Tesi sul tema "Internet des objets – Alimentation en énergie"
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Le, Scornec Julien. "Micro-générateurs aéroélectriques flexibles pour l’auto-alimentation de capteurs communicants". Thesis, Nantes, 2020. http://www.theses.fr/2020NANT4039.
Testo completoThe advent of the Internet of Things has rendered the ambient energy harvesting a major issue for powering communicating microsystems. In this context, this work focuses on the development of a flexible piezoelectric micro-generator able to convert the mechanical energy from low airflows. The objective is to develop autonomous microsystems, or at least to extend their lifespan with energy harvesting. To harvest ambient energy, the flexible micro-generators are made of 3 μm-thick lead zirconate titanate (PZT) thin films encapsulated between polyethylene terephthalate (PET) films. The manufacturing process of the micro-generators has been optimized in order to increase their energy efficiency. Both the optimization of the electrode structure and the geometry of the generator made the maximum harvested power increase by a factor of 625. In this work, to characterize the energy harvesting, the micro-generators were excited with different systems (shaker, traction/compression system and wind tunnel). Thus, wind tunnel tests have shown that it was possible to harvest a power of 38 μW at 10 Hz when the generator was subjected to a low airflow (6 m/s). This generator allowed to power a communicating temperature sensor during several measurement/data transmission cycles
Bel-Hadj, Ibrahim. "Conception de micro-générateurs thermoélectriques planaires intégrant une topologie de thermopile 2.5D". Thesis, Université de Lille (2022-....), 2022. https://pepite-depot.univ-lille.fr/ToutIDP/EDENGSYS/2022/2022ULILN005.pdf.
Testo completoThe tremendous growth of applications related to recent advances in the Internet of Things (IoT) requires the development of new solutions for harvesting/scavenging the environmental energy to power microsystems. The abundance of heat in our environment allows thermal energy harvesting devices to be one of the solutions. In this work, we have developed a family of planar micro-thermoelectric generators (µTEG), integrating a novel 2.5D thermopile topology periodically folded and distributed on multi-membrane, capable of converting heat directly into useful electrical energy. This thermopile, with high integration density, uses thermocouples based on metallic thermoelectric materials (Chromel and Constantan), electrically associated either in series or in parallel, allowing to reduce drastically the internal electrical resistance of these µTEGs to a few tens of Ohms. A 3D thermal modelling in COMSOL Multiphysics® was used to design the optimal dimensions of the modules so they would deliver the maximum output power. The fabrication of these devices is made by low-cost CMOS-compatible processes, using non-polluting, abundant and environmentally friendly materials. Deep reactive ionic etching (DRIE) of Silicon wafers is used to release membranes with adjustable lengths allowing to adapt the thermal resistance of these µTEGs to their environment. The devices realized in IEMN clean room, have been characterized using specific measurement benches developed for this purpose. The harvesting of one Watt of heat leads to thermo-generated electrical powers of a few hundred microwatts. This ranks these new 2.5D µTEGs among the best state-of-the-art µ-modules using metallic thermoelectrics
Kalaagi, Mohammed. "Métasurfaces pour la récupération d'énergie électromagnétique et le transfert d'énergie sans fil dans l'environnement ferroviaire". Electronic Thesis or Diss., Université de Lille (2018-2021), 2021. http://www.theses.fr/2021LILUI049.
