Tesi sul tema "Mung bean Diseases and pests"

Bibliography: leaves 111-120. This study investigated various aspects of genetic resistance in fava beans to Ascochta blight (A. fabae) with the objective to facilitate an efficient breeding strategy for long-term control. Pathogenic variability of A. fabae was found to be high, as was genetic variation between resistant fava bean accessions. A number of alternative resistance genes to that of Ascot cultivar were identified.

After a wild-type isolate of Epicoccum purpurascens was exposed to shortwave ultraviolet light, several new strains were recovered which were improved in sporulation, fungicide tolerance, and performance in suppression of white mold caused by Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. The efficacy of E. purpurascens in controlling white mold of snap bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) was assessed in greenhouse and field trials. White mold was significantly reduced in both greenhouse and field trials when 2-4 sprays of E. purpurascens conidial suspensions (in 1% malt extract) were sprayed onto the plant surface during the flowering period. Germination of E. purpurascens conidia on senescent petals was greater than on younger flowers. Addition of malt extract to conidial suspensions improved germination on flowers and increased colonization of emerging flowers. Application of E. purpurascens did not accelerate senescence of bean leaves or affect pod yield of bean in greenhouse trials. Mycoparasitism of S. sclerotiorum by E. purpurascens was found only rarely in in vitro tests and was not observed on flower disks. Production of inhibitory compounds by E. purpurascens was the most important mechanism in suppression of white mold but competition for nutrients also appeared to play a role in biocontrol. The influence of nutrients on conidial germination, growth, sporulation and production of antifungal compounds by E. purpurascens were also investigated.

Survey of crops of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) in Sonora, Mexico revealed the presence of two isometric viruses and one flexuous rod virus on the basis of host reaction, particle morphology, serology and physico-chemical properties. The isometric viruses were identified as Bean Southern Mosaic Virus (BSMV) and Cowpea Chlorotic Mottle Virus (CCMV); the flexuous rod virus was identified as Bean Common Mosaic Virus (BCMV). Using bean cultivar differentials, two strains of the potyvirus BCMV were identified, NY-15 and a previously undescribed strain designated YV-1. Host range, serological tests, and RNA electrophoresis indicated that the Sonoran BSMV cultures are similar to BSMV-strain A. Serology and RNA-electrophoresis indicated that the Sonoran CCMV isolates are identical to CCMV-strain A. BSMV and CCMV were always isolated as a mixture from seed lots and from field collected bean tissue. BCMV occurred alone or in mixed infections with BSMV and CCMV. BCMV was seed transmitted with an average efficiency of 58 percent. The BSMV-CCMV mixture was transmitted with an efficiency of 6 percent. BSMV and CCMV were seed transmitted together, but separate transmission of BSMV or CCMV was not detected. Commercial seed lots from two major bean growing regions of Sonora (Hermosillo Coast, Sonora River) were contaminated with the BSMV-CCMV mixture but not with BCMV. The average contamination level was 13 percent. Two common weeds present in Sonoran agricultural areas were found to be potential alternate hosts of CCMV. Both Sisymbrium irio L. and Melilotus indica L. were infected systemically, although the infection in M. indica was latent. Potential losses due to Sonoran bean viruses were measured in greenhouse experiments with the cultivar Pinto 111. BCMV strains caused a 29.4 to 60.1% reduction, whereas BSMV-CCMV mixtures induced a 22.5 to 74.6% yield reduction. A synergism occurred between the BSMV-CCMV mixture and BCMV resulting in more severe symptoms and a yield reduction of 92.7%. Synergistic effects were also observed between BSMV and CCMV. Actual yield reduction resulted from impaired flower production and, consequently, reduced pod production. Significant effects on plant tissue production, flower fertilization and seed quality were not observed. Cowpea chlorotic mottle virus infected mung bean (Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek) a previously unreported host. Infection of mung bean by BSMV was only possible when CCMV was present in the inoculum. Both BSMV and CCMV could be isolated from symptomatic plants infected with the BSMV-CCMV mixture, however, symptoms on mung bean were unchanged from infection by CCMV alone.

In common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), the main seed storage pests are the bruchid beetles. Damage done to the seed by the larvae has a large impact on seed quality and yield. Arcelin (ARC), phytohaemagglutinin (PHA), and α-amylase inhibitor (α-AI) are linked seed storage proteins that form the APA locus on chromosome Pv04 and are associated with resistance. A major breeding objective is to introduce bruchid resistance into common bean from a resistant tepary genotype, G40199, by introgressing the resistant APA locus into susceptible common bean backgrounds. Here we developed a molecular marker that tracks the introgression. A set of PCR primers to the α-amylase inhibitor locus amplified a DNA fragment that showed a 45 base pair insertion in the middle of a lectin Leg_b domain. This enhanced locus characterization and insertion/deletion marker may preclude the need for bruchid resistance screening early in the breeding.
United States. Agency for International Development
United States. Global Hunger and Food Security Initiative (Cooperative Agreement No. EDH-A-00-07-00005-00)

