. It was not clear whether poor gene flow was primarily a result of restricted pollen dispersal created by NMP’s or restricted seed dispersal. Nevertheless, continuous limited gene dispersal between NMP populations may result in allopatric speciation over time. This provides a hypothesized reason as to why many of the therophilous Protea species are located in small and isolated populations. Additionally, there is a concern that restricted population size in combination with poor gene flow may lead to increased levels of inbreeding over time. This study provided the first evidence for localised gene dispersal, but high outcrossing rates, in NMP proteas.

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36

Hunter, Roland. "The secretion of acid phosphatase by proteaceae as an adaptation to limited phosphate availability". Master's thesis, University of Cape Town, 2010. http://hdl.handle.net/11427/12173.

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Includes abstract.
Includes bibliographical references (leaves 59-67).
The Proteaceae are a distinctive component of South Africa’s Fynbos and Australia’s Kwongan vegetation and display a number of adaptations to the soils of these nutrientpoor regions, where availability of phosphate (P) is particularly limited. The Proteaceae are notable for the virtually family-wide ability to form cluster roots.

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37

Heliyanto, Bambang. "The ecological genetic consequences of local endemism and natural population fragmentation in Banksia ilicifolia (Proteaceae)". University of Western Australia. School of Plant Biology, 2006. http://theses.library.uwa.edu.au/adt-WU2006.0123.

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[Truncated abstract] The species-rich Southwest Australian Floristic Region (SAFR) is a global biodiversity hotspot. Characterised by a Mediterranean-type climate and nutrient deficient landscape, this region is endowed with 7380 native vascular plant species/sub species, of which 49% are endemic and 2500 are of conservation concern. Despite the global significance of this region, there is still only a poor understanding of the factors influencing high diversity and endemism, and especially the population genetic consequences of narrow endemism and naturally fragmented species distribution. Holly leaved banksia (Banksia ilicifolia R. Br.), although widespread through Southwest Western Australia (SWWA), has a naturally fragmented distribution, with generally small populations restricted to swales and wetland fringes with depth to groundwater less than 10 m. As such, it provides an excellent model to better understand the ecological genetic consequences of local endemism, population size and natural population fragmentation . . . Products of wide outcrossing (over 30 km) showed a heterosis effect over local outcrossing, indicating increased ecological amplitude of offspring following interpopulation mating. These results suggest that the breeding and mating biology of B. ilicifolia counters the negative genetic erosion effects of narrow ecological amplitude and small population size. Recent habitat fragmentation, and reductions in population size and increased isolation, is impacting on these processes, but further research is required to assess the ultimate consequences of these genetic effects for population viability.

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38

Oliveira, Laura Braga de. "Diversidade e Fenologia de lagartas folívoras em Roupala montana (Proteaceae) no cerrado do Brasil Central". reponame:Repositório Institucional da UnB, 2010. http://repositorio.unb.br/handle/10482/7416.