Testo completoThe interest for electric energy power supply to different components in the railway infrastructure, has become an interesting research topic with the gain of popularity for railway systems. To develop a smart, reliable, safe and autonomous railway system, specially with the rise of different technologies such as Internet of things (IoT) devices and wireless sensor nodes (WSN), electric power supply is needed for such that devices are implemented in a reliable and autonomous manner. Energy harvesting and wireless power transfer (WPT) technologies can be a key element for power supply to such devices, to build a sufficient and convenient system. A high level of EM energy has been shown to exist up to the microwave region and which can have a high potential for EM energy harvesting.The aim of this work is to develop novel concepts based on metasurfaces, to enhance the potential and performance of EM energy harvesting and WPT technologies which can be compatible for the application in the railway environment. The main challenge is to design an efficient and compact device specially at low MHz frequencies where conventional rectenna systems can be insufficient.We first propose a novel concept to enhance the efficiency of EM conventional or off-the-shelf commercialized rectenna systems. It is based on the focusing of the ambient EM waves in an area where it can be harvested by a rectenna system. The design of focusing metasurface based on the hyperboloidal profile of the generalized phase law is proposed: the incident ambient EM energy in the far-field, is concentrated at a point known as the focal point at a given distance from the metasurface design. The metasurface designed is simulated and experimental validations in both near field and far field are proposed. Measurements have been carried in the anechoic chamber to validate the concept using a commercialized rectenna system and the focusing metasurface design at 900 MHz. The results have shown that, when implementing the rectenna system along side the focusing metasurface, the received power is enhanced by a factor of 5. Field tests were then conducted: the system was then implemented in the railway environment in the presence of a GSM-R base station, where the results have shown that, when implementing the metasurface along side the rectenna device, -20 dBm of received power was achieved which can be sufficent to wake up low-input-power devices such as wireless sensors, whereas the rectenna device (commercial energy harvester) alone showed poor results of received power around -40 dBm.An alternative solution for wireless electric power supply in the railway system is WPT. However, one of the main challenges for such technologies in this case can be line of sight with mobilty issues: better tracking and wider detection angle of the fed device is required. In this case, the design of multi-angle retrodirective metasurfaces based on different concepts such as cascading of various metamaterial super-cell designs, and surface impedance modulation are proposed. These designs can be implemented along side the fed device (IoT or WSN), in order to enhance the localization and tracking of the fed device beyond the common line-of-signt limitations reaching extreme oblique incident angles. Other solutions for efficiency enhancement and miniaturization for EM energy harvesting systems based on absorbing metasurfaces are proposed at low microwave frequencies
Mamouri, Lakhdar. "Architecture mixte pour le suivi du point de puissance maximal d'un système de récupération d'énergie piézoélectrique". Electronic Thesis or Diss., Strasbourg, 2023. http://www.theses.fr/2023STRAD065.
Testo completoThe rise of the Internet of Things leads to an increase in interconnected objects, but their power supply poses a challenge. Conventional batteries, limited and not long-lasting, have environmental implications. Environmental energy harvesting, specifically vibrational energy through piezoelectricity, emerges as a solution. This thesis focuses on MPPT algorithms to optimize this energy conversion, considering fluctuations in vibrational sources. An optimized system model reduces simulation resources, and an enhanced FOCV approach decreases components. Experimental results validate the model's accuracy, while a new algorithm, AFOCV, demonstrates remarkable efficiency, even at low voltage, significantly enhancing piezoelectric system performance
Cherifi, Nadir. "Assistance au développement de logiciels embarqués contraints en énergie". Thesis, Lille 1, 2018. http://www.theses.fr/2018LIL1I036/document.
Testo completoThe designation under the term Internet of Things brings together a vast array of different connected systems.A significant number of these objects do not have a continuous power supply and are therefore supplied with batteries. In addition, we can list multiple use cases where the recharging of the battery is difficult or impossible (e.g. a buried object for structures monitoring). As a result, the energetic aspect represents a primary constraint to be taken into account by the developers when designing the embedded application on the object. The work issue consists in placing energy as a hard resource during the development phase by providing assistance and help to the developers in the management of this complex resource. We propose as a solution a methodology and tools to support the activities of the embedded developer in a constrained energy environment. We assert that the ability to accurately measure and track the energy consumption of a connected object and then correlate it to the underlying software can improve overall energy efficiency by implementing best practices related to use of the different hardware components. To achieve this goal, we base our work on a hardware energy measurement method able of providing accurate consumption figures. We than build an energy profiling and cartography framework of embedded software to help the developer understand the energy behavior of his application
Challal, Yacine. "Sécurité de l'Internet des Objets : vers une approche cognitive et systémique". Habilitation à diriger des recherches, Université de Technologie de Compiègne, 2012. http://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-00866052.