As sessile organisms, plants evolved a plethora of defenses against their attackers. Given the role of plants as a primary food source for many organisms, plant defense has important implications for community ecology. Surprisingly, despite the potential to alter entire food webs and communities, the factors determining plant investment in defense are not well-understood, and are even less understood considering the numerous symbiotic interactions in the same plant. Legume-rhizobia symbioses engineer ecosystems by fixing nitrogen from the atmosphere in trade for plant photosynthates, yet connecting symbiotic resource exchange to food web interactions has yet to be established. Here I test how rhizobia influence plant defense and tritrophic interactions in lima bean (Fabaceae - Phaseolus lunatus L.): a model plant in chemical ecology research characterized by a broad range of different defenses. Examining suites of traits among lima bean genotypes, highly cyanogenic cultivars and wild type plants (high cyanotypes) produce more hook-shaped trichomes, as a putative combined approach of chemical and mechanical defenses, forming defense syndromes to protect against multiple feeding guilds (Chapter 2). Testing costs that may have contributed to forming tradeoffs among strategies, high cyanotypes show reduced fitness under plant-plant competition relative to low cyanotypes, but when challenged with herbivory, high cyanotypes fitness reductions are no longer evident (Chapter 3). Young leaves, not reproductive organs, are the most cyanogenic lima bean organ, and removal quantitatively decreases fitness, supporting assumptions that the most valuable tissues will be most highly defended (Chapter 4). Testing the degree to which nitrogen-fixing rhizobia contribute to cyanogenesis, high cyanotypes form more nodules than low cyanotypes. Quantitative relationships between nodule number and plant traits highlight the role symbiotic investment plays a role in plant defense and nutritive phenotype, while simultaneously, genotypically-determined levels of defense shape plant investment in symbiosis (Chapter 5). Interestingly, traits that trade off by cyanotype (i.e. high cyanogenesis but low indirect defense) reflect the patterns in plants with nitrogen-fixing rhizobia. Rhizobia-inoculated lima beans show reduced indirect defenses, recruiting fewer parasitoid wasps (Chapter 6) and predatory ants (Chapter 7). Examining plant-ant attraction in greater detail, ants prefer headspace regions above EFN droplets, corresponding with species-specific differences in suites of volatiles, indicating EFN, like floral nectar, can be scented to manipulate insect behavior (Chapter 8). Overall, understanding when investing in traits to recruit predators is more effective than investing in defensive chemistry, and how particular ecological contexts, such as symbioses can influence the outcome of defense allocation strategies remains a fascinating area of research. Determining the mechanisms underlying why rhizobia and other belowground microbial symbionts influence their host plants' above ground interactions, whether plants traits affected by symbiotic microbes are simply a function of the costs and benefits from resource exchange, or whether symbionts can influence the success of primarily direct versus indirectly defended plants is an important question for understanding complex trophic systems and connecting to agricultural implications for more effective biological pest control.

CAPES
O crestamento bacteriano comum, causado por Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. phaseoli, é uma das principais doenças da cultura do feijoeiro. Em busca por alternativas no controle de doenças em plantas, o uso de eliciadores/indutores de resistência tem sido explorado. Desta forma, o objetivo deste trabalho foi verificar a eficiência dos eliciadores harpina e acibenzolar-S-metílico na indução de mecanismos de defesa em plantas de feijoeiro (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) ao crestamento bacteriano comum, causado por X. axonopodis pv. phaseoli, avaliandose possíveis alterações no processo de trocas gasosas e ativação das principais enzimas envolvidas na defesa vegetal - peroxidase, superóxido dismutase, além de proteínas e fenóis. Foram utilizadas sementes dos cultivares IAPAR 31 e IPR Colibri. Depois de emergidas as primeiras folhas trifoliadas na fase vegetativa (V3) as plantas, foram tratadas com os eliciadores acibenzolar-S-metílico, harpina e água destilada (controle). Sete dias após a primeira aplicação dos eliciadores, foi inoculado o patógeno nas folhas do feijoeiro. A avaliação da severidade foi realizada a cada 10 dias sendo a primeira avaliação realizada 15 dias após a inoculação do patógeno. As leituras de fotossíntese foram realizadas 40 dias após a inoculação quando os sintomas e danos da doença demonstravam-se estabelecidos. Para a realização das análises bioquímicas, amostras de tecidos foliares de cada tratamento foram coletadas 24 horas antes, 24, 48 e 72 horas após a aplicação dos eliciadores. Também, foram determinados o rendimento e seus componentes em ambas as cultivares.A aplicação de ASM e harpina proporcionou redução na severidade da doença do crestamento bacteriano comum nas plantas de feijoeiro da cultivar IPR-Colibri e a mesma tendência foi observada para a cultivar IAPAR 31 tratada com ASM. As plantas da cultivar IAPAR 31 tratadas com o eliciador ASM, apresentaram maiores taxas de assimilação de CO2 quando comparadas ao controle e a mesma tendência foi observada para a cultivar IPR-Colibri. A aplicação do ASM promoveu o aumento da atividade da enzima antioxidativa peroxidase e a indução da síntese de compostos fenólicos e especialmente na cultivar suscetível IPRColibri. Para o rendimento de grãos e seus componentes, não foram observadas diferenças significativas entre o controle e os eliciadores ASM e harpina. Os eliciadores ASM e harpina induziram os mecanismos de resistência em feijoeiro contra X. axonopodis pv. phaseoli, indicando a potencialidade do uso dos eliciadores na cultura do feijoeiro.
The common bacterial blight, caused by Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. phaseoli is one of the major diseases of the bean crops. In search for alternatives to control the plant diseases, the use of the elicitors / inductors of resistance has been explored. Thus, the objective of this work was to verify the effectiveness of the elicitors harpina and acibenzolar-S-methyl in the induction of the defense mechanisms in bean plants (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) against common bacterial blight caused by X. axonopodis pv. phaseoli, evaluating the possible changes in the process of gas exchange and the activation of the key enzymes involved in the plant defense - peroxidase, superoxide dismutase, besides proteins and phenols. It was used seeds from IAPAR 31 and IPR Colibri cultivars. After emerged the first trifoliate leaves in the vegetative stage (V3) the plants were treated with the elicitors Acibenzolar-S-methyl and harpina, and distilled water (control). Seven days after the first application of the elicitors, the pathogen was inoculated on the leaves of bean plants. The severity assessment was performed every 10 days and the first evaluation 15 days after the pathogen inoculation. The measurement photosynthesis were performed 40 days after the inoculation when the symptoms and the damages of the disease showed themselves established. To carry out the biochemical analysis, samples of leaf tissue from each treatment were collected 24 hours before, 24, 48 and 72 hours after the application of the elicitors. Also, it was determined the yield and its components in both cultivars. The application of ASM and harpina provided the reduction in the severity of the common bacterial blight disease of the bean plants of IPR-Colibri cultivars and the same trend was observed for the IAPAR 31 cultivars treated with the elicitor ASM. Plants by IAPAR 31 treated with the elicitor ASM showed higher rates of assimilation of CO2 when compared to the control and the same trend was observed for cultivar IPR-Colibri. The application of ASM promoted the increase of the antioxidative enzyme peroxidase activity, and the induction of the phenolic compounds synthesis and, especially in the susceptible cultivar IPR-Colibri. For grain yield and its components, significant differences were not observed between the control and the elicitors ASM and harpina. The elicitors ASM and harpina induced the resistance mechanisms in bean plant against X. axonopodis pv. phaseoli, indicating the potentiality of the elicitor utilization in bean crops.

