Articoli di riviste: "Ocean-atmosphere interaction"

1

Buat-Ménard(Bordeaux), P. "Atmosphere-ocean interaction". Journal of Marine Systems 8, n. 1-2 (maggio 1996): 131–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0924-7963(96)90010-x.

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Lifland, Jonathan. "Earth's Climate:The Ocean-Atmosphere Interaction". Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union 85, n. 46 (2004): 486. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2004eo460009.

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3

Derand, Pierre. "Ocean-atmosphere interaction and climate modelling". Atmospheric Research 39, n. 4 (dicembre 1995): 355–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0169-8095(95)90012-8.

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Hughes, Tertia M. C. "Ocean-atmosphere interaction and climate modelling". Dynamics of Atmospheres and Oceans 25, n. 4 (maggio 1997): 273–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0377-0265(95)00464-5.

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5

Tett, Simon. "Ocean-Atmosphere interaction and climate modelling". Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 194, n. 2 (dicembre 1995): 287–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0022-0981(95)90099-3.

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6

Moulin, A., e A. Wirth. "A Drag-Induced Barotropic Instability in Air–Sea Interaction". Journal of Physical Oceanography 44, n. 2 (1 febbraio 2014): 733–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/jpo-d-13-097.1.

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Abstract A new mechanism that induces barotropic instability in the ocean is discussed. It is due to the air–sea interaction with a quadratic drag law and horizontal viscous dissipation in the atmosphere. The authors show that the instability spreads to the atmosphere. The preferred spatial scale of the instability is that of the oceanic baroclinic Rossby radius of deformation. It can only be represented in numerical models, when the dynamics at this scale is resolved in the atmosphere and ocean. The dynamics are studied using two superposed shallow water layers: one for the ocean and one for the atmosphere. The interaction is due to the shear between the two layers. The shear applied to the ocean is calculated using the velocity difference between the ocean and the atmosphere and the quadratic drag law. In one-way interaction, the shear applied to the atmosphere neglects the ocean dynamics; it is calculated using the atmospheric wind only. In two-way interaction, it is opposite to the shear applied to the ocean. In one-way interaction, the atmospheric shear leads to a barotropic instability in the ocean. The instability in the ocean is amplified, in amplitude and scale, in two-way interaction and also triggers an instability in the atmosphere.

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Chelton, Dudley, e Shang-Ping Xie. "Coupled Ocean-Atmosphere Interaction at Oceanic Mesoscales". Oceanography 23, n. 4 (1 dicembre 2010): 52–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.5670/oceanog.2010.05.

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8

Liu, W. Timothy, Xiaosu Xie e Pearn P. Niiler. "Ocean–Atmosphere Interaction over Agulhas Extension Meanders". Journal of Climate 20, n. 23 (1 dicembre 2007): 5784–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/2007jcli1732.1.

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Abstract Many years of high-resolution measurements by a number of space-based sensors and from Lagrangian drifters became available recently and are used to examine the persistent atmospheric imprints of the semipermanent meanders of the Agulhas Extension Current (AEC), where strong surface current and temperature gradients are found. The sea surface temperature (SST) measured by the Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer-Earth Observing System (AMSR-E) and the chlorophyll concentration measured by the Sea-viewing Wide Field-of-view Sensor (SeaWiFS) support the identification of the meanders and related ocean circulation by the drifters. The collocation of high and low magnitudes of equivalent neutral wind (ENW) measured by Quick Scatterometer (QuikSCAT), which is uniquely related to surface stress by definition, illustrates not only the stability dependence of turbulent mixing but also the unique stress measuring capability of the scatterometer. The observed rotation of ENW in opposition to the rotation of the surface current clearly demonstrates that the scatterometer measures stress rather than winds. The clear differences between the distributions of wind and stress and the possible inadequacy of turbulent parameterization affirm the need of surface stress vector measurements, which were not available before the scatterometers. The opposite sign of the stress vorticity to current vorticity implies that the atmosphere spins down the current rotation through momentum transport. Coincident high SST and ENW over the southern extension of the meander enhance evaporation and latent heat flux, which cools the ocean. The atmosphere is found to provide negative feedback to ocean current and temperature gradients. Distribution of ENW convergence implies ascending motion on the downwind side of local SST maxima and descending air on the upwind side and acceleration of surface wind stress over warm water (deceleration over cool water); the convection may escalate the contrast of ENW over warm and cool water set up by the dependence of turbulent mixing on stability; this relation exerts a positive feedback to the ENW–SST relation. The temperature sounding measured by the Atmospheric Infrared Sounder (AIRS) is consistent with the spatial coherence between the cloud-top temperature provided by the International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project (ISCCP) and SST. Thus ocean mesoscale SST anomalies associated with the persistent meanders may have a long-term effect well above the midlatitude atmospheric boundary layer, an observation not addressed in the past.

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Xie, Shang-Ping. "Satellite Observations of Cool Ocean–Atmosphere Interaction". Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 85, n. 2 (1 febbraio 2004): 195–208. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/bams-85-2-195.

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Over most of the World Ocean, sea surface temperature (SST) is below 26°C and atmospheric deep convection rarely takes place. Cool ocean–atmosphere interaction is poorly understood and this lack of understanding is a stumbling block in the current effort to study non-ENSO climate variability. Using new satellite observations, the response of surface wind and low clouds to changes in SST is investigated over cool oceans, where the planetary boundary layer (PBL) is often capped by a temperature inversion. While one-way atmospheric forcing is a major mechanism for basinscale SST variability in the extratropics, clear wind response is detected in regions of strong ocean currents. In particular, SST modulation of vertical momentum mixing emerges as the dominant mechanism for SST-induced wind variability near oceanic fronts around the world, which is characterized by a positive SST–wind speed correlation. Several types of boundary layer cloud response are found, whose correlation with SST varies from positive to negative, depending on the role of surface moisture convergence. Noting that the surface moisture convergence is strongly scale dependent, it is proposed that horizontal scale is important for setting the sign of this SST–cloud correlation. Finally, the processes by which a shallow PBL response might lead to a deep, tropospheric-scale response and the implications for the study of extratropical basin-scale air–sea interaction are discussed.