Testo completoDjemai, Tanissia. "Placement optimisé de services dans les architectures fog computing et internet of things sous contraintes d'énergie, de QoS et de mobilité". Thesis, Toulouse 3, 2021. http://www.theses.fr/2021TOU30019.
Testo completoThe advent of the Internet of Things (IoT) raises various issues, both in terms of the development and deployment of IoT applications in computing infrastructures. Cloud Computing is the most widespread computing infrastructure today. It is based on data centers that communicate with each other and with users via monolithic, inflexible network equipments. The importance of revising this schema has been highlighted in order to meet the challenges of an IoT environment that is heterogeneous, mobile and generates a large amount of data that requires rapid processing. The classic IoT model, in which IoT objects send information via their gateways to the Cloud, which then provides services to the applications, finds extensions in the Fog or Edge approach, which enables services to be brought closer to users by relying on intermediate computing and communication equipments between users and data centers. The Fog Computing architecture allows exploiting the computing and storage! capacities of the network infrastructure, in addition to that of the Cloud, for the deployment of IoT services and thus extending and bringing services closer to IoT objects. However, network equipments are heterogeneous and with low computing capacity, they cover a large geographical area and must cope with the mobility of IoT users. All this adds complexity to the problem of service placement and scheduling in order to optimize various parameters such as energy consumption, different costs related to placement and improving the applications quality of service requirements. The objective of our thesis is to propose IoT service placement strategies in a Fog infrastructure while taking into account the dynamic nature of the environment brought by user mobility, the energy cost of computing infrastructures and the QoS requirements of deployed applications
Diratie, Eyassu Dilla. "Hybrid internet of things network for energy-efficient video surveillance system". Electronic Thesis or Diss., université Paris-Saclay, 2022. http://www.theses.fr/2022UPASG066.
Testo completoWireless visual sensor networks based on IEEE 802.11 mesh networks are effective and suitable solutions for video surveillance systems in monitoring intrusions in selected areas. The IEEE 802.11-based visual sensor networks offer high bit rate video transmissions but suffer from energy inefficiency issues. Moreover, the video transmission in the visual sensor networks requires strict quality of service (QoS) in terms of bandwidth and delay. Also, it is challenging to decrease the overall energy consumption of the network while assuring guaranteed QoS in terms of bandwidth and delay in energy-constrained wireless visual sensor networks. The main contribution of this dissertation is to provide an energy-efficient video surveillance network without compromising the QoS requirement of video transmission. First, we propose a new hybrid IoT network architecture for a video surveillance system that detects and tracks an intruder in the monitoring area. The hybrid IoT network integrates the IEEE 802.11-based multi-hop visual Sensor Networks and LoRa network to provide an autonomous, energy-efficient, high-bitrate video surveillance system. Leveraging the LoRa network characteristics, the LoRa network is utilized as an always-active network for preliminary motion detection and tracking. Moreover, the LoRa network also decides which visual sensor nodes to wake up depending on the tracking information. The Kalman filter is investigated to track the intruder's trajectory from noise measurements of low-power motion sensors to activate only the visual sensor nodes along the intruder's trajectory to provide effective video vigilance. We showed through simulation that Kalman filter estimates and predicts intruder trajectory with reasonable accuracy. Moreover, the proposed hybrid IoT network approach reduces energy consumption significantly compared with a traditional, always active continuous monitoring single-tier visual sensor network. Next, the contribution of this dissertation focuses on an energy-aware and QoS routing mechanism for the IEEE 802.11-based multi-hop visual sensor network of the hybrid IoT network. We propose a routing algorithm that routes a set of video streams to the gateway with guaranteed QoS in terms of bandwidth and delay while minimizing the number of visual sensor nodes that are involved in routing. This maximizes the number of nodes that can be turned off completely to optimize the overall energy consumption of the network without compromising QoS performance. The proposed routing problem is formulated as an Integer Linear Program (ILP) and solved using the branch-and-bound algorithm. Through computer simulation, the performance of the proposed approach is compared with the existing state-of-the-art routing algorithms from the literature. The results clearly show that the proposed mechanism saves a significant amount of the overall energy consumption while guaranteeing QoS in terms of bandwidth and delay
Bérenger, Cédric. "Grands réseaux maillés basse énergie : protocoles minimalistes pour la synchronisation, la mesure de distance et le partitionnement". Electronic Thesis or Diss., Aix-Marseille, 2021. http://www.theses.fr/2021AIXM0024.