A crescente procura por alimentos mais saudáveis demanda um aumento na produção isenta de agrotóxicos. O feijão-de-vagem é uma das principais olerícolas cultivadas no Brasil. Dentre as principais doenças que afetam essa cultura está o oídio, podendo ocasionar perdas de produção em até 69%, sendo de ocorrência comum em cultivos protegidos especialmente em períodos tardios. O uso do leite tem demonstrado boas perspectivas no controle desta doença em diversas culturas. Foram desenvolvidos na Universidade Tecnológica Federal do Paraná – Campus de Pato Branco – PR, nos anos de 2007 e 2008, trabalhos com o objetivo de avaliar o efeito do leite de vaca in natura e seus possíveis mecanismos de ação sobre o controle de oídio em feijão-de-vagem sob ambiente protegido. Conduziu-se experimento com aplicação de leite de vaca in natura nas concentrações de 0%, 5%, 10%, 15% e 20% em freqüência semanal e quinzenal, com e sem espalhante adesivo. Foi avaliada a severidade da doença e a produtividade. O delineamento foi em blocos ao acaso, com 4 repetições. Em outro experimento avaliou-se o efeito dos componentes químicos do leite, com aplicações foliares de Nitrato de Potássio (0,79 g L-1), Cloreto de Amônio (0,82 g L-1), Nitrato de Cálcio (0,96 g L-1), Fosfato de Amônio Monobásico (0,51 g L-1), Carbonato de Sódio (0,23 g L-1), mistura destes componentes, leite (200 ml L-1) e água. O delineamento foi inteiramente casualizado com 3 repetições. No terceiro experimento avaliou-se a atividade metabólica em tecidos foliares de feijão-de-vagem tratado com aplicações semanais de leite de vaca in natura nas concentrações do primeiro experimento. O cultivo foi em vasos, em casa de vegetação com ambiente controlado. O delineamento foi inteiramente casualizado com 4 repetições. Para realização das análises bioquímicas (proteínas, açúcares totais e redutores, peroxidases e FAL) foram coletados discos foliares de 0,2 g de cada unidade experimental, 24, 48 e 72 horas após a aplicação do leite de vaca in natura. O leite aplicado em freqüência semanal promoveu controle do oídio de 37,94 a 79,96%. Em freqüência quinzenal o controle variou de 22,32 a 28,59%, sendo mais efetivo no início da infestação. Sua aplicação não requer uso de espalhante adesivo. As concentrações mais viáveis foram entre 10 e 15%. Aplicação dos diferentes componentes químicos de forma combinada controlou a doença de forma semelhante à aplicação do leite de vaca in natura. Aplicações de concentrações crescentes de leite de vaca in natura interferiu nos parâmetros bioquímicos foliares de proteínas, açúcares totais e redutores, atividade de peroxidase e FAL, demonstrando ser um elicitor capaz de induzir a uma resposta de resistência, alterando a atividade de enzimas relacionadas com a defesa do feijão-de-vagem.
The rising search for healthier food demands a rising in the production without fertilizers. The bean pod is one of the main plants from the vegetable gardens grown in Brazil. Among the main diseases which affect this culture is the powdery mildew which can cause losses in the production up to 69%, being a common occurrence in protected cultures especially in late periods. The usage of milk has shown good perspectives in this disease control in different cultures. Works with the aim of evaluate the effect of in natura milk and its possible mechanisms of action in the powdery mildew control in bean pods under a protected environment were developed during 2007 and 2008. In the Federal Technological University of Paraná – campus in Pato Branco- PR. The experience was conducted with the application of in natura milk in the concentrations of 0%, 5%, 10%, 15% and 20% every week or every fifteen days with or without the adhesive spreader. The severity of this disease was evaluated as well as the productivity. The design was in blocks at random, with four repetitions. In other experiment it was evaluated the milk chemical components effect with application leaf of Potassium Nitrate (0.79 g L-1), Ammonium Chloride (0.82 g L-1), Calcium Nitrate (0.96 g L-1), Ammonium Phosphate Monobasic (0.51 g L-1), Sodium Carbonate (0.23 g L-1), mixture of these components, milk (200 ml L-1) and water. The design was entirely developed with three repetitions. In the third experiment the metabolic activity was evaluated in the follicular tissue in bean pods treated with weekly applications of cow milk in natura in the concentrations of the first experiment. The cultivation was in vases in a vegetation house with controlled environment. The design was entirely developed with four repetitions. In order to make the biochemical analysis (proteins, total sugar and reductors, peroxidasis e PAL) Follicular disks of 0.2g were collected from each experimental unity, 24, 48 e 72 hours after the application of cow milk in natura. The milk applied weekly promoted the powdery mildew control of 37.94 to 79.96%. Being used every fifteen days the control varied from 22.32 to 28.59%, being more effective in the beginning of the infestation. Its application does not require the usage of adhesive spreader. The most variable concentrations were between 10 e 15%. The application of different chemical components in a combined form controlled the disease in a similar way to the application of cow Milk in natura. The applications of rising concentrations of cow milk in natura interfered in the follicular biochemical patterns of proteins, total sugar and reductors, activity of peroxidasis and PAL demonstrating to be an elicitor which is able to induct to an answer of resistance, alternating the enzymatic activity related to the bean pod defense.