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Dissertação (mestrado)—Universidade de Brasília, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biologia Animal, 2010.
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O presente trabalho apresenta um quadro geral das comunidades de lagartas, folívoras externas, que ocorrem em Roupala montana Aubl. (Proteaceae) em duas escalas: local e regional. O projeto, na escala local (Capítulo 1), foi desenvolvido em uma área de cerrado de altitude no Parque Estadual da Serra dos Pireneus (PESP), Pirenópolis, Goiás, de maio de 2008 a abril de 2009. Foram vistoriados mensalmente 100 indivíduos de R. montana (total=1.200), com anotações tanto das características fenológicas da planta quanto de todas as lagartas encontradas que foram criadas no laboratório. Foram encontradas 805 lagartas de 35 espécies em 22% das plantas vistoriadas. A espécie mais abundante corresponde a um gênero novo de Elachistidae, com 55% (442 indivíduos) do total de indivíduos coletados e 50% das ocorrências. Do total das espécies amostradas, 78% ocorreram em baixa densidade, sendo que, 43% corresponderam a espécies representadas por um único indivíduo (singletons) (15 espécies) e 37% foram raras (13 espécies representadas por 2 a 10 indivíduos no ano). Seis espécies que são consideradas, no cerrado de Brasília, como lagartas de dieta restrita a R. montana, foram as mais abundantes no PESP: gênero novo de Elachistidae, Eomichla sp. (Oecophoridae), Idalus lineosus (Walker, 1869) (Arctiidae), Stenoma cathosiota (Meyrick, 1925), Clamydastis platyspora (Meyrick, 1922) e Cerconota sciaphilina (Zeller, 1877) (Elachistidae). As folhas maduras foram significativamente mais consumidas pelas lagartas do que as novas ou senescentes. Resultados deste trabalho reforçaram os padrões encontrados para comunidades de lagartas no cerrado como: poucas espécies abundantes (provavelmente de dieta restrita), muitas espécies raras, variação temporal na freqüência, composição e abundância de espécies e pico de frequência nas plantas em maio (início da estação seca). Contudo, a grande contribuição desse projeto é a indicação de que a especificidade de dieta em R. montana de, pelo menos, seis espécies de lagartas não é uma característica local (Cerrado de Brasília) e, ainda, que as suas abundâncias variam enormemente entre áreas distantes do Cerrado. Na escala regional (Capítulo 2) o projeto foi desenvolvido em cinco áreas do cerrado do Brasil Central (PESP: Parque Estadual Serra dos Pireneus - GO; PNCV: Parque Nacional Chapada dos Veadeiros - GO; FAL: Fazenda Água Limpa; PNB: Parque Nacional de Brasília; JBB: Jardim Botânico de Brasília – DF). Foram vistoriadas 1.000 plantas de R. montana em cada área, no período de maio e junho de 2009. Todas as lagartas encontradas foram coletadas e criadas em laboratório, os adultos montados a seco e identificados. Foram encontradas 1.187 lagartas de 55 espécies de 15 famílias, em 13,26% das plantas. Oitenta e cinco por cento das espécies encontradas nas cinco áreas ocorreram em baixa densidade, destas 55% foram representadas por somente um indivíduo (‘singletons’). A maioria das espécies (73%) foi considerada exclusiva e. apenas quatro das espécies (7%) ocorreram em todas as localidades: 1) a mariposa do gênero novo de Elachistidae: 2) a mariposa Stenoma cathosiota (Meyrick, 1925), Elachistidae; 3) a mariposa Idalus lineosus (Walker, 1869) Arctiidae e 4) a borboleta Symmachia hippodice (Godman, 1903) Riodinidae, sendo todas elas consideradas de dieta restrita a R. montana. A abundância, riqueza de espécies e a frequência de plantas com lagartas variaram significativamente entre as áreas. A associação das áreas com faunas mais similares foram a FAL/JBB para os índices de similaridade de Sørensen e Bray-Curtis. O teste de Mantel não foi significativo para a relação entre a similaridade da fauna (Bray-Curtis) e a distância geográfica ou com as diferenças de altitude entre as áreas. Entretanto, os resultados do presente trabalho demonstraram uma tendência à uma relação negativa entre a similaridade e a distância geográficas entre as áreas. _______________________________________________________________________________ ABSTRACT
This study presents a general framework in local and regional scales of communities of externally leaf feeding caterpillars found on Roupala montana Aubl. (Proteaceae). The project on a local scale (Chapter 1) was carried out in an area of cerrado of altitude in the Parque Estadual da Serra dos Pireneus (PESP), Pirenópolis, Goiás, from May 2008 to April 2009. Monthly, were surveyed 100 individuals of R. montana (total = 1,200), with notes on both phenological characteristics of plants and caterpillars. All encountered caterpillars were reared under laboratory conditions. During the present study we found 805 caterpillars of 35 species on 22% of the plants inspected. The lepidopteran species found most frequently on R. montana was a new genus of Elachistidae representing 55% (n=442) of the total of the sampled individuals. Of all the sampled species, 78% occurred in low abundances of which 38% were represented by singletons, and 40% were also very rare (2 to 10 individuals) along the year. In the cerrado of Brasilia six caterpillar species were considered to be food restricted to R. Montan. These species were the most abundant in the PESP as follows: new genus of Elachistidae, Eomichla sp. (Oecophoridae), Idalus lineosus (Walker, 1869) (Arctiidae), Stenoma cathosiota (Meyrick, 1925), Clamydastis platyspora (Meyrick, 1922), and Cerconota sciaphilina (Zeller, 1877) (Elachistidae). The mature leaves were significantly more consumed by caterpillars than the new or the senescent leaves. All results of this study reinforced the patterns previously found for communities of caterpillars in the cerrado plants: few abundant species (probably those with restricted diet on the host plant); many rare species; low proportion of host plants with caterpillars, large faunal-temporal and site variations; and the frequency peak occurring on plants in May (beginning of dry season in the Cerrado region). However, the major contribution of this project is an indication that, at least, for six species of caterpillars, the specificity of diet on R. montana is not a local feature of the Cerrado areas around Brasília, and also that their abundances varies greatly between distant areas of Cerrado. On a regional scale (Chapter 2) all samples was carried out in five small and preserved areas of the Cerrado in the Central Brazil within the State Park of Serra dos Pireneus (PESP), National Park of Chapada dos Veadeiros (PNCV) both in Goiás state; Experimental Station of the University of Brasília (FAL), National Park of Brasília (PNB), and Botanical Garden of Brasília (JBB) in the Federal District (DF). A thousand food plants were searched for caterpillars in each area, from May to June 2009. All caterpillars encountered were collected, and reared under laboratory conditions. A total of 1,187 caterpillars, belonging to 55 species of 15 families were found on 13.26% of the sampled plants. Eighty-five percent of the species found in all study areas occurred in low density, of which 55% were represented by singletons. Most species (73%) were considered exclusive to one study area and only four species (7%) were shared among the five study areas, three moth species: 1) a new genus belonging to Elachistidae: 2) Stenoma cathosiota (Meyrick, 1925), Elachistidae, 3) Idalus lineosus (Walker, 1869) Arctiidae, and a butterfly species 4) Symmachia hippodice (Godman, 1903) Riodinidae, all of which were considered to be food restricted to R. montana. Faunal similarities and species turnover varied significantly among areas. Sørensen indices and Bray-Curtis indices values grouped FAL/JBB as the two areas with highest similarities. The Mantel test was not significantly for the relationship between the faunal similarity (Bray-Curtis) and geographic distance and also with height differences between areas. However, the results of this study demonstrate tendency to relation negative between the similarity of communities and the geographical distance between areas.

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39

Connolly, Alexandra. "Crypsis in non-flying mammal pollinated Proteaceae: novel adaptations and evidence of nectarivorous bird avoidance". Master's thesis, Faculty of Science, 2019. http://hdl.handle.net/11427/31394.

