Letteratura scientifica selezionata sul tema "Obligation verte"

Shah Wali Allah al-Dehlawi asserted that the term “amanah” in verse 72-73 of al-Ahzab, implies taklif (Imposition of Divine Obligation) on the human being. He explained that taklif constitutes three important elements namely, imposing Divine obligations, option to obey and disobey, and reward and punishment. All creations (makhluqat) of Almighty Allah is bound by a set of laws by the Creator, but these three elements draw a line of distinction between them and the humans. In order to argue this as a wisdom behind taklif, al-Dehlawi presented two types of arguments, revealed arguments (dalil naqli) and rational argument (dalil ‘aqli). In this academic note (part 1), we are covering the first argument. Keywords: Amanah (trust), Hujjat Allah al-Balighah, Shah Wali Allah al-Dehlawi, taklif (Divine Obligation), mukallaf.

If the divorce is granted by the court, it will have consequences as contained in Islamic Law Compilation (149), one of which is regarding the obligation to provide. However, in reality, the community thinks that the obligations at home also end, resulting in the rights of the wife not being fulfilled, as happened in the people of Panaguan village. This article aims to explain the factors causing the fulfillment of iddah income after divorce as well as a review of hadiths regarding the obligations of post-divorce maintennace of iddah. This research includes empirical or field research with a case study approach using qualitative research methods. Primary data sources were obtained through interviews, while secondary data was sourced from literature review. Research result are; (1) Implementation of post-divorce iddah maintenance in Panaguan village was not realized properly because many ex-wives did not get the right to iddah maintenance due to a lack of knowledge of the religious community regarding post-divorce living, lack of legal understanding of post-divorce rights, intentional factors, divorce out of court, as well as community customs. (2) In reviewing the hadiths, the obligation to support iddah has previously been regulated in the Qur’an in QS. at-Thalaq verse 6 and reinforced by a hadith narrated by an-Nasa’i in the book of Sunan al-Nasa’i. Additionally, QS. al-Baqarah verse 241 is reinforced in by hadith narrated by Ibn Majah in the book Bulg al-Marm min Adillatil Ahkm and is found in the hadith narrated by Muslim as well as in the same book.

Depuis une dizaine d’années, la littérature académique s’est penchée sur l’écologisation de l’action publique locale. Cet article la questionne en l’abordant par les dispositifs financiers qui doivent la rendre théoriquement possible et plus spécifiquement par les espoirs que portent les acteurs locaux dans la finance durable. En analysant le circuit de financement d’une émission obligataire durable régionale, il montre que, si ce dispositif aboutit à sensibiliser les acteurs politico-administratifs aux enjeux environnementaux, il échoue à écologiser en profondeur la fabrique et le déploiement de l’action publique régionale.

The construction of formulations that the Qur'an offers as a basic source of Islamic teachings on the ethical-religious format in the context of worship as the embodiment of the obligation of morality towards God is explicitly reflected in various formulations. The Qur'an in this context affirms among other obligations that must be embraced by human beings in relation to God, which is a command to always be grateful for the various blessings given by Allah, since he was born from the mother's belly in the state of not knowing anything, Until Allah created various facilities that can be used in everyday life. Another thing that is also explained in the verse is the command that man can run various guidance and guidance of religion properly and correctly and follow the religion that He approves.

The word kutiba in the Qur'an which means obligation is used 4 times. One of them is the obligation to carry out fasting. The purpose of this study is to describe the meaning of the word kutiba contained in QS 2: 183-185. This type of research is qualitative research using the Descriptive method of analysis. The instruments used in this research are the researchers themselves and are assisted by documentation studies. The source of data in this study is QS 2, 183-185. Data analysis is carried out in the following way. First, syntagmatic analysis and paradigmatic analysis. Second, interpret the results of syntagmatic and paradigmatic analysis. Third, find weltanschaung. The results showed the following. (1) In Q.S 2:183, the word kutiba means obligation (furidha). (2) The word kutiba which means obligation has a characteristic, namely an obligation or duty that is not liked and the obligation is delivered in a loud tone. (3) QS 2:184 and 185 were revealed not to inform that believers may not fast if they are sick or travel long distances. However, the verse was revealed as an affirmation of the importance of the obligation to fast in Ramadan, so the sentence is repeated twice in succession. (4) Wa an taṣụmụ khairul lakum ing kuntum ta'lamụn (2:184) means and fasting is better for you if you know. So it can be concluded that the obligation to fast in Ramadan is an obligation that must be done by believers under any circumstances. Fasting in Ramadan is better if you understand it.