Polyclonal antisera were raised against isolates of bean common mosaic virus (BCMV) and bean common mosaic necrosis virus (BCMNV) using conventional serological methods. Infected tissues containing, respectively, 22 recognized BCMV and BCMNV isolates were tested against the two antisera by antigen-coated plate (ACP) ELISA and double antibody sandwich (DAS) ELISA. Results indicated that each immunoglobulin was virus-specific by DAS-ELISA, providing clear distinction between BCMV and BCMNV. A reverse transcription, polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR)-based assay in combination with restriction endonuclease analyses, was developed for molecular detection of BCMV, BCMNV and their pathogroups. Specific detection of the two viruses was accomplished by constructing two virus-specific primer pairs that amplified a PCR product specific for each virus. Distinction of two BCMNV pathogroups (PG-III and PG-VI) was achieved by restriction enzyme XbaI digestion of BCMNV PCR products. However, none of the tested restriction enzymes clearly differentiated the five recognized BCMV pathogroups. A primer pair Dts/Uny15 specific for BCMV pathogroup V was also developed. By its RT-PCR application, four BCMV-PG-V isolates were differentiated from the other known variants of BCMV pathogroup I, II, IV and VII. Thus, by a combination of RT-PCR and restriction enzyme analyses, it was possible to differentiate both viruses, and two pathogroups of BCMNV, and one pathogroup of BCMV.
Graduation date: 1996

Intra- and interplant movement and dispersal of the predator mites Neoseiulus californicus (McGregor) and Neoseiulus fallacis (Garman) were studied on both lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus L.) and apple (Malus pumila Miller) branch plant systems that were seeded with excess numbers of the spider mite Tetranychus urticae Koch. Individuals of either predator were randomly selected from colonies of well-fed, mixed-age adult females and moved to test plants. When tested separately in each plant system, median leaf positions of N. californicus from the point of release were greater than those of N. fallacis at 1-8 d. A fan placed in front of a common source unit (1x3m) containing T. urticae and near equal densities of both predaceous mites, provided continuous air (wind) to 3 isolated receiver units located 2.5, 5, and 7.5 m downwind. Receiver units consisted of continuous bean foliage with excess T. urticae, but no predators. Wind speeds at the source and each receiver unit averaged 2.2, 0.9, 0.4, and 0.03 m/s respectively. As predators eliminated prey, N. fallacis dispersed earlier at higher prey densities and further downwind than N. californicus, but cumulative densities of each predator in all receiver units were alike after 20 d. Results of both plant movement studies supported the hypothesis that N. californicus has dispersal traits more like those of a generalist predator of spider mites than does N. fallacis. Spatial patterns of dispersal and biological control of pest mites are discussed in relation to predation types within the Phytoseiidae.
Graduation date: 1997