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10

Fleagle, R. G., N. A. Bond e W. A. Nuss. "Atmosphere-ocean interaction in mid-latitude storms". Meteorology and Atmospheric Physics 38, n. 1-2 (1988): 50–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf01029947.

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11

Mosedale, Timothy J., David B. Stephenson e Matthew Collins. "Atlantic Atmosphere–Ocean Interaction: A Stochastic Climate Model–Based Diagnosis". Journal of Climate 18, n. 7 (1 aprile 2005): 1086–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/jcli-3315.1.

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Abstract A simple linear stochastic climate model of extratropical wintertime ocean–atmosphere coupling is used to diagnose the daily interactions between the ocean and the atmosphere in a fully coupled general circulation model. Monte Carlo simulations with the simple model show that the influence of the ocean on the atmosphere can be difficult to estimate, being biased low even with multiple decades of daily data. Despite this, fitting the simple model to the surface air temperature and sea surface temperature data from the complex general circulation model reveals an ocean-to-atmosphere influence in the northeastern Atlantic. Furthermore, the simple model is used to demonstrate that the ocean in this region greatly enhances the autocorrelation in overlying lower-tropospheric temperatures at lags from a few days to many months.

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12

Renault, Lionel, M. Jeroen Molemaker, James C. McWilliams, Alexander F. Shchepetkin, Florian Lemarié, Dudley Chelton, Serena Illig e Alex Hall. "Modulation of Wind Work by Oceanic Current Interaction with the Atmosphere". Journal of Physical Oceanography 46, n. 6 (giugno 2016): 1685–704. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/jpo-d-15-0232.1.

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AbstractIn this study, uncoupled and coupled ocean–atmosphere simulations are carried out for the California Upwelling System to assess the dynamic ocean–atmosphere interactions, namely, the ocean surface current feedback to the atmosphere. The authors show the current feedback, by modulating the energy transfer from the atmosphere to the ocean, controls the oceanic eddy kinetic energy (EKE). For the first time, it is demonstrated that the current feedback has an effect on the surface stress and a counteracting effect on the wind itself. The current feedback acts as an oceanic eddy killer, reducing by half the surface EKE, and by 27% the depth-integrated EKE. On one hand, it reduces the coastal generation of eddies by weakening the surface stress and hence the nearshore supply of positive wind work (i.e., the work done by the wind on the ocean). On the other hand, by inducing a surface stress curl opposite to the current vorticity, it deflects energy from the geostrophic current into the atmosphere and dampens eddies. The wind response counteracts the surface stress response. It partly reenergizes the ocean in the coastal region and decreases the offshore return of energy to the atmosphere. Eddy statistics confirm the current feedback dampens the eddies and reduces their lifetime, improving the realism of the simulation. Finally, the authors propose an additional energy element in the Lorenz diagram of energy conversion: namely, the current-induced transfer of energy from the ocean to the atmosphere at the eddy scale.

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13

Krakauer, Nir Y., Michael J. Puma, Benjamin I. Cook, Pierre Gentine e Larissa Nazarenko. "Ocean–atmosphere interactions modulate irrigation's climate impacts". Earth System Dynamics 7, n. 4 (10 novembre 2016): 863–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/esd-7-863-2016.

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Abstract. Numerous studies have focused on the local and regional climate effects of irrigated agriculture and other land cover and land use change (LCLUC) phenomena, but there are few studies on the role of ocean–atmosphere interaction in modulating irrigation climate impacts. Here, we compare simulations with and without interactive sea surface temperatures of the equilibrium effect on climate of contemporary (year 2000) irrigation geographic extent and intensity. We find that ocean–atmosphere interaction does impact the magnitude of global-mean and spatially varying climate impacts, greatly increasing their global reach. Local climate effects in the irrigated regions remain broadly similar, while non-local effects, particularly over the oceans, tend to be larger. The interaction amplifies irrigation-driven standing wave patterns in the tropics and midlatitudes in our simulations, approximately doubling the global-mean amplitude of surface temperature changes due to irrigation. The fractions of global area experiencing significant annual-mean surface air temperature and precipitation change also approximately double with ocean–atmosphere interaction. Subject to confirmation with other models, these findings imply that LCLUC is an important contributor to climate change even in remote areas such as the Southern Ocean, and that attribution studies should include interactive oceans and need to consider LCLUC, including irrigation, as a truly global forcing that affects climate and the water cycle over ocean as well as land areas.

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14

Lutjeharms, J. R. E. "The interaction between ocean and atmosphere: a review". Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif vir Natuurwetenskap en Tegnologie 4, n. 3 (18 marzo 1985): 111–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.4102/satnt.v4i3.1041.

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The atmosphere and the ocean may, from a functional point of view, be regarded as forming a coupled entity. They interact on a wide spatial range, from the molecular to the global. The necessity of considering the ocean and the atmosphere as a coupled system is illustrated most effectively if the interaction between them is studied insofar as it affects climate. This is done here by discussing the problem of an increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide, the influence of sea surface temperatures on the weather and the global El Nino/Southern Oscillation phenomenon. In conclusion mention is made of South African research in this connection.

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15

Rogers, David P. "Air-sea interaction: Connecting the ocean and atmosphere". Reviews of Geophysics 33, S2 (luglio 1995): 1377–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/95rg00255.

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16

Frauenfeld, Oliver W., Robert E. Davis e Michael E. Mann. "A Distinctly Interdecadal Signal of Pacific Ocean–Atmosphere Interaction". Journal of Climate 18, n. 11 (1 giugno 2005): 1709–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/jcli3367.1.