Zakat one of the pillars of Islam which in the Qur'an accompanies the verse with the command to pray. Zakat must be carried out for Muslims who are able and given by Allah SWT excess wealth. Including zakat that must be issued is zakat on rice and oil palm plants. In fact, the people of Tanjung Keriahan Village, Binjai District, Langkat Regency do not carry out zakat on rice and oil palm crops. This is due to their ignorance of zakat obligations and their ignorance of how to pay zakat on rice and oil palm crops. Therefore, it is necessary to educate the public about its implementation so that they know the obligation to pay zakat, especially rice and oil palm plants. And also benefits for people who are entitled to receive zakat. In order to create a prosperous and harmonious life.

Birr al walidayn education is one of the most important factors in ideal character education. The creation of a generation that has good character is a dream for parents to their children. Birr al walidayn education is very influential on adab to parents. In the Qur'an, Allah SWT. has explained many verses related to Birr al walidayn. Allah tells the story of a mother's struggle so that a child can know the struggle of a mother so that she can repay him by being kind to him and not being disobedient to him, even if one of them is not to say "ah" which has been explained in Surah al-Isra verse 23. verse 23, there are several prohibitions in the words of Uffin, prohibition of shouting with harsh words, saying with noble words. The Qur'an and the Sunnah emphasize Birr al walidayn as an obligation. The rights and obligations of respecting, obeying and doing good to both parents are not only because both of them are a factor in their existence or because both of them first did good deeds to them so that they are obliged to repay them equally, but because Allah Himself obliges them to obey them This explains how much Islamic concern for both parents.

Birrul Walidain education is one of the most important factors in ideal character education. The creation of a generation that has good character is a dream for parents to their children. Birrul walidain education is very influential on adab to parents. In the Qur'an, Allah SWT has explained many verses related to Birrul Walidain. Allah tells the story of a mother's struggle so that a child can know the struggle of a mother so that she can repay him by being kind to him and not being disobedient to him, even if one of them is not to say "ah" which has been explained in Surah al-Isra verse 23. Verse 23, there are several prohibitions in the words of Uffin, prohibition of shouting with harsh words, saying with noble words. The Qur'an and the Sunnah emphasize Birrul Walidain as an obligation. The rights and obligations of respecting, obeying and doing good to both parents are not only because both of them are a factor in their existence or because both of them first did good deeds to them so that they are obliged to repay them equally, but because Allah Himself obliges them to obey them This explains how much Islamic concern for both parents.

<p>Shares is a proof that states a person has part in limited company (PT). Shareholder has right of profit that is generated by company. Bonds is long-term debt securities that gives reward periodically and will be refund of principal at maturity. The obligation of zakat on shares and bonds is based on the obligation of zakat on wealth and trade which is said in the Qur'an Surah al-Baqarah verse 267, the obligation of zakat stocks and bonds is about 2.5%.</p>

Résumé en français non communiqué par l'auteur
Firms are facing increasing expectations to address environmental issues, yet the conflicting goals of shareholder value-maximization and the costs of pollution prevention present significant challenges. This thesis explores two potential solutions: the long-term benefits of firms' early adoption of green practices and the preference of investors for green firms.The first chapter studies the long-term benefits that early adopters of green practices can obtain. Specifically, it investigates the impact of heightened enforcement of air pollution abatement regulations by local governments on the financial performance of Chinese listed firms. Using a two-stage least squares methodology, the study analyzes the impact of increased pollution control actions resulting from the transfer of monitoring station control rights from local governments to the central government. It compares the profitability of firms that implemented green practices early with those that did not. The findings reveal that firms with early green actions experience an increase in profitability, primarily attributed to reduced financial expenses. To further examine whether firms with early green actions can effectively manage and smooth the transition costs associated with adopting green practices in the initial years, the performances of firms with and without early green actions is tracked over time. The study discovers that their performances are similar until local governments intensify their enforcement efforts, and firms with early green actions outperform afterwards. The second chapter examines how stock and bond investors perceive firms' green status. Leveraging the Climate Bonds Initiative's three-tier verification system for green bonds, the study disentangles the influence of a company's green status and its issuance of green bonds. The analysis reveals that stock investors value a company's green status. The status is released to the market when a firm's green bond framework is verified or when it issues its first green bond if the framework is not verified. However, bond investors solely value certified green bonds and do not have a preference for other green bonds or conventional bonds issued by green firms. The third chapter investigates the growing trend of passive investors and their voting behavior during annual general meetings, aiming to shed light on their potential influence on green practices. While passive funds lack internal incentives to intervene in governance, external incentives from the same fund family's active funds may play a significant role. The study explores how active funds adjust their holdings based on passive funds' positions and how this affects voting patterns. Results show that active funds’ portfolios are affected by inflows of passive funds, while their own inflows do not have an impact. Moreover, when the product of passive and active funds’ ownership from the same fund family increases due to inflows of passive funds, both passive and active funds are more likely to vote against ISS recommendations.In summary, this thesis emphasizes the outperformance of firms with early green actions and highlights stock investors' preference for firms' green status. The findings contribute to the adoption of green practices in corporate decision-making