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A defining feature of the non-flying mammal pollinated (NMP) syndrome is inflorescence crypsis whereby flowers are close to the ground and somewhat hidden within the canopy. A number of species in the Cape Proteaceae are NMP, two of which were chosen as focal species for this study: Protea amplexicaulis and Protea humiflora. This study investigated the two previously suggested hypotheses for crypsis: hidden flowers are more difficult for nectarivorous birds to access, or hidden flowers provide greater cover for small mammal pollinators from aerial predators. Using remote triggered cameras, P. amplexicaulis and P. humiflora inflorescences were observed over the 2017 flowering period, noting visitation by birds and small mammals and assessing the legitimacy of birds as pollinators. In the literature, bird visitation to exposed inflorescences is suggested to be rare, but this study showed that it is considerable. Observations of camera footage suggest that birds are in fact illegitimate pollinators and thus nectar rob. Bird visitation to exposed inflorescences was more than tenfold that of hidden inflorescences, suggesting that crypsis is likely a strategy to avoid nectar robbing by birds. Both P. amplexicaulis and P. humiflora have been observed to retain dead leaves, which may contribute to their cryptic nature. Alternative hypotheses for dead leaf retention in Proteaceae – that it may increase flammability or result in a below canopy spike in nutrients post fire (selfish fertilization) – were assessed and rejected. Sampling of eight local Protea species showed that dead leaf retention is not a consequence of prolonged live leaf retention, with P. amplexicaulis retaining dead leaves for up to 6 years. The removal of dead leaves in 30 P. amplexicaulis individuals resulted in a significant decrease in the number of inflorescences hidden from aerial view, thus suggesting that dead leaf retention may be a strategy to enhance crypsis and thus forms part of the NMP syndrome. This research expands on the knowledge of the NMP syndrome; providing evidence in support of an anti- nectar robbing crypsis function, discovering a novel crypsis adaptation regarding dead leaf retention, and casting doubt on the Restricted Distributions hypothesis for the evolution of the syndrome.

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40

Hepburn, Colleen. "The phenologies of macadamia (Proteaceae) and thrips (Insecta: Thysanoptera) communities in Mpumalanga Province, South Africa". Thesis, Rhodes University, 2017. http://hdl.handle.net/10962/6817.

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Macadamia (Proteaceae) is indigenous to Australia; four of the nine species have been used in plant breeding for cultivation and the production of a rapidly growing product. First introduced to Hawaii in the 1880s, macadamias’ potential as a crop was only really considered in 1910. It is due to the early Hawaiian pioneers’ research and the development of Hawaiian cultivars upon which most of the current world’s production is based today. Prior to the 1980s, cultivation in Australia was based mainly on Hawaiian cultivars. Extensive research has been conducted on cultivar development, performance, best practice, production, crop protection and processing. South Africa has become one of the world’s leading producers and exporters of macadamias. The cultivation of macadamia in South Africa began 80 years ago, but the phenology of macadamia has not been rigorously studied under local conditions, and neither has the thrips communities in macadamia. Data collected during this study on the macadamia phenological stages can be used as a foundation on which seasonal data of all insect pests can be plotted, as a basis on which an extensive Integrated Pest Management (IPM) programme can be developed for the macadamia industry in South Africa. Extensive sampling of thrips communities present in macadamias was undertaken over two years, with more than 142,000 individuals collected. The most basic, common trait into which specimens could be sorted were colour groups. Specimens from each colour group were identified through slide-mounting individuals. Fifteen species of thrips were identified to species-level, excluding specimens from the Panchaetothripinae, Haplothrips and Scolothrips which occurred only periodically. The presence of larvae indicated that macadamia is a host plant for some species. Due to their size and morphology, identification i of the total collection could not be processed to species level using a dissection microscope, although Scirtothrips aurantii Faure were distinguishable from other species and their distribution over the seasons observed. Due to logistical constraints and events beyond the author’s control, the results are mainly qualitative. There seems to be phenological variation within and between cultivars. The date of anthesis and duration of immature nut-drop was estimated; some cultivars set out- of-season flowers and nuts; this “secondary crop” could have far-reaching effects on the implementation of an IPM programme. Comparisons of the phenological data of macadamia and thrips showed the highest abundances and diversity of thrips species occurred when flowers were present. An extensive study of abscised nuts showed no significant difference between most cultivars or at the sites where management practices were implemented and those sites where these practices were not. There was however a consistent difference between the two seasons. There was no difference in maturity of abscised nuts, regardless of whether thrips damage to the husk was present or not. Excessive Bathycoelia distincta (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) damage was found on the kernels of the abscised nuts processed for maturity testing, which is more likely to have been the primary cause of abscission. The Author’s opinion is that thrips damage to the outer husk does not lead to abscission of maturing nuts. Ascertaining the cause of abscission at nut-set and immature nut-drop is more problematic as there are numerous other potential causes. Damage to new flush, especially the late summer flush essential for the build-up of carbohydrates and resources for the following yield, should be carefully monitored and controlled when necessary.

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41

Yang, Fan. "Chemotaxonomy Study of Plants from the Family Proteaceae Based on Its Natural Product Profile (Alkaloid)". Thesis, Griffith University, 2017. http://hdl.handle.net/10072/367627.

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The Proteaceae is a flowering plant family containing approximately 1700 species across more than 80 genera and is a predominant feature of Australian and South African flora. The chemistry of plants from the family has been studied by researchers for over a century but these studies have neither been systematic nor extensive. The research carried out in this thesis has firstly systematically reviewed and synthesized the current state of knowledge with regard to the natural products chemistry of the Proteaceae in relation to taxonomic groupings derived from molecular and morphometric phylogenetic analysis. The knowledge gained from this review was then used to direct further experimental studies to investigate the chemistry of seven species within four genera from (or closely related to) the subtribe Floydiinea – a subtribe anticipated to be a rich source of tropane alkaloids of unique structure. The thesis is subdivided into six chapters.
Thesis (PhD Doctorate)
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
Griffith School of Environment
Science, Environment, Engineering and Technology
Full Text

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42

Richardson, David Mark. "The ecology of invasions by Pinus (pinaceae) and Hakea (proteaceae) species, with special emphasis on patterns, processes and consequences of invasion in mountain fynbos of the southwestern Cape Province, South Africa". Doctoral thesis, University of Cape Town, 1989. http://hdl.handle.net/11427/18803.