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Abstract A new and distinctly interdecadal signal in the climate of the Pacific Ocean has been uncovered by examining the coupled behavior of sea surface temperatures (SSTs) and Northern Hemisphere atmospheric circulation. This interdecadal Pacific signal (IPS) of ocean–atmosphere interaction exhibits a highly statistically significant interdecadal component yet contains little to no interannual (El Niño scale) variability common to other Pacific climate anomaly patterns. The IPS thus represents the only empirically derived, distinctly interdecadal signal of Pacific Ocean SST variability that likely also represents the true interdecadal behavior of the Pacific Ocean–atmosphere system. The residual variability of the Pacific’s leading SST pattern, after removal of the IPS, is highly correlated with El Niño anomalies. This indicates that by simply including an atmospheric component, the leading mode of Pacific SST variability has been decomposed into its interdecadal and interannual patterns. Although the interdecadal signal is unrelated to interannual El Niño variability, the interdecadal ocean–atmosphere variability still seems closely linked to tropical Pacific SSTs. Because prior abrupt changes in Pacific SSTs have been related to anomalies in a variety of physical and biotic parameters throughout the Northern Hemisphere, and because of the persistence of these changes over several decades, isolation of this interdecadal signal in the Pacific Ocean–atmosphere system has potentially important and widespread implications to climate forecasting and climate impact assessment.

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17

Liu, Bin, Huiqing Liu, Lian Xie, Changlong Guan e Dongliang Zhao. "A Coupled Atmosphere–Wave–Ocean Modeling System: Simulation of the Intensity of an Idealized Tropical Cyclone". Monthly Weather Review 139, n. 1 (1 gennaio 2011): 132–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/2010mwr3396.1.

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Abstract A coupled atmosphere–wave–ocean modeling system (CAWOMS) based on the integration of atmosphere–wave, atmosphere–ocean, and wave–current interaction processes is developed. The component models consist of the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model, the Simulating Waves Nearshore (SWAN) model, and the Princeton Ocean Model (POM). The coupling between the model components is implemented by using the Model Coupling Toolkit. The CAWOMS takes into account various wave-related effects, including wave state and sea-spray-affected sea surface roughness, sea spray heat fluxes, and dissipative heating in atmosphere–wave coupling. It also considers oceanic effects such as the feedback of sea surface temperature (SST) cooling and the impact of sea surface current on wind stress in atmosphere–ocean coupling. In addition, wave–current interactions, including radiation stress and wave-induced bottom stress, are also taken into account. The CAWOMS is applied to the simulation of an idealized tropical cyclone (TC) to investigate the effects of atmosphere–wave–ocean coupling on TC intensity. Results show that atmosphere–wave coupling strengthens the TC system, while the thermodynamic coupling between the atmosphere and ocean weakens the TC as a result of the negative feedback of TC-induced SST cooling. The overall effects of atmosphere–wave–ocean coupling on TC intensity are determined by the balance between wave-related positive feedback and the negative feedback attributable to TC-induced SST cooling.

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Huang, Bohua, e J. Shukla. "Ocean–Atmosphere Interactions in the Tropical and Subtropical Atlantic Ocean". Journal of Climate 18, n. 11 (1 giugno 2005): 1652–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/jcli3368.1.

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Abstract A 110-yr simulation is conducted using a specially designed coupled ocean–atmosphere general circulation model that only allows air–sea interaction over the Atlantic Ocean within 30°S–60°N. Since the influence from the Pacific El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) over the Atlantic is removed in this run, it provides a better view of the extratropical influences on the tropical air–sea interaction within the Atlantic sector. The model results are compared with the observations that also have their ENSO components subtracted. The model reproduces the two major anomalous patterns of the sea surface temperature (SST) in the southern subtropical Atlantic (SSA) and the northern tropical Atlantic (NTA) Ocean. The SSA pattern is phase locked to the annual cycle. Its enhancement in austral summer is associated with atmospheric disturbances from the South Atlantic during late austral spring. The extratropical atmospheric disturbances induce anomalous trade winds and surface heat fluxes in its northern flank, which generate SST anomalies in the subtropics during austral summer. The forced SST anomalies then change the local sea level pressure and winds, which in turn affect the northward shift of the atmospheric disturbance and cause further SST changes in the deep Tropics during austral fall. The NTA pattern is significant throughout a year. Like the SSA pattern, the NTA pattern in boreal winter–spring is usually associated with the heat flux change caused by extratropical atmospheric disturbances, such as the North Atlantic Oscillation. The SST anomalies then feed back with the tropical atmosphere and expand equatorward. From summer to fall, however, the NTA SST anomalies are likely to persist within the subtropics for more than one season after it is generated. Our model results suggest that this feature is associated with a local feedback between the NTA SST anomalies and the atmospheric subtropical anticyclone from late boreal summer to early winter. The significance of this potential feedback in reality needs to be further examined with more observational evidence.

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Kumar, Arun, e Jieshun Zhu. "Spatial Variability in Seasonal Prediction Skill of SSTs: Inherent Predictability or Forecast Errors?" Journal of Climate 31, n. 2 (gennaio 2018): 613–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/jcli-d-17-0279.1.

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Seasonal prediction skill of SSTs from coupled models has considerable spatial variations. In the tropics, SST prediction skill in the tropical Pacific clearly exceeds prediction skill over the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. Such skill variations can be due to spatial variations in observing system used for forecast initializations or systematic errors in the seasonal prediction systems, or they could be a consequence of inherent properties of the coupled ocean–atmosphere system leaving a fingerprint on the spatial structure of SST predictability. Out of various alternatives, the spatial variability in SST prediction skill is argued to be a consequence of inherent characteristics of climate system. This inference is supported based on the following analyses. SST prediction skill is higher over the regions where coupled air–sea interactions (or Bjerknes feedback) are inferred to be stronger. Coupled air–sea interactions, and the longer time scales associated with them, imprint longer memory and thereby support higher SST prediction skill. The spatial variability of SST prediction skill is also consistent with differences in the ocean–atmosphere interaction regimes that distinguish between whether ocean drives the atmosphere or atmosphere drives the ocean. Regions of high SST prediction skill generally coincide with regions where ocean forces the atmosphere. Such regimes correspond to regions where oceanic variability is on longer time scales compared to regions where atmosphere forces the ocean. Such regional differences in the spatial characteristics of ocean–atmosphere interactions, in turn, also govern the spatial variations in SST skill, making spatial variations in skill an intrinsic property of the climate system and not an artifact of the observing system or model biases.