Testo completoMicrocontrollers are small computers that can make great things. With low power consumption, they are equipped to interact with the environment and give feedback using rf. With such abilities, we could build a mesh network, to monitor a house, an industrial facility, or a whole city. However, scalability of meshed networks is a complex topic, and numerous existing solutions for managing meshed network, submitted to robustness and performance constraints, make compromises. In this thesis, we contribute to an alternative solution following our own compromises. We propose a minimalistic method to build scalable meshed networks of energy-autonomous nodes, able to self-organize without central coordination. We run distributed applications using synchronous rounds. To put such a model in practice, we discuss the synchronization topic : two nodes never run at the same speed, so there is an increasing skew between clock values. But, we need to keep neighbors in phase with each others. We give a minimalistic algorithm to set synchronous execution rounds. The shared nature of the wireless medium and its sensitivity to disturbances make it unsuitable for our synchronization algorithm without tweaks. Thus, we present a protocol giving a necessary framework to run our synchronization algorithm on wireless nodes. Once we are able to run synchronous algorithms, we aim at simplifying the deployment of networks by adding geolocation with software only. We use tiny differences in clock speeds to measure precisely propagation delays of radio waves. Finally, we consider a way to interface centralized systems with our distributed networks allowing to broadcast data from several entry points
Zaraket, Carine. "Distributed renewable energy resources enablement based on a secure and versatile electricity trading architecture". Electronic Thesis or Diss., Université de Lorraine, 2022. http://www.theses.fr/2022LORR0250.
Testo completoInformation and communication technologies (ICTs), adopted by the Smart Grid (SG), have been used to improve the control of the power system beyond that implemented in the conventional grid. Todays the objectives are, among others, to enable efficient integration of the renewable energy resources (RES), to maintain security of energy supply and to encourage the future energy market. As a result, the implementation of such a system requires the exchange of data between legacy and new smart grid applications. To make this possible, a versatile communication platform is required, so the main question that is answered in this thesis is: what would such a platform be?The objective of this work is to design, implement and evaluate a low-cost, open-source, resilient telemetry gateway platform capable of integrating existing and future smart grid applications. This platform is optimized and tested using a variety of simulation, analysis, real implementation and prototypes tools.In our case this platform is capable to integrate DLMS / COSEM compliant energy meters with LoRaWAN, where a study of LoRaWAN performance, when transporting energy metering packets, in a real-world environment is performed. The LoRaWAN technology has been chosen as a low-cost, long-range, and reliable last-mile solution for smart energy metering in urban areas scenario where a short-range solution may not be the optimum one, however, DLMS / COSEM was chosen since it is the world standard application protocol for smart energy metering, control, and management and it is getting widely accepted in Europe and US. The combination of these two protocols presents significant challenges such as designing an interoperable module that can be easily integrated into the existing infrastructure and is able to meet both LoRaWAN and DLMS/ COSEM transmission requirements in terms of transmission time and packet size. In addition, there are always some security challenges to consider, since cyber-attacks can not only threaten the consumer's privacy but they can even lead to a compromised system with direct impact on the safety of individuals and the activities of society. Therefore, we propose an approach based on combining Secure Element and Blockchain technologies to provide an end to end IoT secure platform. Secure Element has been used to provide IoT nodes with some computational power where Blockchain has been used to enhance integrity, transparency, and security it is used to certify the transmitted energy metering data and to provide these data to Distributed Applications (DApp). In this way, producers and consumers will be able to trade energy (especially from distributed renewable energy sources) over the existing infrastructure, using Blockchain technology, thus leading to the democratization of the energy market.The manuscript of this thesis is composed of five chapters which are summarized below:Chapter 