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The fire-prone mountain fynbos of the southwestern Cape Province of South Africa has been severely invaded by introduced trees and shrubs. These invasions have transformed fynbos shrublands to dense thickets of trees and shrubs in many parts of the region, thus disrupting various natural ecosystem processes. The ecology of invasions by species of Pinus and Hakea (the most successful genera) was studied using a series of natural experiments in conjunction with autecological studies. The study was divided into main four parts: (i) case studies to elucidate major patterns and processes of invasion; (ii) studies of the life history and population ecology of selected invaders; (iii) studies of the determinants of invasibility; and (iv) assessments of the consequences of invasion and of control programmes. Bibliography: pages 235-272.

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43

De, Villiers Margaret J. (Margaret Jenifer). "Molecular systematics of the Western Cape genus Serruria Salisb. (Proteaceae L.) based on DNA sequence data". Thesis, Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2004. http://hdl.handle.net/10019.1/50030.

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Thesis (MSc)--University of Stellenbosch, 2004.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The Cape Floristic Region (CFR) is situated at the southern tip of Africa and possesses a flora that is unique amongst the floras of the rest of the world, both in terms of its incredibly high species richness, and its high levels of endemism. Proteaceae, the family to which Serruria belongs, is widely distributed amongst the landmasses of the southern hemisphere, with its centres of diversity occurring in Australia and southern Africa. Previous molecular and morphological analyses performed on the South African subfamily Proteoideae have shown Serruria, a CFR endemic, to form a well-supported monophyletic group. Based upon the strong monophyly of Serruria, DNA sequence data were collected for 53 of the 55 species from the plastid (rps16 intron, atpB-rbcL intergenic spacer, trnL-F region and psbA-trnH intergenic spacer) and nuclear (internal transcribed spacer region or ITS) genomes in order to investigate evolutionary relationships within the genus. Spatalla taxa were used as the outgroup. Both parsimony and Bayesian analyses were carried out on each of these data sets. The resulting trees were reasonably well resolved. All the Serruria taxa grouped together in a well-supported clade, except for S. f1ava, which emerged well within the Serruria clade in the analyses of the nuclear genome, but outside the clade in the plastid analyses. It was therefore proposed that this taxon represents a hybrid. Apart from this case, there was widespread agreement between the trees reconstructed using data from the two genomes. The plastid and nuclear data were therefore combined in order to analyse the data sets together. The molecular data does not support most of the groupings proposed by previous authors based on morphological data. Additionally, in some cases, multiple representatives of species do not group together. These specimens probably do not represent monophyletic taxa. Current ideas about relationships within Serruria are based predominantly on floral characters, and it is suggested that pollinator pressures have led to plasticity in the floral characters. Consequently, it is evident from this study that relationships within Serruria need to be re-examined in order to determine the patterns of evolution within the genus.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die Kaapse Floristiese Streek is aan die suiderpunt van Afrika geleë, en beskik oor 'n unieke flora relatief tot ander wêreldfloras, beide ten opsigte van die ongelooflike hoë spesie diversiteit en die hoë vlakke van endemisme. Proteaceae, die familie waaraan Serruria behoort, kom wydverspreid tussen die vastelande van die Suidelike Halfrond voor, en het diversiteitsentrums in Australië en suider Afrika. Vorige molekulêre sowel as morfologiese analises wat op die Suid-Afrikaanse subfamilie Proteoideae uitgevoer is, dui aan dat Serruria (wat endemies is tot die Kaapse Floristiese Streek) 'n goed ondersteunde monofiletiese groep is. Gebaseer op die sterk monofilie van Serruria, is DNA-volgorde-data vir 53 van die 55 spesies vanuit die plastied (rps16 intron, atpB-rbcL intergeniese spasie, trnL-F area en psbA-trnH intergeniese spasie) en kern (intern getranskribeerde spasie area, ook ITS genoem) ingewin om die evolusionêre verwantskappe binne die genus te ondersoek. Spatalla is as die buitegroep gebruik. Beide parsimonie en Bayesian analises is op elk van hierdie datastelle uitgevoer. Die resulterende bome het redelike hoë resolusie getroon. AI die Serruria-taxa het in 'n goed ondersteunde klade saam gegroepeer, behalwe vir S. f1ava, wat binne die Serruria klade val vir die kern genoom, maar buite die klade vir die plastied analise. Dit is dus voorgestel dat hierdie taxon as 'n hibried beskou mag word. Behalwe vir hierdie geval, was daar wydverspreide ooreenstemming tussen die bome wat verkry is vanaf data van die twee genome. Die plastied- en kern-data is derhalwe gekombineer om die datastelle saam te kan analiseer. Die molekulêre data ondersteun nie die meerderheid van morfologiese groeperings wat deur verskeie outeurs voorgestel is nie. Verder, in sommige gevalle, groepeer verskillende monsters van dieselfde spesies nie bymekaar nie. Dit is derhalwe voorgestel dat hierdia taxa nie monofileties is nie. Huidige idees omtrent die verwantskappe binne Serruria is grotendeels op blommorfologiese kenmerke gebaseer, en dit word voorgestel dat bestuiwing-druk gelei het tot plastisiteit van die blommorfologiese kenmerke. Verskille tussen die bome wat uit plastied- en kern-data gerekonstrueer is word aan vroeëre hibridisasie gebeure toegeskryf. Op grond van hierdie studie is dit duidelik dat die verhoudings binne Serruria verder ondersoek moet word om die patrone van evolusie binne die genus te bepaal.