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Sizov, A. A., N. V. Mikhailova e T. M. Bayankina. "Large-scale atmospheric–oceanic interaction regimes in the Norwegian and Barents seas". Доклады Академии наук 484, n. 5 (16 maggio 2019): 615–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.31857/s0869-56524845615-618.

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Large-scale atmosphere–ocean interaction in the Atlantic sector of the Arctic Ocean is analized. New studies demonstrate that the variability of Atlantic water inflow into Nordic seas is driven largely by the leading mode of year-to-year variations in the ocean – atmosphere system–the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO). A new vision of the effect of the NAO on the hydrophysical characteristics of the Norwegian and Barents seas is offered.

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Seo, Hyodae, Larry W. O’Neill, Mark A. Bourassa, Arnaud Czaja, Kyla Drushka, James B. Edson, Baylor Fox-Kemper et al. "Ocean Mesoscale and Frontal-Scale Ocean–Atmosphere Interactions and Influence on Large-Scale Climate: A Review". Journal of Climate 36, n. 7 (1 aprile 2023): 1981–2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/jcli-d-21-0982.1.

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Abstract Two decades of high-resolution satellite observations and climate modeling studies have indicated strong ocean–atmosphere coupled feedback mediated by ocean mesoscale processes, including semipermanent and meandrous SST fronts, mesoscale eddies, and filaments. The air–sea exchanges in latent heat, sensible heat, momentum, and carbon dioxide associated with this so-called mesoscale air–sea interaction are robust near the major western boundary currents, Southern Ocean fronts, and equatorial and coastal upwelling zones, but they are also ubiquitous over the global oceans wherever ocean mesoscale processes are active. Current theories, informed by rapidly advancing observational and modeling capabilities, have established the importance of mesoscale and frontal-scale air–sea interaction processes for understanding large-scale ocean circulation, biogeochemistry, and weather and climate variability. However, numerous challenges remain to accurately diagnose, observe, and simulate mesoscale air–sea interaction to quantify its impacts on large-scale processes. This article provides a comprehensive review of key aspects pertinent to mesoscale air–sea interaction, synthesizes current understanding with remaining gaps and uncertainties, and provides recommendations on theoretical, observational, and modeling strategies for future air–sea interaction research. Significance Statement Recent high-resolution satellite observations and climate models have shown a significant impact of coupled ocean–atmosphere interactions mediated by small-scale (mesoscale) ocean processes, including ocean eddies and fronts, on Earth’s climate. Ocean mesoscale-induced spatial temperature and current variability modulate the air–sea exchanges in heat, momentum, and mass (e.g., gases such as water vapor and carbon dioxide), altering coupled boundary layer processes. Studies suggest that skillful simulations and predictions of ocean circulation, biogeochemistry, and weather events and climate variability depend on accurate representation of the eddy-mediated air–sea interaction. However, numerous challenges remain in accurately diagnosing, observing, and simulating mesoscale air–sea interaction to quantify its large-scale impacts. This article synthesizes the latest understanding of mesoscale air–sea interaction, identifies remaining gaps and uncertainties, and provides recommendations on strategies for future ocean–weather–climate research.

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Gilbert, John, e Jonathan Pitt. "A Coupled OpenFOAM-WRF Study on Atmosphere-Wake-Ocean Interaction". Fluids 6, n. 1 (30 dicembre 2020): 12. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/fluids6010012.

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This work aims to better understand how small scale disturbances that are generated at the air-sea interface propagate into the surrounding atmosphere under realistic environmental conditions. To that end, a one-way coupled atmosphere-ocean model is presented, in which predictions of sea surface currents and sea surface temperatures from a microscale ocean model are used as constant boundary conditions in a larger atmospheric model. The coupled model consists of an ocean component implemented while using the open source CFD software OpenFOAM, an atmospheric component solved using the Weather Research and Forecast (WRF) model, and a Python-based utility foamToWRF, which is responsible for mapping field data between the ocean and atmospheric domains. The results are presented for two demonstration cases, which indicate that the proposed coupled model is able to capture the propagation of small scale sea surface disturbances in the atmosphere, although a more thorough study is required in order to properly validate the model.

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Jansen, Malte F., Dietmar Dommenget e Noel Keenlyside. "Tropical Atmosphere–Ocean Interactions in a Conceptual Framework". Journal of Climate 22, n. 3 (1 febbraio 2009): 550–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/2008jcli2243.1.

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Abstract Statistical analysis of observations (including atmospheric reanalysis and forced ocean model simulations) is used to address two questions: First, does an analogous mechanism to that of El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) exist in the equatorial Atlantic or Indian Ocean? Second, does the intrinsic variability in these basins matter for ENSO predictability? These questions are addressed by assessing the existence and strength of the Bjerknes and delayed negative feedbacks in each tropical basin, and by fitting conceptual recharge oscillator models, both with and without interactions among the basins. In the equatorial Atlantic the Bjerknes and delayed negative feedbacks exist, although weaker than in the Pacific. Equatorial Atlantic variability is well described by the recharge oscillator model, with an oscillatory mixed ocean dynamics–sea surface temperature (SST) mode present in boreal spring and summer. The dynamics of the tropical Indian Ocean, however, appear to be quite different: no recharge–discharge mechanism is found. Although a positive Bjerknes-like feedback from July to September is found, the role of heat content seems secondary. Results also show that Indian Ocean interaction with ENSO tends to damp the ENSO oscillation and is responsible for a frequency shift to shorter periods. However, the retrospective forecast skill of the conceptual model is hardly improved by explicitly including Indian Ocean SST. The interaction between ENSO and the equatorial Atlantic variability is weaker. However, a feedback from the Atlantic on ENSO appears to exist, which slightly improves the retrospective forecast skill of the conceptual model.

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Liu, Qinyu, Shu Wu, Jianling Yang, Haibo Hu, Ruijin Hu e Lijuan Li. "A review of ocean-atmosphere interaction studies in China". Advances in Atmospheric Sciences 23, n. 6 (dicembre 2006): 982–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00376-006-0982-5.

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Ciasto, Laura M., e David W. J. Thompson. "North Atlantic Atmosphere–Ocean Interaction on Intraseasonal Time Scales". Journal of Climate 17, n. 8 (aprile 2004): 1617–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/1520-0442(2004)017<1617:naaioi>2.0.co;2.