Cette thèse porte sur le marché des obligations vertes et les motivations qui poussent les entreprises à émettre cette nouvelle forme d’instruments financiers. Trois grandes hypothèses ont été émises pour expliquer les motivations des émetteurs d’obligations vertes. Selon la première hypothèse appelée « création de valeur à long-terme », les émetteurs d’obligations vertes cherchent à créer de la valeur actionnariale en investissant dans des technologies vertes. Selon la seconde hypothèse appelée « délégation de philanthropie », une entreprise émet une obligation verte pour répondre à la pression de ses parties prenantes. Selon la dernière hypothèse appelée « problèmes d’agence », un manager d’entreprise émettrice d’obligations vertes chercherait à servir ses intérêts propres plutôt que ceux de l’entreprise. Cette thèse vise à tester ces hypothèses par le biais de trois articles empiriques et d’un article de synthèse situé en annexe
This thesis topic is the green bond market and the incentives pushing firms into issuing this new type of security. Three key hypotheses were stated to explain the motive for a firm to issue a green bond. The first hypothesis (“long-term value creation”) asserts green bond issuers invest in green technologies to generate long-term value. The second hypothesis (“delegated philanthropy”), professes stakeholder pressure engenders the fundamental reason for a firm to issue green bonds. The third hypothesis (“agency view”) contends that managers of green bond issuing firms serve their own objectives. This thesis aims at testing these hypotheses through three empirical articles and a synthesis article added in the appendix

L'agréation de la livraison est la reconnaissance par l'acheteur du caractère satisfaisant de la prestation du vendeur. Une comparaison du C. Civ. Avec la CVIM, les droits européens et communautaire, les principes LANDO et UNIDROIT, montre la renaissance d'un droit commun. Les manifestations de l'agréation dévoilent son unité. Son objet spécifique fixe son processus. L'agréation implique le contrôle de la livraison et l'absence de refus. L'effet de l'agréation conditionne les recours de l'acheteur pour toute la livraison. Cela permet une relecture du C. Civ. Avant de transposer la directive du 25 mai 1999, une remise en ordre de l'engagement du vendeur et des délais impartis à l'acheteur. La qualification de l'agréation révèle sa complexité. L'agréation probatoire de l'exécution reste une reconnaissance du paiement. L'agréation libératoire de l'obligation devient un substitut du paiement, renonciation ou déchéance, distinctes de l'atteinte aux remèdes et de la prescription extinctive.

Les obligations du vendeur constituent la phase essentielle d'exécution du contrat de vente inernationale. L'ampleur dees problèmes et des litiges liés à cette exécution est à la mesure de leur dimension internationale. Afin de remédier à ces problèmes spécifiques, la Commission des Nations Unies pour le droit commercial international a, le 11 avril 1980, adopté la Convention de Vienne sur les contrats de vente internationale de marchandises. Partie intégrante du droit français, il convient de distinguer le droit des ventes internes régi par le Code civil et le droit des ventes internationales régi par la Convention de Vienne. S'agissant des obligations du vendeur, la Convention de Vienne se veut implificatrice, en mettant à sa charge une obligation de livrer la marchandise et une obligation de conformité de cette dernière. L'obligation de livraison n'apporte pas de commentaires particuliers. L'obligation de conformité, innovation majeure de la Convention, doit, en revanche, retenir l'attention du juriste. La convention ne reprend pas les distinctions traditionnelles : obligation de délivrance/garantie, vice caché/non-conformité, sources de complications, de confusions et d'insécurité juridique. Elle adopte un concept unique de défaut de conformité (confondant conformité et vice caché) et unifie les recours à la disposition de l'acheteur insatisdait, quelle que soit la nature de l'inexécution. Enfin, cette obligation de conformité s'apprécie matériellement mais également juridiquement. Le vendeur exécute son obligation de conformité, si la marchandise livrée est libre de tous droits et prétentions d'un tiers, y compris de ceux fondés sur un droit de propriété intellectuelle. La prise en compte des droits de propriété intellectuelle dans la conformité juridique est également inédite. Comparativement, la garantie des vices cachés et la garantie d'éviction du Code civil français paraissent déssuètes, inadaptées à l'économie moderne et à sa mondialisation. De nombreux juristes souhaitent une réforme du droit des ventes internes s'inspirant de la Convention de Vienne.