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44

Jono, Viviane Yuri. "Anatomia ecológica do lenho e atividade cambial de Roupala rhombifolia (Proteaceae) na Serra do Cipó (MG)". Universidade de São Paulo, 2009. http://www.teses.usp.br/teses/disponiveis/41/41132/tde-13072009-113356/.

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Nas regiões tropicais, em contraponto com regiões temperadas, as variações ambientais são mais amenas e por anos foi considerado que as espécies tropicais apresentavam crescimento contínuo. Entretanto, as variações ambientais podem ocorrer em grande e pequena escalas, sendo possível que a mesma espécie responda diferentemente aos variados estímulos. Por isso, objetivou-se analisar o comportamento de crescimento de Roupala rhombifolia através do estudo da fenologia, atividade do câmbio e mudanças nas características do lenho em função das características ambientais em pequena escala, com ênfase nas diferenças edáficas. Os resultados fenológicos mostraram que a espécie é sempre-verde, com brotamentos periódicos, perda contínua das folhas e floração não anual, observada apenas em novembro de 2007 após evento de queimada. A frutificação, por sua vez, não foi observada, exceto pela manutenção dos frutos e sementes de reprodução anterior. A atividade cambial é sazonal e apresenta relação positiva com o brotamento e expansão das folhas novas, que por sua vez, estão associados principalmente às primeiras chuvas no final da estação seca, em junho (2006), quando se inicia a reposição hídrica do solo. Durante o intervalo dos períodos de brotação, a atividade cambial reduz a níveis mínimos, próximos à inatividade. A diferenciação do xilema e do floema ocorrem ao longo de todo o ano, entretanto, a ausência de marcadores no floema dificultou a avaliação da sazonalidade da intensidade de sua diferenciação. Na anatomia comparada do lenho, os resultados de análises de variância e de agrupamento mostraram que existem distinções claras entre os indivíduos de cada uma das formações vegetais estudadas (campo, mata ciliar e mata de topo de morro). Os indivíduos do campo são mais distintos, possuindo os menores valores de densidade e área de vasos, altura de raio, comprimento de fibra e porcentagem de área condutora, e os maiores valores de comprimento do elemento de vaso. Os indivíduos de mata ciliar, por sua vez, apresentaram maiores valores, com exceção da densidade de vasos, quando comparado com os de topo de morro, que apresentaram no geral valores intermediários. Grande parte dessas diferenças se deve às características de cada formação vegetal, como proximidade do corpo dágua e principalmente às diferenças físicas e químicas dos solos. Desta maneira, é possível concluir que a espécie é capaz de responder a estímulos ambientais e, apesar de sempre-verde, possui crescimento sazonal em função da precipitação e fotoperíodo, além de apresentar modificações anatômicas do lenho em função de variações edáficas
The intensity of environmental variations is smaller on tropical than temperate regions. Therefore, tropical species were considered for years as evergrowing. In addition, environmental variations can exist in small and big scales and species should respond differently depending on each environmental stimulus. By these reasons, the aim of the study was to analyze the growth pattern of Roupala rhombifolia, considering phenology, cambial activity and anatomical wood features changes, concerning the micro-scale with edaphic differences emphasis. Phenological results showed that R. rhombifolia is an evergreen specie with periodical flushes, continuous leaf fall and not annual flowering, that weakly happened only in November 2007 after a fire event. The fruiting event was not seen during the observation period, except by the maintenance of fruits and seeds from previous fruiting period. Seasonal cambial activity was found positively associated with bud break and leaf expansion, which were related with water soil restoration after the first rain in June 2006, during seasonal drought end. Cambial activity decreased, reaching minimal values, between flush and expansion periods. Xylem and phloem differentiation were found all over the year, but seasonal phloem differentiation was not evaluated due to the absence of growth markers. In comparative wood anatomy the variance (ANOVA) and cluster analysis showed that the specimens of the areas compared had clear differences and were grouped in each physiognomy. The best distinctiveness was found in the field specimens, which had the lowest values for vessel area, vessel density, ray height, fiber length and conductive area percentage, and the highest values for vessel element length. Riparian forest specimens showed higher values compared to mountain top forest specimens, except by vessel density. Therefore, mountain top forest specimens had intermediated values. Most of those anatomical differences are associated with each physiognomy characteristics like water body distance and essentially physical and chemical soil differences. In conclusion, R. rhombifolia can respond to environmental stimulus presenting seasonal growth pattern, concerning rain and photoperiod, and anatomical wood changes, concerning edaphic differences.

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45

Guthrie, Iain. "Parent density, time of fire and flower harvesting as determinants of size of fynbos Proteaceae populations". Thesis, University of Cape Town, 1992. http://hdl.handle.net/11427/26125.

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46

Rogers, Annabelle J. "Occult moisture inputs in the fynbos : Foliar moisure uptake in Ericaceae, Restionaceae and Proteaceae / Annabelle J. Rogers". Bachelor's thesis, University of Cape Town, 2013. http://hdl.handle.net/11427/14026.