Common root rot is a major disease of commercially grown snap bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) on the irrigated sandy soils of central Wisconsin. The objective of this study was to determine the relationships between soil properties and suppressiveness to common root rot of snap bean (causal agent Aphanomyces euteiches) in soils. The soils had been annually amended for three years in a field trial on a Plainfield sandy loam in Hancock, WI. Soils were amended each year from 1998 to 2001 with three rates of fresh paper-mill residuals (0, 22 or 33 dry Mg ha�����) or composted paper-mill residuals (0, 38 or 76 dry Mg ha�����). Soil was removed from each treatment in April (one year after last amendment) and brought to the laboratory. This was repeated with a field soil sample taken in September, 2001. The soils from the two samplings were incubated at room temperature and periodically assayed (days 9, 44, 84, 106, 137, 225 and 270 for April sampling) (days 13, 88 and 174 for September sampling) for suppressiveness of snap bean root rot (0 to 4 where 0=healthy and 4=dead plant). The same days, incubated soils were characterized for ��-glucosidase, arylsulfatase and fluorescein diacetate activities; microbial biomass C (by chloroform fumigation); water stable aggregation (WSA) and total C. In the first incubation, there were large differences between field amendment treatments in terms of snap bean root rot incidence. The disease was suppressed by both fresh and composted amendments, but compost was most suppressive at high compost rates with disease incidence <40% which are considered healthy plants that can reach full yield potential. In the second incubation, disease severity difference among treatments were similar to the first incubation. This would indicate the suppression was induced prior to initiation of this experiment. Disease severity of bean plants grown in unamended field soil was high but in amended soils tended to decrease in intensity over time. Root rot severity was negatively related to ��-glucosidase, and microbial biomass at the beginning and the end of the first incubation period, respectively. FDA hydrolysis was not correlated with disease severity and WSA moderately correlated with disease. The best indicator of disease severity was arylsulfatase which was significantly and negatively correlated with disease severity in 4 of 5 sampling periods.
Graduation date: 2003

Bean fly (Ophiomyia spp.) is a major pest of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) throughout eastern and southern Africa. In the semi-arid areas, apart from drought, the insect pest is reported to cause high crop losses up to 100%, particularly when drought occurs and under low soil fertility. Host-plant resistance is part of the integrated pest management strategies that have been widely employed against major insect pests of tropical legumes. However, information regarding its use in control of bean fly in common bean is limited. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to: (1) validate farmers’ perceptions of major constraints responsible for yield losses, particularly the major insect pests of beans; (2) asses the level of adoption of improved bean varieties and determine factors that influence farmers’ preferences of the varieties and criteria for selection; (3) identify sources of resistance to bean fly available in landraces; (4) determine the nature of gene action controlling bean fly resistance and seed yield in common bean; (5) describe a procedure for generating optimal bean fly populations for artificial cage screening for study of the mechanisms of resistance available in common bean against bean fly. Farmers considered drought and insect pest problems as main causes for low yields. The adoption rate for improved varieties was high but self-sufficiency in beans stood at 23% in the dry transitional (DT) agro-ecology and at 18% in the dry mid-altitude (DM) agroecology, respectively. Drought, earliness, yield stability, and insect pest resistance were the factors determining the choice of varieties by farmers. Bean fly (Ophiomyia spp.), African bollworm (Helicoverpa armigera) and bean aphid (Aphis fabae) were identified as key crop pests of beans limiting yield. The study to identify new sources of resistance included 64 genotypes consisting of landraces, bean fly resistant lines and local checks. The experiment was done under drought stressed (DS) and non-stressed (NS) environments and two bean fly treatments (insecticide sprayed and natural infestation) for three cropping seasons between 2008 and 2009. Genotypes differed in their reaction to natural bean fly attack under drought stressed (DS) and non-stressed environments (NS) over different cropping seasons. However, the effect of bean fly appeared to vary between the long rains (LR) and short rains (SR). It was observed that an increase in the number of pupae per stem resulted in a higher plant mortality. The range of seed yield was from 345 to1704 kg ha-1 under natural infestation and from 591 to 2659 kg ha-1 under insecticide protection. Seed yield loss ranged from 3 to 69 %. The resistance of most of the bean fly resistant lines seemed to be ineffective in presence of DS. To determine the nature of gene action controlling the inheritance of resistance to bean fly, four parents with known reaction to bean fly were crossed with four locally adapted genotypes in an 8 x 8 half-diallel mating design. Similarly, two resistant and two susceptible parents were selected and crossed to produce populations for generations means and variance components analysis. Results revealed that both general combining ability (GCA) and specific combining ability (SCA) mean squares were significant (p A 0.05) for all four traits studied, except SCA for stem damage during one cropping season. Among the parents, GBK 047858 was the best general combiner for all the traits studied across seasons except for stem damage during LR 2009. Genotypes GBK 047821 and Kat x 69 (a locally adapted variety) were generally good general combiners for resistance traits as well as seed yield. General predictability ratio values ranging from 0.63 to 0.90 were obtained for plant mortality, stem damage, pupae in stem and seed yield across cropping seasons. These results established the predominance of additive gene effects (fixable variation) over the non-additive effects in controlling the traits. Low to moderate narrow sense heritability values ranging from 0.22 to 0.45 were obtained for pupae in stem. Such heritability estimates indicate that although additive gene components were critical in the inheritance of resistance for the trait, non-additive gene action was also important in addition to the environmental effects. A major disadvantage in screening for resistance to bean fly in common bean by controlled means in net cages has been the lack of a method to use for raising adequate fly populations for screening. Due to this problem, a simple procedure for raising sufficient numbers of adult bean flies required for screening was described. Through this method, up to 62 % emergence of the adult flies was achieved. Moreover, the flies retained their ability to infest bean plants. To determine the presence of antibiosis and antixenosis mechanisms of resistance in common bean, five genotypes [CC 888 (G15430), GBK 047821, GBK 047858, Ikinimba and Macho (G22501)] and two local check varieties (Kat B1 and Kat B9) were screened under free-choice in outdoor net cages and no-choice conditions in net cages placed in a shadehouse. All the five resistant genotypes tested had relatively long internodes. It was established that long internode was a morphological trait associated with reduced pupation rate in bean stems, hence an antixenosis component of resistance. Both ovipositional non-preference and antibiosis mechanisms were found to exist in three genotypes namely CC 888 (G45430), GBK 047858 and Macho (G22501). These genotypes were resistant when they were subjected to bean fly under both free-choice and no-choice conditions. They had fewer feeding/oviposition punctures, low number of pupae in the stem, reduced damage to the stems and low percent plant mortality. The remaining genotypes, Ikinimba and GBK 047821 only expressed antixenosis. To maximize the effectiveness of host-plant resistance against bean fly, multiple insect resistances should be incorporated into a single bean genotype in order to ensure durability. However, this should be within the background of integrated pest management strategy.
Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2010.