Le droit positif français est particulièrement incohérent relativement à la détermination du prix dans les contrats de distribution. La jurisprudence est très difficile à analyser et à justifier. Et, en cas d'indeterminabilité, elle applique une sanction dévastatrice, tirée de la nullité de l'ensemble contractuel, alors que l'indétermination du prix n'est souvent qu'un prétexte pour des distributeurs désireux de se départir d'une relation contractuelle dont ils ont épuisé tous les avantages. Pourtant, bien que la disposition textuelle essentielle soit, en ce domaine, l'article 1129, alinéa 2, du Code civil, exigeant que l'objet, notamment pécuniaire, soit déterminé ou déterminable, ce texte permet une solution pour réduire les difficultés. Il autorise que les parties au contrat cadre de distribution décident librement que l'une d'elles, le fournisseur, créancier du prix, fixera unilatéralement le prix des marchandises livrées en exécution de l'accord initial. Afin d'éviter les abus de la détermination de l'objet pécuniaire, le fournisseur devra exercer son pouvoir de bonne foi, sous le contrôle du juge. Ce dernier pourra aussi utiliser, comme élément de contrôle, le droit de la concurrence, interne et européen, particulièrement le concept de dépendance économique. La sanction du créancier, abusant de son pouvoir, n'est plus la nullité mais une condamnation à. .
French substantive law is particularly incoherent regarding the determination of the price in delivery contracts. Jurisprudence is very difficult to analyse and justify. And, in case the price cannot be determined, it imposes a devastating sanction, which results from the nullity of the contractual whole, whereas the indetermination of the price often is just pretence for distributors who are willing to swerve from a contractual relationship, from which they no longer take any advantage. However, although the main textual provisions in this case are the section 1129, paragraph 2, of the code of civil law, which requires that the purpose, in particular the pecuniary one, must be determinate or determinable, this text allows a solution in order to reduce difficulties. It authorises the parties of the delivery contract to decide freely that one of them, the supplier, the creditor for the price, will unilaterally state the price for the delivered merchandise as an execution of the initial agreement. In order to avoid abuses during the determination of the pecuniary object, the supplier will have to practise his bona fide power, under control of the judge. The latter will also be able to use, as a mean of control, domestic and. .

La vente immobilière est devenue un contrat de méfiance où s’entrechoquent différents droits et obligations. Ce sont les droits du vendeur contre ceux de l’acquéreur voire des tiers comme les occupants du bien. Face à cette crise de confiance, les enjeux moraux de ce contrat présentent un réel intérêt surtout au regard de la moralisation de la vente d’immeuble par l’action combinée du législateur et du juge. Ces derniers vont s’intéresser au bien des contractants dépassant ainsi le domaine strict du droit. En effet, la morale est évaluée selon des critères d’appréciation de bien ou de mal alors que la justice procède à son évaluation sur la base de critère de juste ou d’injuste. Le droit, objet de la justice, concerne « le juste rapport des biens et des choses réparties entre citoyens ». Le bien consistant « dans une juste mesure, un point d’équilibre où se réalise l’harmonie du tout et de ses parties », le domaine de l’étude concerne tout aussi bien l’équilibre du contrat de vente immobilière que la conduite des acteurs du contrat
The real estate sale has become a contract of distrust. In this contract, various rights and obligations conflict. Specifically, there are seller’s rights versus purchaser’s rights or third party rights like that of the property’s occupant. In the face of this crisis of trust, the moral stakes of this contract raise great interest, in particular regarding the moralization of real estate sale by the combined action of the legislature and judges. They are interested in the good of all contracting parties where the mere domain of law is exceeded. Indeed, in terms of morality, an action is evaluated according criteria of right and wrong, whereas, in terms of justice, an action is evaluated according criteria of fair and unfair. Law, which is based on justice, concerns « the fair balance of assets sharing between citizens ». The good consists of « an equilibrium where harmony among all parties is realized by a fair measure ». The subject of this thesis is about balance between the contract of real estate sale and the behavior of contract players