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'Occult' precipitation may be an important moisture source that can impact specific plant responses to water stress in certain ecosystems. Species in many ecosystems have been shown to use this moisture source via foliar moisture uptake. The Cape Peninsula and the surrounding southern coast experience high altitude mountain cloud cover in the summer dry period. Previous work on species that exist exclusively in the cloud belt found that species from the Erica and Restionaceae family were able to absorb water through their leaf surfaces, while members of the Proteaceae were unable to do so (Gibson, 2012). Adding to the body of research, this study explores whether foliar uptake occurs in species that do not exist in the cloud belt of the Cape Peninsula and the relative importance of this method of uptake in positively impacting a plants water balance during a cloud event. Direct foliar uptake was assessed at the leaf level using two methods; submersion and mist exposure. The importance of foliar uptake was measured at the whole plant level by exposing whole plants to cloud in a mist chamber. By covering the soil in a subset of plants, we were able to isolate the importance of foliar uptake relative to uptake via drip. Results found that the restios and ericas showed a stronger ability to take up moisture via their leaves than protea species, which showed little ability to do so. In contrast to this, the mist exposure method showed no significant uptake in any species except E. quadrangularis. This disparity is possibly due to specific leaf morphology. All species showed significant hydration in response to a whole plant cloud event in both the covered and uncovered treatments. The significant hydration in response to an occult event suggests that certain low land species are capable of utilizing small occult inputs despite the lack of regular summer cloud events as seen in the cloud belt species. As family patterns of foliar moisture uptake seen in cloud belt species (Gibson 2012) are conserved in the surveyed low land species, it can be concluded that moisture uptake is not a trait specific to cloud belt species, and represents a family level pattern of ability.

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47

Midgley, Jeremy John. "Aspects of the evolutionary biology of the proteaceae, with emphasis on the genus Leucadendron and its phylogeny". Doctoral thesis, University of Cape Town, 1987. http://hdl.handle.net/11427/22503.

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This thesis has been written up as a series of stand alone chapters, in the form that they have, or are to be, submitted for publication. Therefore there is a degree of repetition. Because the scale of my investigation has been fairly broad and crude, and because the genus is so large, I have mainly used frequency data. I have analysed this data with the G-test, which is a suitable statistical technique for such data (Sokal and Rohlf 1969).

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48

Monaco, Sophie. "Seed dispersal, herbivory and recruitment failure of Persoonia elliptica (Proteaceae) in Western Australian Jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata) forest". Thesis, Monaco, Sophie (2012) Seed dispersal, herbivory and recruitment failure of Persoonia elliptica (Proteaceae) in Western Australian Jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata) forest. Honours thesis, Murdoch University, 2012. https://researchrepository.murdoch.edu.au/id/eprint/15075/.

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Persoonia elliptica is a resprouting understorey tree species of the jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata) forests of South-Western Australia. All known populations are lacking in seedlings and saplings, resulting in population structures made up solely of mature trees and exhibiting clear recruitment failure. Little research has been done on this species other than a single study by Abbott and Van Heurck (1988) which described population structures and speculated that increased kangaroo herbivory might be the cause of recruitment failure. This study addresses the issue of recruitment failure, in particular with regards to seed production, viability and dispersal, and herbivory. This work describes the ecology of the species including fruit production, seed viability and population structure. The relationship between P. elliptica and the fauna of the region is examined with regard to seed dispersal vectors and dispersal distances, while the role macropods play in seedling and new growth herbivory and the link with recruitment failure is also examined. Two study sites were investigated over a period of eight months in the northern jarrah forest region, at Avon Valley National Park and in state forest near Sawyers Valley. Species ecology was examined using fruit counts, tree size measurements and soil seed bank estimation, while seed dispersal and herbivory were examined using seed removal ‘cafeteria’ experiments and infrared motion sensing cameras to detect and record faunal activity. Fruit production is low in P. elliptica with only 9% of flowers becoming mature fruits. Seed viability is high in new season seeds, but seeds collected from the soil seed bank (assumed aged one year or older) were not viable. Five fauna species act as dispersal vectors of P. elliptica seed; Macropus fuliginosus, Macropus Irma, Strepera versicolour, Mus musculus and Oryctolagus cuniculus. Of these the currawong (S. versicolour) has not previously been observed interacting with P. elliptica seeds. Macropods exhibited a strong browsing preference for P. elliptica when presented with fresh foliage, and are also therefore, likely to consume seedlings. The wallaby, M. Irma, browsed foliage to a height of 0.5 metres while the kangaroo, M. fuliginosus, browsed foliage up to one metre. This level of browsing pressure is a potential cause of recruitment failure. The key findings of the study highlight that recruitment failure within populations of P. elliptica is likely to be caused by a number of factors potentially relating to the species ecology and relationships with fauna, particularly herbivores. This raises questions on the potential for this species to persist into the future within the jarrah forest and provides vital information concerning possible management approaches to encourage recruitment.

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49

Reyes, Elisabeth. "Evolutionary history of floral key innovations in angiosperms". Thesis, Université Paris-Saclay (ComUE), 2016. http://www.theses.fr/2016SACLS489/document.