Root rot diseases of bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) are a problem wherever they are grown, and are a major constraint to dry edible and snap bean production. Root rot is a primary yield limitation of snap bean production in the US, especially within the top three snap bean producing states of Wisconsin, Oregon and New York. Bean root rot pathogens will be present by the end of the first season even when starting with clean ground. The decline in yield can be relatively slow, so growers might not notice or appreciate the hidden yield cost associated with root rot disease. Traditional methods for disease control such as fungicides, crop rotations, cover crops, seedbed preparations have been proven ineffective (either physically ineffective or economically unviable) against root rot. Therefore, genetic resistance is needed. In order to address the need for genetic resistance to root rot in snap beans, the highly root rot resistant line RR6950, a small seeded black indeterminate type IIIA accession of unknown origin, was crossed with OSU5446, a highly root rot susceptible determinate type I blue lake four-sieve breeding line to produce the RR138 recombinant inbred mapping population. In this study we evaluated the RR138 RI population in the F₆ generation for resistance to Fusarium solani root rot in Oregon and Aphanomyces euteiches root rot in Wisconsin. We also evaluated this population for morphological traits and root structural traits including pod height, pod width, pod length, pod wall thickness, strings, seed color, flower color, tap and basal root diameter, and root angle measurements. The RR138 population was also genotyped on the 10K BeanCAP Illumina Beadchip. The Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) data was used to assemble a high-density linkage map and Quantitative Trait Loci (QTL) for phenotypic data were evaluated. The linkage map produced from this study contained 1,689 SNPs across 1,196cM. The map was populated with 1 SNP for every 1.4cM, spanning across 11 linkage groups. Three QTL associated with A. euteiches root rot resistance were consistently expressed in 2011 and 2012 trials. A. euteiches QTL were found on Pv02, Pv04, and Pv06 and accounted for 7-17% of total genetic variation. Two QTL associated with F. solani were found in 2011 trial on Pv03 and Pv07, account for 9 and 22% of total genetic variation, respectively. We also found several QTL for morphological traits and root structural traits including QTL for pod fiber and pod height on Pv04, pod length on Pv01, strings on Pv01, taproot diameter on Pv05, and shallow basal root angle on Pv05, accounting for 21, 26, 12, 20, 11, and 19% of total genetic variation, respectively. QTL discovered from Oregon data for F. solani resistance did not cluster with QTL for A. euteiches root rot resistance. "SNP0928_7", was highly associated with F. solani resistance on Pv07 and "SNP0508_2", was highly associated with A. euteiches on Pv02. QTL and markers associated with QTL from this study will be of value to snap bean breeders developing root rot resistant lines with processing traits, and provide more information about targeting the mechanism of resistance.
Graduation date: 2013

The common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is an important crop grown widely in Uganda. It is also an important source of income for smallholder farmers particularly women. Despite its importance, production in the cool highland regions is constrained by anthracnose disease which causes losses in both the quantity and the quality of beans produced. The principal aim of this research was to elucidate on the status of dry bean anthracnose and the genetics governing its resistance. A participatory rural appraisal study was conducted to explore farmers' knowledge, experience, problems and cultivar preferences in association with managing dry bean anthracnose disease. This study revealed that anthracnose is an important constraint to production which is not controlled in any way. Although farmers have varying cultivar preferences, they use mostly home saved seed and only 1% could access improved seed. The study suggested the need for practical approaches in the provision of quality anthracnose resistant seed in consideration of farmers' preferences and the dynamics of their rural livelihoods. A study was conducted to determine the variability of the anthracnose (Colletotrichum lindemuthianum) pathogen in some of the major bean growing regions of Uganda. Use was made of a set of 12 internationally accepted anthracnose differential cultivars to identify the physiological races present. The results obtained indicated the presence of eight races with one race (767) being dominant and most aggressive. Differential cultivars AB 136 and G2333 were resistant to all the eight races, and can be utilised as potential sources of resistant genes. A germplasm collection of mostly Ugandan accessions was screened for anthracnose resistance. Using the area under disease progression curve as the tool for assessing disease severity, eleven accessions were identified that posses good levels of anthracnose resistance. The yield loss attributed to the anthracnose disease was determined on three susceptible Ugandan market-class dry bean cultivars and two resistant cultivars. The results showed that the yield of susceptible cultivars was reduced by about 40% and an almost equivalent yield was lost due to poor quality seed. In comparison, the yield lost by the resistant cultivars was not significant. The study suggested the use of resistant cultivars as the best solution in combating anthracnose resistance. Three susceptible Ugandan market class dry bean cultivars and six resistant cultivars were used for the study of the inheritance of resistance to the anthracnose pathotype 767 in a complete 9x9 diallel design. The results clearly indicated that the resistance was predominately conditioned by additive gene action. It was also established that epistatic gene action was important. More than one pair of genes displaying partial dominance were responsible for determining resistance and the maternal effect did not have an influence on resistance. Additionally, the result showed that some of susceptible cultivars combined very well with the resistant cultivars and that anthracnose resistance heritability estimates in both the narrow and broad sense were high. These results suggested that the use of simple pedigree breeding procedures such as backcross selection could be useful in improving anthracnose resistance levels in the Ugandan market class varieties.
Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2006.