Le droit commun de la vente, caractérisé par l’effet immédiat du transfert de propriété dès la rencontre des consentements s’est avéré une source de difficultés en matière immobilière au XIXème siècle. Cette simplicité excessive qui rend le transfert de propriété instantané et occulte heurte la réalité et les difficultés inhérentes aux mutations immobilières. Le recours à de nombreuses exceptions dans le Code civil de 1804 a rendu l’économie générale du transfert illisible pour les praticiens, la sécurité des transmissions immobilières nécessitant de reconstituer un instrument de preuve efficace. Si l’opération de transfert réside dans une conception volontariste en se focalisant sur la formation du contrat par une dématérialisation de l’obligation de donner, son efficacité reste tributaire d’aménagements contractuels et de formalités postérieures au contrat. Cette refondation qui se fera sur la notion d’authenticité et qui érige un contrôle de légalité incarné par le notaire aura pour avantage de préserver la fiction consensuelle et de repousser tout schéma dualiste comme les livres fonciers considérés par une majorité de la doctrine française comme contraire à l’esprit du droit français
Common Sales Law , characterized by the immediate effect of the transfer of ownership from the meeting consents has been a source of difficulties in real estate in the nineteenth century. This excessive simplicity that makes transferring ownership instant hits and occult reality and the difficulties inherent in immovables . The use of many exceptions in the Civil Code of 1804 has made the general economy unreadable transfer practitioners , security estate transmissions requiring reconstitute an effective instrument of evidence. If the transfer operation lies in a deliberate design by focusing on the formation of the contract by a dematerialization of the obligation to give, its effectiveness is dependent on contractual arrangements and post- contract formalities . This overhaul will be done on the notion of authenticity and erects a review of legality embodied by the notary will have the advantage of preserving the consensus fiction and repel any scheme as dualistic land books considered by a majority of the French doctrine as contrary the spirit of French law

Les problèmes de domination (dominant, dominant indépendant, ...) et de couverture (vertex-cover, arbre de Steiner, ...) sont NP-complets. Pour autant, pour la plupart de ces problèmes, il existe toujours une solution constructible en temps polynomial (potentiellement de valeur objective très mauvaise), ou au moins, il est possible de déterminer facilement (en temps polynomial) l'existence ou non d'une solution. Ces problèmes, initialement issus de situations réelles, sont des modélisations simplistes de ces situations. Nous ajoutons donc des contraintes additionnelles modélisant des contraintes pratiques plausibles : les conflits, des paires d'éléments ne pouvant faire simultanément partie d'une solution (modélisant des incompatibilités diverses), la connexité dans un second graphe (les éléments doivent pouvoir communiquer, et le graphe correspondant à ces liens de communication n'est pas forcément le même) et les obligations, des sous-ensembles d'éléments interdépendants devant être ajoutés simultanément à une solution. Notre but ici n'est pas de modéliser un problème réel précis, mais d'étudier la manière dont ces contraintes modifient la complexité des problèmes étudiés. Nous verrons que dans un grand nombre de cas, déterminer l'existence même d'une solution devient difficile, même sans se préoccuper de leur optimisation. Le problème du firefighter modélise des pompiers tentant de contenir un feu se propageant au tour par tour dans un graphe (potentiellement infini). Nous avons étudié ce problème en ajoutant des contraintes sur le déplacement des pompiers (une vitesse de déplacement limitée entre deux tours). Nous verrons que ces contraintes augmentent en général le nombre de pompiers nécessaires mais ne provoquent pas de changements aussi importants que dans les problèmes précédents
Domination problems (dominating set, independant dominating set, ...) as well as covering problems (vertex-cover, Steiner tree, ...) are NP-complete. However, for most of these problems, it is always possible to construct a (eventually bad) solution in polynomial time, or at least it is possible to determine whether a solution exists. Those problems originally came from industry, but are simplified modelizations of the real life problems. We add additional constraints modeling plausible practical constraints : conflicts which are pairs of elements that cannot apear simultaneously in a solution (to modelize various incompatibilities), connexity in a second graph (elements of the solution must be able to communicate, and the communication links are a second graph), and obligations which are subsets of interdependant vertices which must be added simultaneously in a solution.We don't aim to model a specific real-world problem, but to study how these plausible constraints affect the complexity of the studied problems. We will see that, in many cases, even determining the existence of a solution (regardless of its size) become hard. The firefighter problem models firefighters aiming to contain a fire spreading turn by turn in a (eventually infinite) graph. We studied this problem with the addition of deplacement constraints for the firefighters (a limited moving speed between turns). We will see that, most of the time, this constraint increase the number of firefighters necessary to contain the fire, but does not trigger such major change as constraints studied in the others problems

Reproduction de : Thèse de doctorat : Droit : Lyon 3 : 2001. Reproduction de : Thèse de doctorat : Droit : Université de Lausanne : 2001.
Thèse soutenue en co-tutelle. Titre provenant de l'écran-titre. Bibliogr. Index.