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Les Angiospermes forment un clade connu pour sa grande diversité d’espèces et une répartition inégale de cette diversité en son sein. Ce travail se concentre sur la reconstruction d’états ancestraux de caractères floraux sur les phylogénies dans le but d’étudier leur impact sur la diversification. En premier lieu, nous nous sommes focalisés sur deux innovations-clés potentielles chez les Proteaceae, la symétrie bilatérale du périanthe et la présence dans les hotspots à climat méditerranéen. L’utilisation sur une phylogénie de modèles de diversification dépendants des états de caractère a permis de montrer que le premier état caractère n’a pas d’impact significatif sur la diversification des espèces dans ce groupe, contrairement au second. Ensuite, nous avons reconstruit les états ancestraux de la symétrie du périanthe à l’échelle de toutes les Angiospermes, avec une stratégie d’échantillonnage permettant de refléter toutes les transitions de ce caractère. Nous avons mis en évidence un minimum de 130 origines de la symétrie bilatérale, suivies de 69 réversions vers la symétrie radiaire. Enfin, la même méthode a été étendue à l’étude de quatre autres caractères du périanthe. Différents modèles de reconstruction d’états ancestraux ont été utilisés sur une phylogénie de 1232 espèces pour examiner l’influence des changements de modèle sur les états ancestraux reconstruits. Nos résultats montrent que les changements de modèles de reconstruction ont une influence sur l’état de certains nœuds seulement, jamais sur l’ensemble. Les différents résultats trouvés pour la symétrie, caractère commun aux trois chapitres, révèlent que notre méthode d’échantillonnage présente l’inconvénient d’estimer des taux de transition trop élevés pour donner des résultats concluants avec la méthode du maximum de vraisemblance. Les résultats sont en revanche beaucoup moins biaisés lorsque l’on examine plusieurs caractères simultanément
Angiosperms are a clade known for its great species diversity and the uneven distribution of this diversity among its lineages. This work focuses on the ancestral state reconstruction of floral characters on phylogenies in the purpose of studying their impact on diversification. We first focused on two potential key innovations in Proteaceae, bilateral perianth symmetry and presence in Mediterranean-climate hotspots. Using character state dependent diversification models, we found that the first character state did not have any significant impact on species diversification in this group, contrary to the second one. We then reconstructed ancestral states for perianth symmetry in angiosperms as a whole, using a sampling strategy aimed at capturing all of the transitions in this character. We found a minimum of 130 origins of bilateral symmetry, followed by 69 subsequent reversals to radial symmetry. Lastly, the same approach was extended to the study of four other perianth characters. Different ancestral state reconstruction models were used on a phylogenetic tree of 1232 species to test the influence of model changes on reconstructed ancestral states. Our results show that changes in reconstruction models have an impact on the inferred ancestral state of some nodes, but not all of them. The various results obtained for symmetry, a character shared among the three chapters, indicate that our sampling method has the drawback of estimating transition rates too high to give conclusive results with maximum likelihood. On the other hand, results are much less biased when several characters are examined simultaneously

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50

Sarmento, Cabral Juliano. "Demographic processes determining the range dynamics of plant species, and their consequences for biodiversity maintenance in the face of environmental change". Phd thesis, Universität Potsdam, 2009. http://opus.kobv.de/ubp/volltexte/2010/4118/.