Common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is an important legume crop in Kenya and is a cheap source of proteins. The small scale farmers in Kenya produce common bean under low agricultural input systems and this predisposes the crop to pests and diseases. Among the diseases, angular leaf spot (ALS) is a major constraint to common bean production and contributes to yield losses as high as 80%. The causative pathogen Pseudocercospora griseola (Sacc.) Crous & Braun is highly variable and several races have been reported. There are few common bean genotypes with resistance to this disease. Therefore breeding for resistance to ALS is important for the country. This study was carried out to; i) evaluate the common bean production systems, constraints and farmer varietal preferences in Kenya, ii) evaluate local landraces and selected introductions of common bean for yield performance and reaction to ALS, iii) study the genetics of resistance to ALS in common bean and iv) develop a breeding method for durable resistance to ALS in common bean. To determine the common bean production systems, farmers’ preferred traits and their knowledge on common bean constraints including ALS, a survey was conducted in Kiambu county using a semi-structured questionnaire, interviews, and focus group discussions. The study revealed that farmers cultivate common beans during the short and long rain seasons. However, they experience better yields in the short rains due to reduced disease incidence. The majority of the farmers (71%) intercrop common bean and this ensures maximum utilisation of space. A high percentage (70%) of the farmers utilise their retained seed for production. The farmers identified ALS as one of the most important constraints to production. The only preventative measure they undertake to control the disease is weeding. The farmers reported that they would prefer improved varieties that were resistant to ALS. Farmers have a preference for particular common bean traits that include high yield (80%), resistance to insect-pests and diseases (72%), type I growth habit (52%), early maturity (68%), seed size and colour (21%) and cooking time (20%). These should be incorporated in breeding programmes. Two hundred common bean landraces and market class varieties were evaluated for ALS resistance in a nethouse at University of Nairobi, Kabete Field Station and for ALS resistance and yield in the field in KARI-Tigoni. The results showed that disease severity scores for the genotypes were similar in the two locations, with the top three resistant genotypes being Minoire, GBK 028123 and Murangazi with disease severity scores of 2.9, 2.9 and 3.2 in Kabete and 2.6, 2.8, and 2.9 in Thika respectively. These resistant genotypes can be used as sources of resistance in a breeding programme or they can be used as resistant varieties. All the market class varieties were susceptible to ALS (disease severity score 6.7-8.0). There was a non-significant correlation between disease and yield most likely because most of the resistant genotypes were exotic and hence not adapted to the local conditions. There was also a non-significant correlation between disease and seed size. The two hundred common bean genotypes were evaluated for yield at University of Nairobi, Kabete Field Station and KARI-Thika. The results indicated that the 2011 and 2012 seasons had similar mean yields and that yields at Kabete were higher than at KARI-Thika. The highest yielding genotypes across the two locations were; GLP 2 (766 kg ha-1), Nyirakanyobure (660 kg ha-1), GBK 028110 (654 kg ha-1), GLP 585 (630 kg ha-1) and Mukwararaye (630 kg ha-1). There was a significant genotype x environment interaction and hence it is important for breeders to carry out stability analysis, so as to recommend varieties for a wide range of environments. To study the genetics of ALS resistance in common bean, three inter-gene pool crosses: Super-rosecoco x Mexico 54, Wairimu x G10909 and Wairimu x Mexico 54 were made. The resistant genotypes were Mexico 54 and G10909, while Super-rosecoco and Wairimu were susceptible. The generations F1, F2, BC1P1 and BC1P2 for each of the crosses were developed. The parents P1, P2 and the five generations of each cross were evaluated for resistance to ALS in Kabete Field Station. Results showed that both dominance and additive gene action were important in the expression of resistance to ALS. However, additive gene action was predominant over dominance gene action. There was a moderately high narrow sense heritability estimate (52.9-71.7%). The minimum number of genes controlling resistance to ALS was between 2 and 3. The predominance of additive gene effects and the moderately high narrow sense heritability estimates recorded imply that progress in resistance to ALS could be made through selection in the early segregating generations. A double cross followed by selection against resistant genotypes was used to develop a method to breed for durable resistance to ALS in common bean. The method was used to accumulate minor genes of ALS resistance into single genotypes. Four intermediate resistant landraces were used to develop a double cross population that was screened using a mixture of ALS races. Selection in F1 and F2 population was done on the basis of intermediate resistance (disease severity score 4.0-6.0), while selection from F3 population was based on resistance (disease severity score 1.0-3.0). Ten advanced F4 lines along with their parents were evaluated for ALS resistance. The F4 advanced lines had a significantly improved resistance to ALS compared to their parents. Hence the method was successful in accumulating minor genes for resistance thus showing significant breeding progress in breeding for durable resistance.
Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2013.