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S., Kravtsov, e Robertson A. "Midlatitude ocean-atmosphere interaction in an idealized coupled model". Climate Dynamics 19, n. 8 (1 ottobre 2002): 693–711. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00382-002-0256-6.

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Alexander, Michael A. "Midlatitude Atmosphere–Ocean Interaction during El Niño. Part II: The Northern Hemisphere Atmosphere". Journal of Climate 5, n. 9 (settembre 1992): 959–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/1520-0442(1992)005<0959:maiden>2.0.co;2.

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de Szoeke, Simon P., James B. Edson, June R. Marion, Christopher W. Fairall e Ludovic Bariteau. "The MJO and Air–Sea Interaction in TOGA COARE and DYNAMO". Journal of Climate 28, n. 2 (15 gennaio 2015): 597–622. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/jcli-d-14-00477.1.

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Abstract Dynamics of the Madden–Julian Oscillation (DYNAMO) and Tropical Ocean and Global Atmosphere Coupled Ocean–Atmosphere Response Experiment (TOGA COARE) observations and reanalysis-based surface flux products are used to test theories of atmosphere–ocean interaction that explain the Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO). Negative intraseasonal outgoing longwave radiation, indicating deep convective clouds, is in phase with increased surface wind stress, decreased solar heating, and increased surface turbulent heat flux—mostly evaporation—from the ocean to the atmosphere. Net heat flux cools the upper ocean in the convective phase. Sea surface temperature (SST) warms during the suppressed phase, reaching a maximum before the onset of MJO convection. The timing of convection, surface flux, and SST is consistent from the central Indian Ocean (70°E) to the western Pacific Ocean (160°E). Mean surface evaporation observed in TOGA COARE and DYNAMO (110 W m−2) accounts for about half of the moisture supply for the mean precipitation (210 W m−2 for DYNAMO). Precipitation maxima are an order of magnitude larger than evaporation anomalies, requiring moisture convergence in the mean, and on intraseasonal and daily time scales. Column-integrated moisture increases 2 cm before the convectively active phase over the Research Vessel (R/V) Roger Revelle in DYNAMO, in accordance with MJO moisture recharge theory. Local surface evaporation does not significantly recharge the column water budget before convection. As suggested in moisture mode theories, evaporation increases the moist static energy of the column during convection. Rather than simply discharging moisture from the column, the strongest daily precipitation anomalies in the convectively active phase accompany the increasing column moisture.

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Alexander, Michael A. "Midlatitude Atmosphere–Ocean Interaction during El Niño. Part I: The North Pacific Ocean". Journal of Climate 5, n. 9 (settembre 1992): 944–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/1520-0442(1992)005<0944:maiden>2.0.co;2.

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Bishop, Stuart P., R. Justin Small, Frank O. Bryan e Robert A. Tomas. "Scale Dependence of Midlatitude Air–Sea Interaction". Journal of Climate 30, n. 20 (13 settembre 2017): 8207–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/jcli-d-17-0159.1.

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Abstract It has traditionally been thought that midlatitude sea surface temperature (SST) variability is predominantly driven by variations in air–sea surface heat fluxes (SHFs) associated with synoptic weather variability. Here it is shown that in regions marked by the highest climatological SST gradients and SHF loss to the atmosphere, the variability in SST and SHF at monthly and longer time scales is driven by internal ocean processes, termed here “oceanic weather.” This is shown within the context of an energy balance model of coupled air–sea interaction that includes both stochastic forcing for the atmosphere and ocean. The functional form of the lagged correlation between SST and SHF allows us to discriminate between variability that is driven by atmospheric versus oceanic weather. Observations show that the lagged functional relationship of SST–SHF and SST tendency–SHF correlation is indicative of ocean-driven SST variability in the western boundary currents (WBCs) and the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC). By applying spatial and temporal smoothing, thereby dampening the signature SST anomalies generated by eddy stirring, it is shown that the oceanic influence on SST variability increases with time scale but decreases with increasing spatial scale. The scale at which SST variability in the WBCs and the ACC transitions from ocean to atmosphere driven occurs at scales less than 500 km. This transition scale highlights the need to resolve mesoscale eddies in coupled climate models to adequately simulate the variability of air–sea interaction. Away from strong SST fronts the lagged functional relationships are indicative of the traditional paradigm of atmospherically driven SST variability.

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31

Wang, Chuan-Yang, Shang-Ping Xie e Yu Kosaka. "ENSO-Unrelated Variability in Indo–Northwest Pacific Climate: Regional Coupled Ocean–Atmospheric Feedback". Journal of Climate 33, n. 10 (15 maggio 2020): 4095–108. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/jcli-d-19-0426.1.

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AbstractRegional ocean–atmospheric interactions in the summer tropical Indo–northwest Pacific region are investigated using a tropical Pacific Ocean–global atmosphere pacemaker experiment with a coupled ocean–atmospheric model (cPOGA) and a parallel atmosphere model simulation (aPOGA) forced with sea surface temperature (SST) variations from cPOGA. Whereas the ensemble mean features pronounced influences of El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO), the ensemble spread represents internal variability unrelated to ENSO. By comparing the aPOGA and cPOGA, this study examines the effect of the ocean–atmosphere coupling on the ENSO-unrelated variability. In boreal summer, ocean–atmosphere coupling induces local positive feedback to enhance the variance and persistence of the sea level pressure and rainfall variability over the northwest Pacific and likewise induces local negative feedback to suppress the variance and persistence of the sea level pressure and rainfall variability over the north Indian Ocean. Anomalous surface heat fluxes induced by internal atmosphere variability cause SST to change, and SST anomalies feed back onto the atmosphere through atmospheric convection. The local feedback is sensitive to the background winds: positive under the mean easterlies and negative under the mean westerlies. In addition, north Indian Ocean SST anomalies reinforce the low-level anomalous circulation over the northwest Pacific through atmospheric Kelvin waves. This interbasin interaction, along with the local feedback, strengthens both the variance and persistence of atmospheric variability over the northwest Pacific. The response of the regional Indo–northwest Pacific mode to ENSO and influences on the Asian summer monsoon are discussed.