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The present thesis aims to introduce process-based model for species range dynamics that can be fitted to abundance data. For this purpose, the well-studied Proteaceae species of the South African Cape Floristic Region (CFR) offer a great data set to fit process-based models. These species are subject to wildflower harvesting and environmental threats like habitat loss and climate change. The general introduction of this thesis presents shortly the available models for species distribution modelling. Subsequently, it presents the feasibility of process-based modelling. Finally, it introduces the study system as well as the objectives and layout. In Chapter 1, I present the process-based model for range dynamics and a statistical framework to fit it to abundance distribution data. The model has a spatially-explicit demographic submodel (describing dispersal, reproduction, mortality and local extinction) and an observation submodel (describing imperfect detection of individuals). The demographic submodel links species-specific habitat models describing the suitable habitat and process-based demographic models that consider local dynamics and anemochoric seed dispersal between populations. After testing the fitting framework with simulated data, I applied it to eight Proteaceae species with different demographic properties. Moreover, I assess the role of two other demographic mechanisms: positive (Allee effects) and negative density-dependence. Results indicate that Allee effects and overcompensatory local dynamics (including chaotic behaviour) seem to be important for several species. Most parameter estimates quantitatively agreed with independent data. Hence, the presented approach seemed to suit the demand of investigating non-equilibrium scenarios involving wildflower harvesting (Chapter 2) and environmental change (Chapter 3). The Chapter 2 addresses the impacts of wildflower harvesting. The chapter includes a sensitivity analysis over multiple spatial scales and demographic properties (dispersal ability, strength of Allee effects, maximum reproductive rate, adult mortality, local extinction probability and carrying capacity). Subsequently, harvesting effects are investigated on real case study species. Plant response to harvesting showed abrupt threshold behavior. Species with short-distance seed dispersal, strong Allee effects, low maximum reproductive rate, high mortality and high local extinction are most affected by harvesting. Larger spatial scales benefit species response, but the thresholds become sharper. The three case study species supported very low to moderate harvesting rates. Summarizing, demographic knowledge about the study system and careful identification of the spatial scale of interest should guide harvesting assessments and conservation of exploited species. The sensitivity analysis’ results can be used to qualitatively assess harvesting impacts for poorly studied species. I investigated in Chapter 3 the consequences of past habitat loss, future climate change and their interaction on plant response. I use the species-specific estimates of the best model describing local dynamics obtained in Chapter 1. Both habitat loss and climate change had strong negative impacts on species dynamics. Climate change affected mainly range size and range filling due to habitat reductions and shifts combined with low colonization. Habitat loss affected mostly local abundances. The scenario with both habitat loss and climate change was the worst for most species. However, this impact was better than expected by simple summing of separate effects of habitat loss and climate change. This is explained by shifting ranges to areas less affected by humans. Range size response was well predicted by the strength of environmental change, whereas range filling and local abundance responses were better explained by demographic properties. Hence, risk assessments under global change should consider demographic properties. Most surviving populations were restricted to refugia, serving as key conservation focus.The findings obtained for the study system as well as the advantages, limitations and potentials of the model presented here are further discussed in the General Discussion. In summary, the results indicate that 1) process-based demographic models for range dynamics can be fitted to data; 2) demographic processes improve species distribution models; 3) different species are subject to different processes and respond differently to environmental change and exploitation; 4) density regulation type and Allee effects should be considered when investigating range dynamics of species; 5) the consequences of wildflower harvesting, habitat loss and climate change could be disastrous for some species, but impacts vary depending on demographic properties; 6) wildflower harvesting impacts varies over spatial scale; 7) The effects of habitat loss and climate change are not always additive.
Das Ziel dieser Studie bestand daher darin, prozess-basierte Modelle zu entwickeln, die mit Daten zur Abundanz von Arten parametrisiert werden können. Die außergewöhnlich gut erforschten Proteaceen der südafrikanischen Kapregion (CFR), für die ein umfangreicher Datensatz zur Verfügung steht, stellen ein sehr geeignetes Untersuchungssystem zur Erstellung derartiger prozess-basierter Modelle dar. In Kapitel 1 beschreibe ich ein prozess-basiertes Modell für die Verbreitungsdynamik sowie die Methoden zur Parametrisierung des Modells mit Daten zu Abundanzverteilungen. Das Modell umfasst ein räumlich-explizites demographisches Modul und ein Beobachtungsmodul. Das demographische Modul verbindet artspezifische Habitatmodelle, die das geeignete Habitat beschreiben, und prozess-basierte demographische Modelle, die die lokale Dynamik und die Windausbreitung von Samen umfassen. Nach der Überprüfung der Parametrisierungs¬methoden mit simulierten Daten, wende ich die Modelle auf acht Proteaceenarten mit unterschiedlichen demographischen Eigenschaften an. Außerdem untersuche ich die Rolle von positiver (Allee-Effekte) und negativer Dichte-Abhängigkeit. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass Allee-Effekte und überkompensatorische Dynamik für viele Arten tatsächlich eine Rolle spielen. Der Großteil der geschätzten Parameter stimmt quantitativ mit unabhängigen Daten und beschreibt erfolgreich, wie die Abundanzverteilung aus der Bewegung und Interaktion der Individuen entsteht. Die vorgestellten Methoden scheinen daher zur Untersuchung von Ungleichgewichtsszenarien geeignet, die die Ernte von Infloreszenzen in Wildbeständen (Kapitel 2) und Umweltwandel (Kapitel 3) einschließen. In Kapitel 2 untersuche ich die Effekte der Ernte von Infloreszenzen in Wildbeständen. Das Kapitel beinhaltet eine Sensitivitätsanalyse über mehrere räumliche Skalen sowie demographische Eigenschaften. Darauf folgend wurden die Effekte der Ernte anhand von drei realen Arten untersucht. Die Reaktion der Pflanzen auf die Ernte zeigte ein Verhalten mit abrupten Schwellenwerten. Die durch die Ernte am stärksten gefährdeten Arten zeichneten sich durch kurze Samenausbreitungsdistanzen, starke Allee Effekte, geringe maximale Reproduktionsrate, hohe Mortalität und hohe lokale Aussterbewahrscheinlichkeit aus. Die Betrachtung größerer räumlicher Skalen wirkte sich trotz schärferer Grenzwerte positiv auf die Reaktion der Arten aus. Die drei untersuchten realen Arten konnten sehr geringe bis mittlere nachhaltige Ernteraten ertragen. Zusammenfassend lässt sich sagen, dass Kenntnisse über die Demographie des Untersuchungssystems und die umsichtige Identifizierung der zu betrachtenden räumlichen Skala zu einer besseren Einschätzung der Ernteintensität und der Naturschutzziele führen sollten. In Kapitel 3 wird die Reaktion der Arten auf vergangene Habitatverluste und zukünftigen Klimawandel sowie die Interaktion der beiden untersucht. Der Klimawandel wirkte sich dabei vornehmlich negativ auf die Größe des Verbreitungsgebiets und die Ausnutzung des potentiellen Habitats (‚Range Filling’) aus, wobei es zu einer Verschiebung des Habitats ohne erfolgreiche Kolonisierung kam. Der Habitatverlust reduzierte vor allem die lokalen Abundanzen. Die meisten Arten wurden vor allem durch das Szenario mit beiden Klimawandel und Habitatsverlust stark beeinträchtigt. Der negative Effekt war allerdings geringer als nach einer einfachen Aufsummierung der Einzeleffekte zu erwarten wäre. Dies erklärt sich aus einer Verschiebung des Verbreitungsgebiets der Arten in Regionen, in denen es in der Vergangenheit zu geringeren Habitatverlusten kam. Die Größe des Verbreitungsgebiets wurde am besten durch die Stärke des Umweltwandels vorhergesagt, wogegen das Range Filling und die lokalen Abundanzen hauptsächlich von den demographischen Eigenschaften abhingen. Aus diesen Ergebnissen lässt sich schließen, dass Abschätzungen des Aussterbensrisikos unter Umweltwandel demographische Eigenschaften einbeziehen sollten. Die meisten überlebenden Populationen waren auf Refugien reduziert, die im Fokus der Naturschutzmaßnahmen stehen sollten. Zusammenfassend zeigen die Ergebnisse, dass 1) prozess-basierte demographische Modelle für die Verbreitungsdynamik von Arten mit Daten parametrisierbar sind; 2) die Einbeziehung demographischer Prozesse die Modelle für die Verbreitung von Arten verbessert; 3) verschiedene Arten von unterschiedlichen Prozessen beeinflusst werden und unterschiedlich auf Umweltwandel und Beerntung reagieren; 4) Dichteregulierung und Allee-Effekte bei der Untersuchung der Verbreitungsdynamik von Arten berücksichtigt werden sollten; 5) die Ernte von Infloreszenzen in Wildbeständen, sowie Habitatverlust und Klimawandel für manche Arten katastrophale Folgen haben können, deren Effekte aber von den demographischen Eigenschaften abhängen; 6) der Einfluss der Beerntung in Abhängigkeit von der betrachteten räumlichen Skala variiert; 7) die Effekte von Habitatverlust und Klimawandel nicht additiv sind.

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