Comparativement à l'affection des auteurs pour une obligation voisine - la garantie des vices cachés - la garantie d'éviction dans la vente semble un thème plutôt désuet à l'aube de la naissance de l’Europe ; pourtant, l'ouverture tout proche de nos frontières donne à ce sujet un relief particulier. Cette obligation, incorporée au contrat à l'époque romaine, ne s'avère plus aujourd'hui réellement justifiée en tant que telle en raison de facteurs multiples tenant à l'économie même de notre droit interne de la vente et à la profonde nécessité d'assumer au consommateur une protection efficace et juste. En effet, triturée pour s'adapter à des situations qui outrepassent les limites traditionnelles de sa compétence, la garantie d'éviction connait actuellement une crise d'individualité et ses récentes applications, dans le domaine des ventes commerciales notamment, ne risquent pas d'infirmer ce constat. En tout cas de sa corrélation avec le droit commun des contrats et ses différents recours, on arrive à déduire la possible réparation du préjudice subi par un acquéreur dépossédé de son bien, autrement que par un régime d'exception dérogatoire aux règles régissant l'inaccomplissement des obligations qui incombent au vendeur. Alors, rassemblées sous la houlette d'un droit international fort de la concrétisation de ses propres aspirations à l'unification par la convention de Vienne du 11 avril 1980, applicable en France depuis le 1er janvier 1988, la garantie d'éviction et les sanctions de l'inexécution, enfin fusionnées, pourront engendrer une action en non-conformité juridique du produit vendu, apte désormais à prendre avantageusement la relève si le législateur français le permet
By comparison with authors "liking for a closely related obligation - the implied warranty against hidden defects - the implied warranty against dispossession in contracts of sale seems rather quaint in view of the forthcoming birth a unified europe ; yet, this subject is being brought into prominence by the impending single market. This covenant, incorporated in contracts of sale in roman times, shows itself nowadays no longer to be justified as such, on account of several factors inherent in the very organization of the French law on contracts of sale, and in the profound need to ensure effective and equitable protection for the consumer. In fact, coerced as it has been, into fitting into situations beyond its traditional scope, the very existence of the implied warranty against dispossession in brought into question, and its recent adaptation to the sphere of commercial sales are far from being at variance with this state of affairs. In any event, its correlation with the ordinary contracts law and its various remedies, shows us that protection from the non-performance of the vendor's covenants, is available to the dispossessed purchaser by other means than this system, out with the normal rules against such non-performance. Thus, with the spur of international law encouraged by the unification effected by the Vienna convention. In force in France since january 1,1988, the implied warrenty against dispossession and the sanctions against non-performance can at last combine to give birth to a single night of action arising from: failure of the object of the sale to comply with legal implied warranties, able to take over from pre-existing remedies if the French legislateur sees fit

This chapter covers the period 4500 BCE to 300 CE. The royal obligation to protect the poor, the widow, and the orphan existed from the 4th millennium in the ancient Near East, Asia Minor, and Egypt. This expectation appears in the scriptures of the nomadic and monotheistic Hebrew people, who added ‘the stranger’ (or alien) to the groups that should be protected. These Hebrew scriptures formed the context for Christian scriptures which were codified in the 4th century CE. Early Christians held property in common and esteemed charity, good works, and caring for widows and orphans in their communities. These values are recorded in the gospels and epistles of what became the New Testament. A verse from one of these epistles (2 Thess. 3:10) reads ‘Anyone unwilling to work should not eat’. While this verse was intended to inspire people to continue to live their usual lives until the unpredictable return of Jesus, it became a way to differentiate the worthy from the unworthy poor for the next 2000 years.

The article traces how the theories of folk poetry were formed in poetry studies in the 18 th – early 19 th centuries, which had a direct or indirect impact on Belarusian poetry studies. As a starting point, ancient ideas about poetry as hierarchy of levels: accent-syllabic, where syllables are united in feet, and intonational-phrasal, where colons are organised in periods, are studied. On this background individual judgments and treatises of V. K. Trediakovsky, who was the first to implement antic metrics for Russian folklore interpretation, of N. A. Lvov, who proposed the metrics of wider scale (Russian mode), of A. Kh. Vostokov, the founder of scientific exploring of folklore verse, who replaced into theory the colon (‘prosodic period’) rejected by Trediakovsky, and who discovered the law of expiratory accents which defines the laws of metrics, by D. P. Samsonov, who marked the consistent patterns of the alternation of ictuses of different power, by D. N. Dubensky, who used different metric scales for the same text, by A. M. Kubarev who discovered the obligation of constant and prohibition of re-accentuation as well as invariant (‘musical’) and variant (‘prosaic’) stress, are analyzed and collated. It is noted which laws, structural elements and levels of the verse were taken or not taken into account by these or those theoreticians and in what way the theories complemented each other. In conclusion, the author compares the attitude of the authors of the treatises to the law of accents distancing.