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32

Behera, Swadhin K., Jing Jia Luo, Sebastien Masson, Suryachandra A. Rao, Hirofumi Sakuma e Toshio Yamagata. "A CGCM Study on the Interaction between IOD and ENSO". Journal of Climate 19, n. 9 (1 maggio 2006): 1688–705. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/jcli3797.1.

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Abstract An atmosphere–ocean coupled general circulation model known as the Scale Interaction Experiment Frontier version 1 (SINTEX-F1) model is used to understand the intrinsic variability of the Indian Ocean dipole (IOD). In addition to a globally coupled control experiment, a Pacific decoupled noENSO experiment has been conducted. In the latter, the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) variability is suppressed by decoupling the tropical Pacific Ocean from the atmosphere. The ocean–atmosphere conditions related to the IOD are realistically simulated by both experiments including the characteristic east–west dipole in SST anomalies. This demonstrates that the dipole mode in the Indian Ocean is mainly determined by intrinsic processes within the basin. In the EOF analysis of SST anomalies from the noENSO experiment, the IOD takes the dominant seat instead of the basinwide monopole mode. Even the coupled feedback among anomalies of upper-ocean heat content, SST, wind, and Walker circulation over the Indian Ocean is reproduced. As in the observation, IOD peaks in boreal fall for both model experiments. In the absence of ENSO variability the interannual IOD variability is dominantly biennial. The ENSO variability is found to affect the periodicity, strength, and formation processes of the IOD in years of co-occurrences. The amplitudes of SST anomalies in the western pole of co-occurring IODs are aided by dynamical and thermodynamical modifications related to the ENSO-induced wind variability. Anomalous latent heat flux and vertical heat convergence associated with the modified Walker circulation contribute to the alteration of western anomalies. It is found that 42% of IOD events affected by changes in the Walker circulation are related to the tropical Pacific variabilities including ENSO. The formation is delayed until boreal summer for those IODs, which otherwise form in boreal spring as in the noENSO experiment.

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33

Verma, Tarun, R. Saravanan, P. Chang e S. Mahajan. "Tropical Pacific Ocean Dynamical Response to Short-Term Sulfate Aerosol Forcing". Journal of Climate 32, n. 23 (6 novembre 2019): 8205–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/jcli-d-19-0050.1.

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Abstract The large-scale and long-term climate impacts of anthropogenic sulfate aerosols consist of Northern Hemisphere cooling and a southward shift of the tropical rain belt. On interannual time scales, however, the response to aerosols is localized with a sizable imprint on local ocean–atmosphere interaction. A large concentration of anthropogenic sulfates over Asia may impact ENSO by modifying processes and interactions that generate this coupled ocean–atmosphere variability. Here, we use climate model experiments with different degrees of ocean–atmosphere coupling to study the tropical Pacific response to an abrupt increase in anthropogenic sulfates. These include an atmospheric general circulation model (GCM) coupled to either a full-ocean GCM or a slab-ocean model, or simply forced by climatology of sea surface temperature. Comparing the responses helps differentiate between the fast atmospheric and slow ocean-mediated responses, and highlights the role of ocean–atmosphere coupling in the latter. We demonstrate the link between the Walker circulation and the equatorial Pacific upper-ocean dynamics in response to increased sulfate aerosols. The local surface cooling due to sulfate aerosols emitted over the Asian continent drives atmospheric subsidence over the equatorial west Pacific. The associated anomalous circulation imparts westerly momentum to the underlying Pacific Ocean, leading to an El Niño–like upper-ocean response and a transient warming of the east equatorial Pacific Ocean. The oceanic adjustment eventually contributes to its decay, giving rise to a damped oscillation of the tropical Pacific Ocean in response to abrupt anthropogenic sulfate aerosol forcing.

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34

Kawamura, Ryuichi. "Seasonal Dependency of Atmosphere-Ocean Interaction over the North Pacific". Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan. Ser. II 64, n. 3 (1986): 363–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.2151/jmsj1965.64.3_363.

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35

Wallace, John M., Catherine Smith e Quanrong Jiang. "Spatial Patterns of Atmosphere-Ocean Interaction in the Northern Winter". Journal of Climate 3, n. 9 (settembre 1990): 990–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/1520-0442(1990)003<0990:spoaoi>2.0.co;2.

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36

Kwon, O.-Yul, e Jerald L. Schnoor. "Simple Global Carbon Model: The atmosphere-terrestrial biosphere-ocean interaction". Global Biogeochemical Cycles 8, n. 3 (settembre 1994): 295–305. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/94gb00768.

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37

Anderson, David L. T. "Modelling the Ocean Circulation and its Interaction with the Atmosphere". Interdisciplinary Science Reviews 16, n. 3 (settembre 1991): 233–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1179/isr.1991.16.3.233.

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38

Zhu, Xiaojie, e Jilin Sun. "Positive feedback of winter ocean-atmosphere interaction in Northwest Pacific". Chinese Science Bulletin 51, n. 18 (settembre 2006): 2268–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11434-006-2098-9.

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39

Agarwal, Neeraj, Armin Köhl, Carlos Roberto Mechoso e Detlaf Stammer. "On the Early Response of the Climate System to a Meltwater Input from Greenland". Journal of Climate 27, n. 21 (24 ottobre 2014): 8276–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/jcli-d-13-00762.1.