1 is intended to describe the evolution of the conventional energy grid by defining and describing the Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI) system.Chapter 2 gives an overview of the current and upcoming IoE advancements in Europe was.The German system was presented and discussed in details since it was used as reference architecture of our developed energy metering gateway.Chapters 3 and 4 present the designing and deployment of an open-source, low-cost, and modular system based on LoRa telecommunication technology for energy metering applications. The designed prototype will be presented in details, in addition the implementation and testing results will be explained and discussed.Chapter 5 represents the developed energy gateway as a use case for neighborhood P2P energy trading. Our assumption is that the developed gateway will enable the local energy market without the intervention of the utilities where small prosumers can participate thus a good investment RES. Lists of acronyms and references are also present in this manuscript
Horta, José Luis. "Innovative paradigms and architecture for future distribution electricity networks supporting the energy transition". Thesis, Paris, ENST, 2018. http://www.theses.fr/2018ENST0022/document.
Testo completoFuture electricity distribution grids will host an important and growing share of variable renewable energy sources and local storage resources. Moreover, they will face new load structures due for example to the growth of the electric vehicle market. These trends raise the need for new distribution grid architecture and operation paradigms to keep the grid stable and to ensure quality of supply. In addition, these new paradigms will enable the provision of advanced new services. In this thesis we propose a novel architecture capable of fostering collaboration among wholesale market actors, distribution system operators and end customers, to leverage flexible distributed energy resources while respecting distribution system constrains. The architecture is designed for providing innovative residential demand side management services, with a special focus on services enabled by self-consumption at the household and neighborhood level. Following these general objectives, the thesis provides three main contributions. First, based on internet of things and blockchain technology, we propose the building blocks for future distribution grid energy management architectures. Then, focusing on the services enabled by such architectures, we propose hour-ahead markets for the local exchange of renewable energy among households together with dynamic phase allocation mechanism to improve the quality of electricity supply. Finally, we propose a real time control mechanism for the adjustment of market decisions to satisfy distribution system operator constraints
Horta, José Luis. "Innovative paradigms and architecture for future distribution electricity networks supporting the energy transition". Electronic Thesis or Diss., Paris, ENST, 2018. http://www.theses.fr/2018ENST0022.
Testo completoFuture electricity distribution grids will host an important and growing share of variable renewable energy sources and local storage resources. Moreover, they will face new load structures due for example to the growth of the electric vehicle market. These trends raise the need for new distribution grid architecture and operation paradigms to keep the grid stable and to ensure quality of supply. In addition, these new paradigms will enable the provision of advanced new services. In this thesis we propose a novel architecture capable of fostering collaboration among wholesale market actors, distribution system operators and end customers, to leverage flexible distributed energy resources while respecting distribution system constrains. The architecture is designed for providing innovative residential demand side management services, with a special focus on services enabled by self-consumption at the household and neighborhood level. Following these general objectives, the thesis provides three main contributions. First, based on internet of things and blockchain technology, we propose the building blocks for future distribution grid energy management architectures. Then, focusing on the services enabled by such architectures, we propose hour-ahead markets for the local exchange of renewable energy among households together with dynamic phase allocation mechanism to improve the quality of electricity supply. Finally, we propose a real time control mechanism for the adjustment of market decisions to satisfy distribution system operator constraints
Gléonec, Philip-Dylan. "Design and implementation of power management strategies for long range radio module with energy harvesting". Thesis, Rennes 1, 2019. http://www.theses.fr/2019REN1S017/document.