This chapter examines the Karaite synagogue poets. The Karaites, a Jewish sect originating in the first half of the eighth century, are distinctive mainly because of their refusal to accept the authority of the talmudic-rabbinic tradition. Although the Karaites were at odds with their Rabbanite brethren in matters relating to Jewish law, they readily adopted the latters’ models in hymnography. The Karaite liturgy, which in the early years of the sect consisted of recitation from the Psalms and other scriptural readings, soon developed into rich and varied genres for fasts and feasts. The new hymnography was preserved in the thirteenth-century Karaite prayer-book edited by the scholar-poet Aaron b. Joseph the Elder from Crimea and Constantinople. Like their Rabbanite counterparts, Karaite hymnists served a didactic function, instructing the laity in their religious obligations. Karaite poets also used the liturgy as a means of instructing their congregations in current philosophical issues, particularly those relating to Jewish Neoplatonism and the nature of the soul. In their aesthetic function, Karaite hymnists resembled the Rabbanite Hispanics, favouring Arabic quantitative metres and verse forms. Caleb Afendopolo (d. 1525) of Kramariya (near Constantinople) was the master of this poetic art, as seen in his liturgical (and secular) writings.

Abstract Wayne is coming to Lincoln Center. What will Wayne do? What will Wayne, who like Miles needs no last name (no more than Herbie, Ron, or Tony), ever do? The only thing certain is that he won’t do whatever we expect. No, that isn’t quite right. He has trained us not to bring expectation to his performances, but rather anticipation—though he cannot quell our vain hope that he will parcel us into a time machine and do do that voodoo that he once did so well. Dream on, or better still, go back to the recordings, which have grown in stature as few from that era have. The Lincoln Center program promised a new work for chamber orchestra and jazz musicians, an adaptation from Sibelius, and a retrospective running the gamut from the Blue Note pinnacle, Juju and Speak No Evil, to the recent Verve enigmas, High Life and 1 + 1. It did not promise nor deliver the saxophone virtuoso of yore. Indeed, as the orchestra set progressed, with Wayne alternating constantly between tenor and soprano—phrasing with the strings, overlaying a few fragments, launching blood-rushing solos that quickly ran aground in the clogged arteries of the composition—one couldn’t help suspecting that the musician who never wanted to be a leader, or at least postponed the obligation until he had no choice, was no longer interested in playing the saxophone either. Fair enough: focus on the composition.

Abstract Dryden’s lofty contempt for ‘common Libellers’ (605), his depiction of the ‘just’ satirist as one ‘arm’d with the power of Verse, to Punish and make Examples of the bad’ (606), might fairly attract the epithet ‘magisterial’, compounding as it does the idea of authority and mastery, if it were not for the fact that the poet in his own use of the word hedged it about with various caveats. The ‘sublime and daring Genius’ of Lucretius, which he likened to that of Hobbes, seemed to him ‘Magisterial’ in its ‘positive assertion’ of ‘Opinions’, its ‘disdain’ for ‘all manner of Replies’ (395). He protested that Sir Robert Howard, in his hasty retort upon the essay Of Dramatick Poesie, had overlooked the fact that the piece was ‘a Dialogue sustain’d by Persons of several Opinions’ and had been ‘pleased to charge me with being Magisterial’ (9: 15). Dryden was concerned that the judicious author, for all his care to establish right meanings, is fated to be misconstrued. ‘Many men’, he wrote, ‘are shock’d at the name of Rules, as if they were a kinde of Magisterial prescription upon Poets’ (13: 248). That sentence itself is a confrontation between the hasty ‘prejudicate Opinions’ (658) of ‘many men’, those whose ‘.judgment is a meer Lottery’ (IT 73), and his own resolute opinion. Our obligation as informed readers is to take into account both the special pleading and the circumstantial facts, a task made all the more necessary and difficult since Dryden himself draws circumstance (‘many men’) not only into his critical strategy but also into the timbre of his writing. ‘I will first see how this will relish with the Age’ (13: 247): he marks down in a word the fickleness of public taste and adds a relish to his own controversial style.