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Abstract The early response of the atmosphere–ocean system to meltwater runoff originating from the Greenland ice sheet is studied using a coupled atmosphere–ocean general circulation model (AOGCM). For this purpose, AOGCM ensemble simulations without and with associated ocean freshening around Greenland are compared. For freshwater perturbations initiated in northern winter, the mean response for the first three months shows the emergence of negative sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies in the Denmark Strait, in association with enhanced oceanic advection by the East Greenland Current. The response also shows negative SST anomalies in the North Atlantic associated with enhanced westerlies at the ocean surface. Additionally, the baroclinic atmospheric cyclonic circulation east of Greenland intensifies, and anticyclonic circulations with equivalent barotropic structures develop over western Europe and the North Pacific Ocean. Simulations by the atmospheric component of the AOGCM indicate that atmosphere–ocean interactions contribute significantly to enhance the response. The sensitivity of the coupled system response to the timing of freshwater perturbation is also studied. For freshwater perturbations initialized in northern summer, the response during the following winter is similar, but stronger in magnitude. In the Northern Hemisphere, the atmospheric response resembles the Arctic Oscillation (AO) mode of variability. The association between anomalies in the Denmark Strait SSTs and in the atmosphere east of Greenland is consistent with that observed during previous great salinity anomaly (GSA) events. The results obtained highlight the importance of atmosphere–ocean interaction in the early climate response to Greenland melting, the teleconnections with the North Pacific and the contribution of GSA events to North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) variability.

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40

Karnauskas, Kristopher B., Raghu Murtugudde e Antonio J. Busalacchi. "Observing the Galápagos–EUC Interaction: Insights and Challenges". Journal of Physical Oceanography 40, n. 12 (1 dicembre 2010): 2768–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/2010jpo4461.1.

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Abstract Although sustained observations yield a description of the mean equatorial current system from the western Pacific to the eastern terminus of the Tropical Atmosphere Ocean (TAO) array, a comprehensive observational dataset suitable for describing the structure and pathways of the Equatorial Undercurrent (EUC) east of 95°W does not exist and therefore climate models are unconstrained in a region that plays a critical role in ocean–atmosphere coupling. Furthermore, ocean models suggest that the interaction between the EUC and the Galápagos Islands (∼92°W) has a striking effect on the basic state and coupled variability of the tropical Pacific. To this end, the authors interpret historical measurements beginning with those made in conjunction with the discovery of the Pacific EUC in the 1950s, analyze velocity measurements from an equatorial TAO mooring at 85°W, and analyze a new dataset from archived shipboard ADCP measurements. Together, the observations yield a possible composite description of the EUC structure and pathways in the eastern equatorial Pacific that may be useful for model validation and guiding future observation.

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41

Smirnov, Dimitry, Matthew Newman e Michael A. Alexander. "Investigating the Role of Ocean–Atmosphere Coupling in the North Pacific Ocean". Journal of Climate 27, n. 2 (15 gennaio 2014): 592–606. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/jcli-d-13-00123.1.

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Abstract Air–sea interaction over the North Pacific is diagnosed using a simple, local coupled autoregressive model constructed from observed 7-day running-mean sea surface temperature (SST) and 2-m air temperature TA anomalies during the extended winter from the 1° × 1° objectively analyzed air–sea fluxes (OAFlux) dataset. Though the model is constructed from 1-week lag statistics, it successfully reproduces the observed anomaly evolution through lead times of 90 days, allowing an estimation of the relative roles of coupling and internal atmospheric and oceanic forcing upon North Pacific SSTs. It is found that east of the date line, SST variability is maintained by, but has little effect on, TA variability. However, in the Kuroshio–Oyashio confluence and extension region, about half of the SST variability is independent of TA, driven instead by SST noise forcing internal to the ocean. Including surface zonal winds in the analysis does not alter this conclusion, suggesting TA adequately represents the atmosphere. Repeating the analysis with the output of two control simulations from a fully coupled global climate model (GCM) differing only in their ocean resolution yields qualitatively similar results. However, for the simulation employing the coarse-resolution (1°) ocean model, all SST variability depends upon TA, apparently caused by a near absence of ocean-induced noise forcing. Collectively, these results imply that a strong contribution from internal oceanic forcing drives SST variability in the Kuroshio–Oyashio region, which may be used as a justification for atmospheric GCM experiments forced with SST anomalies in that region alone. This conclusion is unaffected by increasing the dimensionality of the model to allow for intrabasin interaction.

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42

Renault, Lionel, James C. McWilliams e Pierrick Penven. "Modulation of the Agulhas Current Retroflection and Leakage by Oceanic Current Interaction with the Atmosphere in Coupled Simulations". Journal of Physical Oceanography 47, n. 8 (agosto 2017): 2077–100. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/jpo-d-16-0168.1.

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AbstractCoupled ocean–atmosphere simulations are carried out for the Mozambique Channel, the Agulhas Current system, and the Benguela upwelling system to assess the ocean surface current feedback to the atmosphere and its impact on the Agulhas Current (AC) retroflection and leakage. Consistent with previous studies, the authors show that the current feedback slows down the oceanic mean circulation and acts as an oceanic eddy killer by modulating the energy transfer between the atmosphere and the ocean, reducing by 25% the mesoscale energy and inducing a pathway of energy transfer from the ocean to the atmosphere. The current feedback, by dampening the eddy kinetic energy (EKE), shifts westward the distribution of the AC retroflection location, reducing the presence of eastern retroflections in the simulations and improving the realism of the AC simulation. By modulating the EKE, the AC retroflection and the Good Hope jet intensity, the current feedback allows a larger AC leakage (by 21%), altering the water masses of the Benguela system. Additionally, the eddy shedding is shifted northward and the Agulhas rings propagate less far north in the Atlantic. The current–wind coupling coefficient sw is not spatially constant: a deeper marine boundary layer induces a weaker sw. Finally the results indicate that the submesoscale currents may also be weakened by the current feedback.

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43

Lan, Yung-Yao, Huang-Hsiung Hsu e Wan-Ling Tseng. "Quantifying the impact of SST feedback frequency on Madden–Julian oscillation simulations". Geoscientific Model Development 17, n. 9 (15 maggio 2024): 3897–918. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-3897-2024.

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Abstract. This study uses the Community Atmosphere Model 5.3 coupled to a 1-D ocean model to investigate the effects of intraseasonal sea surface temperature (SST) feedback frequency on Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO) simulations with intervals at 30 min and 1, 3, 6, 12, 18, 24, and 30 d. The large-scale nature of the MJO in simulations remains intact with decreasing feedback frequency, although it becomes increasingly unrealistic in both structure and amplitude, until 1 per 30 d when the intraseasonal fluctuations are overwhelmingly dominated by unorganized small-scale perturbations in both atmosphere and ocean, as well as at the atmosphere–ocean interface where heat and energy are rigorously exchanged. The main conclusion is that the less frequent the SST feedback, the more unrealistic the simulations. Our results suggest that more spontaneous atmosphere–ocean interaction (e.g., ocean response once every time step to every 3 d in this study) with high vertical resolution in the ocean model is a key to the realistic simulation of the MJO and should be properly implemented in climate models.