A comprehensive evaluation of the effects of an nC24 agricultural mineral oil (AMO) on tritrophic interactions between French bean Phaseolus vulgaris cv. Redlands Pioneer [Fabales : Fabaceae ], two spotted mite (TSM) Tetranychus urticea Koch [Acari: Tetranychidea] and the predatory mite Phytoseiulus persimilus Atheus-Henriot [Acari: Phytoseiidae] was conducted under laboratory conditions.
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

Fusarium root rot (FRR) disease, caused by the fungus Fusarium solani f. sp. phaseoli (FSP), is an important soil-borne disease reducing common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) yields, and hence food security, in Uganda and elsewhere in developing countries where the crop is grown without fungicides. The key aim of this study was to elucidate the significance of bean root rot (BRR), appraise methods for screening germplasm for resistance to FRR, determine the genotypic variability of resistance, and the inheritance of resistance to FRR in common bean. This information was deemed useful in devising an appropriate strategy for breeding FRR resistance in beans. A participatory rural appraisal (PRA) was conducted in south-western and eastern Uganda to ascertain farmers’ awareness of BRR and their influence on preferred bean varieties. Bean root rot is considered to be the most devastating and most recognised disease, especially in south-western Uganda. Control measures for BRR were very minimal, and in some cases, non-existent. Use of resistant varieties to control the disease was not evident, because the most popular varieties were susceptible to the disease. The resistant bean varieties currently available have undesirable characteristics such as small seed size, black seed and late maturity. Large-seeded bean varieties, even though cited as being more susceptible to BRR than the small-seeded varieties, are still very popular. The study highlighted the need for breeding FRR resistance in the large-seeded bean varieties that are highly preferred by farmers. Four isolates of FSP (FSP-1, FSP-2, FSP-3 and FSP-4) were tested for pathogenicity under screenhouse and laboratory conditions. In addition, three methods of storing and maintaining the viability of FSP isolates were appraised. The isolate FSP-3, was found to be the most pathogenic, resulting in 100% disease incidence on all bean varieties tested, with high severity scores. The potato dextrose agar (PDA) slants stored at 5oC were found to be the best method of storage for pathogenic isolates. The FSP-3 isolate was subsequently utilised for screening bean lines for resistance to FRR. The influence of soil composition, irrigation frequency, and inoculation technique on the severity of FRR was studied on six bean lines. Interactions of irrigation frequency, soil composition, and bean lines were not significant. The 50% swamp soil:50% forest soil composition and forest soil alone categorized the varieties most distinctly according to their reaction to FRR. Also, the best distinct classification for the varieties was obtained under treatments that were watered daily and once in a week. Based on economic considerations, the standard forest soil and daily irrigation were subsequently adopted for screening bean germplasm for resistance to FRR. It was also found that sorghum seed as a medium for pathogen inoculation was better than the agar slurry medium. One hundred and forty seven common bean varieties were evaluated for resistance to FRR (isolate FSP-3) under screenhouse conditions. In order to confirm this resistance, 46 common bean lines selected from the screenhouse trial were further evaluated using natural inoculum in a BRR-infested field. Forty-four varieties comprising ten large-seeded, four medium-seeded and 30 small-seeded varieties showed moderate resistance to FRR; but none were resistant or immune to the disease. Based on adaptability, eight moderately resistant varieties were selected for use as parents in the study of inheritance of resistance to FRR. A 12 x 12 diallel mating design was utilised to develop 66 F1 and F2 populations, plus their reciprocal crosses, with the aim of studying the mode of inheritance of resistance to FRR. The F1 and F2 progeny evaluations showed that FRR resistance was mainly governed by additive genes in most populations. However, there were a few crosses which displayed highly significant specific combining ability (SCA) effects, implying that dominant effects were important in some populations. Maternal effects were also highly significant at both the F1 and F2 generations, suggesting that resistance was modified by cytoplasmic genes. The non-maternal effects were also significant in some populations, suggesting that the cytoplasmic genes were interacting with nuclear genes. The number of genes governing resistance to FRR varied from two to nine among the eight sources of resistance. The allelism test of resistant x resistant populations, and the observation of continuous distributions of severity scores, suggested the presence of many loci governing FRR resistance in beans. Broad sense heritability of disease resistance varied from 0.22-0.69, while heritability in the narrow sense was estimated as 0.35-0.49 in the populations. These results suggested that selection and backcrossing to both parents would be the best breeding procedures for improving resistance in the popular large-seeded bean varieties in Uganda. However, there could be complications in breeding for resistance to FRR in beans, because resistance was modified by cytoplasmic gene effects and their interaction with nuclear genes in some of the populations.
Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2008.