The problem of bankruptcy prevention is growing in importance under conditions of the decline of economic growth and quarantine restrictions caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, which has significantly affected the domestic economy. In the second reading, the Ukrainian Parliament adopted amendments to the Code of Ukraine on the Bankruptcy Procedure, which banned moratorium on bankruptcy initiation by the creditors. Thus, there was approved “Draft Law on Amendments to Certain Legislative Acts to Regulate Certain Issues of Bankruptcy Procedures for the Period of Implementation of the Measures Aimed at Preventing the Emergence and Spread of the COVID-19 Pandemic” No 4220. This moratorium was introduced in the framework of measures for business support due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Quarantine restrictions caused by the COVID-19 pandemic have affected many businesses throughout the world. First of all, this is due to strict quarantine measures imposed by the governments of many countries: closure of shopping and entertainment centers, a ban on all public events, restrictions on the movement both within the country and when crossing its borders, reduction of production (due to the establishment of limits for the simultaneous stay of workers in one room), etc. Quarantine has ruined consumer sentiment and almost halted several industries including retail, hotel and restaurant business, air travel. The amount of budget revenues has decreased. As a result of quarantine, Ukrainian companies have frozen investments and production chains, and some of them are on the verge of bankruptcy. The main economic sign of bankruptcy is reduced to a single point. It is inability of the enterprise to meet the requirements of creditors. However, in order to avoid numerous bankruptcies on insignificant debts, the minimum amount of debt is determined, at which a bankruptcy case can be initiated. Macroeconomic efficiency of the institution of bankruptcy directly depends on the systemic nature of the relevant fragment of the national legislation, availability of the detailed representative economic statistics and the level of conceptual development of effective anti-crisis regulation. At the level of microeconomics, bankruptcy means not just stopping the local production process, i.e. the loss of a sustainable source of permanent income and social security. And at the level of macroeconomics there is the opposite situation; bankruptcy means rehabilitation of production from inefficient forms of its organization and inefficient management, overcoming cyclical recession and modernization of the technological base of production. A modern approach to the study of bankruptcy is associated with the definition of objective economic signs of corporate bankruptcy and specific signs of financial insolvency of the enterprise, assessment of the effectiveness of basic legal procedures for bankruptcy (supervision, external management, bankruptcy proceedings, and amicable settlement). Financial preconditions for insolvency and bankruptcy of the enterprise are analyzed in accordance with Methodical recommendations on detection of signs of insolvency of the enterprise and signs of concealment of bankruptcy, fictitious bankruptcy or bringing to bankruptcy; Methodology of in-depth analysis of the financial and economic condition of insolvent enterprises and organizations. Financial statements are the sources of information for analysis and detection of signs of bankruptcy. To predict the risk of bankruptcy, it is necessary to be guided by regulatory sources, data of accounting, statistical, operational accounting and reporting. Necessary information can also be obtained from documentary inspections, audits, orders, directives, economic and legal materials (contracts). To study the results of financial and economic activities of the object of study there can be used accounting data, which contains extensive analytical information. According to primary documents, it is possible to establish the causes of overspending, payment of fines, perpetrators, determine the legality and appropriateness of business transactions. The main sign of bankruptcy is inability of the company to comply with creditors’ claims within three months from the date of payment. After this period, creditors have the right to apply to the arbitral tribunal to declare the debtor company a bankrupt. Bankruptcy is the result of interaction of internal and external factors. Due to the limitations of the COVID-19 pandemic, 1/3 of the business destruction is associated with internal factors and 2/3 with external factors. Bankruptcy characterizes realization of catastrophic risks of the enterprise in the course of its financial activity, as a result of which it is unable to meet the requirements set by creditors and meet obligations to the budget. Among a wide range of methods used to determine the characteristics of various phenomena and processes, to identify the features of development, to study the dynamics of changes at the enterprises under conditions of the threat and development of crisis, there can be distinguished the main ones: expert (expert assessments); research and statistical; analytical; method of analogues. The whole set of methods for assessing the state of the enterprise is based on three main approaches, which include: the use of a system of indicators and informal indicators (criteria and features); setting the maximum number of indicators in different areas of the enterprise; creation of a separate system of integrated indicators. In the practice of analysis and assessment of the enterprise state the most common approach is the one that involves the use of a system of indicators and informal indicators. Integrated factor models developed using multidimensional multiplicative analysis are often used to assess the probability of bankruptcy and the level of creditworthiness of the enterprise. Bankruptcy forecasting methods based on the use of financial ratios are as follows: Two- and five-factor models for estimating the probability of bankruptcy based on Altman’s “Z-score”; Model of Roman Lis, W. Beaver; Method of rating assessment of financial condition (rating number); R – bankruptcy risk prediction; Taffler’s prediction model; Fulmer’s model; Springgate model; Generalized model developed on the basis of discriminant function; PAS-ratio. Integrated factor models of E. Altman, Lis, Taffler, Tishau and others are often used to assess the probability of bankruptcy and the level of creditworthiness of the enterprise (Table 1), developed using multidimensional multiplicative analysis.