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44

van der Vaart, P. C. F., e H. A. Dijkstra. "The nonlinear evolution of unstable coupled equatorial ocean-atmosphere modes". Nonlinear Processes in Geophysics 5, n. 1 (31 marzo 1998): 39–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/npg-5-39-1998.

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Abstract. In this paper we investigate whether observed intraseasonal variability in the equatorial Pacific can be attributed to finite amplitude waves resulting from unstable air-sea interactions. Within a Zebiak - Cane type model of the coupled equatorial ocean - atmosphere, the nonlinear equilibration of instabilities of a simple basic state is considered with periodic conditions on the ocean boundaries. Three mechanisms exist which can induce a finite amplitude equilibration on a time scale ε2t. Here t is the characteristic time scale of growth of the disturbance and ε the relative distance from the instability threshold. For each equilibration mechanism, the finite amplitude and period of the equilibrium state are computed as a function of ε and substantial amplitude can be reached for a reasonable degree of supercriticality. Thereafter the analysis is extended to include time-dependent external forcing. It is shown that interannual variability may result through the interaction of the response of a weak annual external forcing and the finite amplitude development of the intraseasonal instabilities.

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45

Law, Cliff S., Emilie Brévière, Gerrit de Leeuw, Véronique Garçon, Cécile Guieu, David J. Kieber, Stefan Kontradowitz et al. "Evolving research directions in Surface Ocean - Lower Atmosphere (SOLAS) science". Environmental Chemistry 10, n. 1 (2013): 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/en12159.

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Environmental context Understanding the exchange of energy, gases and particles at the ocean–atmosphere interface is critical for the development of robust predictions of, and response to, future climate change. The international Surface Ocean–Lower Atmosphere Study (SOLAS) coordinates multi-disciplinary ocean–atmosphere research projects that quantify and characterise this exchange. This article details five new SOLAS research strategies – upwellings and associated oxygen minimum zones, sea ice, marine aerosols, atmospheric nutrient supply and ship emissions – that aim to improve knowledge in these critical areas. Abstract This review focuses on critical issues in ocean–atmosphere exchange that will be addressed by new research strategies developed by the international Surface Ocean–Lower Atmosphere Study (SOLAS) research community. Eastern boundary upwelling systems are important sites for CO2 and trace gas emission to the atmosphere, and the proposed research will examine how heterotrophic processes in the underlying oxygen-deficient waters interact with the climate system. The second regional research focus will examine the role of sea-ice biogeochemistry and its interaction with atmospheric chemistry. Marine aerosols are the focus of a research theme directed at understanding the processes that determine their abundance, chemistry and radiative properties. A further area of aerosol-related research examines atmospheric nutrient deposition in the surface ocean, and how differences in origin, atmospheric processing and composition influence surface ocean biogeochemistry. Ship emissions are an increasing source of aerosols, nutrients and toxins to the atmosphere and ocean surface, and an emerging area of research will examine their effect on ocean biogeochemistry and atmospheric chemistry. The primary role of SOLAS is to coordinate coupled multi-disciplinary research within research strategies that address these issues, to achieve robust representation of critical ocean–atmosphere exchange processes in Earth System models.

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46

Wu, Lichuan, Øyvind Breivik e Anna Rutgersson. "Ocean‐Wave‐Atmosphere Interaction Processes in a Fully Coupled Modeling System". Journal of Advances in Modeling Earth Systems 11, n. 11 (novembre 2019): 3852–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2019ms001761.

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47

Ciasto, Laura M., e David W. J. Thompson. "Observations of Large-Scale Ocean–Atmosphere Interaction in the Southern Hemisphere". Journal of Climate 21, n. 6 (15 marzo 2008): 1244–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/2007jcli1809.1.

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Abstract The authors provide a detailed examination of observed ocean–atmosphere interaction in the Southern Hemisphere (SH). Focus is placed on the observed relationships between variability in SH extratropical sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies, the Southern Annular Mode (SAM), and the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO). Results are examined separately for the warm (November–April) and cold (May–October) seasons and for monthly and weekly time scales. It is shown that the signatures of the SAM and ENSO in the SH SST field vary as a function of season, both in terms of their amplitudes and structures. The role of surface turbulent and Ekman heat fluxes in driving seasonal variations in the SAM- and ENSO-related SST anomalies is investigated. Analyses of weekly data reveal that variability in the SAM tends to precede anomalies in the SST field by ∼1 week, and that the e-folding time scale of the SAM-related SST field anomalies is at least 4 months. The persistence of the SAM-related SST anomalies is consistent with the passive thermal response of the Southern Ocean to variations in the SAM, and seasonal variations in the persistence of the SAM-related SST anomalies are consistent with the seasonal cycle in the depth of the ocean mixed layer.

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48

Caraka, Rezzy Eko, Budi Darmawan Supatmanto, Muhammad Tahmid, Joko Soebagyo, M. Ali Mauludin, Akbar Iskandar e Bens Pardamean. "Rainfall forecasting using PSPline and rice production with ocean-atmosphere interaction". IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 195 (14 dicembre 2018): 012064. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/195/1/012064.

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49

Bhatt, Uma S., Michael A. Alexander, David S. Battisti, David D. Houghton e Linda M. Keller. "Atmosphere–Ocean Interaction in the North Atlantic: Near-Surface Climate Variability". Journal of Climate 11, n. 7 (luglio 1998): 1615–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/1520-0442(1998)011<1615:aoiitn>2.0.co;2.

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50

Zhang, Yuan, Joel R. Norris e John M. Wallace. "Seasonality of Large-Scale Atmosphere–Ocean Interaction over the North Pacific". Journal of Climate 11, n. 10 (ottobre 1998): 2473–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/1520-0442(1998)011<2473:solsao>2.0.co;2.

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