Testo completoThe advent of the Internet of Things has enabled the roll-out of a multitude of Wireless Sensor Networks. These networks can be used in various fields, such as agriculture, industry or the smart city, where they facilitate fine optimization of processes. These devices are often powered by primary or rechargeable batteries, which limits their battery life. Moreover, it is sometimes not possible or financially viable to change and/or recharge these batteries. A possible solution is to harvest energy from the environment to power these sensors. But these energy sources are unreliable, and the sensor must be able to prevent the complete depletion of its energy storage. In order to adapt its energy consumption, the node can match its quality of service to its energetical capabilities. Thus, the device can continuously operate without any service interruption. This thesis presents the methods used for the conception of a completely autonomous sensor, powered by energy harvesting and communicating through a long range LoRa network. In order to ensure its power supply, a board has been designed to harvest energy from multiple energy sources simultaneously. A power management software module has then been developed to calculate an energy budget the sensor can use, and to choose the best way to spend this budget over one or multiple tasks. This work has enabled the development of an energy autonomous industrial sensor prototype
Bui, Do Hanh Ngan. "Antennes souples imprimables pour la récupération de champs électromagnétiques ambiants". Thesis, Université Grenoble Alpes (ComUE), 2017. http://www.theses.fr/2017GREAT062/document.
Testo completoInternet-of-Things means a growing development of interconnected objects that are likely to change many services within the industry as well as for the individual. Several barriers, including the energy autonomy of objects or production processes that are economically acceptable and respectful of the planet, hamper current developments. In this context, energy recovery is a widespread theme using a wide range of sources (mechanical, thermal, electromagnetic, etc.). This thesis is oriented towards the recovery of ambient electromagnetic energy. The second characteristic point of this thesis is to focus on flexible and, if possible, recyclable substrates. The challenge is to recover energy from an extremely low ambient electromagnetic field: this concerns the antenna, which must also meet a requirement for flexibility for its future integration with a flexible and deformable object, and the electronics of energy processing.The work of this thesis conducted in three phases.In the first phase, it was the study of the antenna structures compatible with frequency and power received with the energy harvesting application and a physical realization on flexible base (paper, textile, etc.). This phase allowed presenting the different approaches to combining the RF sources.In the second phase, the study on the role of rectifying circuit in the system of recovering wireless energy was presented. Methods for extracting parameters were discussed by separating each element and its roles. Numerous measurements have been conducted to compare different models of the diode, taking into account also the actual impact of the manufacturing process and the measurement process.A third phase allows the optimization of the antenna and electronic assembly (rectenna) for various scenarios and the monitoring of variability to keep the losses of the system at minima. The production of relevant demonstrators, test and characterization were presented
Bissey, Sebastien. "Optimisation du coût de la consommation d'électricité dans l'habitat individuel". Thesis, Tours, 2019. http://www.theses.fr/2019TOUR4029.
Testo completoThe work carried out as part of this thesis con'sisted in proposing solutions to optimize the cost of electricity consumption in individual housing. The hardware and software tools proposed here make it possible to estimate both the profitability of an electricity management system and the impact of good and simple daily actions. First, some solutions to save money in the single-family home were compared and evaluated. The electrical energy storage system has been introduced. Storage makes it possible, among other things, to shift electricity consumption from peak to off-peak hours and thus save money. In a second part, the prediction of electricity consumption based on fuzzy logic was introduced in order to use the storage system more efficiently. The profitability of storage systems and smart plugs was studied. In a third and final part, a highly efficient energy converter (above 95%) was introduced. The latter is necessarily bidirectional because the energy must be able to pass from the storage system to the distribution network and vice versa. The harmonic distortion rates of the signals must then be as low as possible (here, less than 8%). The originality of the proposed converter also lies in the simplicity of the necessary digital control circuits. SiC power devices were used to achieve the desired energy efficiency values. These components also increase the switching frequency and thus reduce the size of the filter elements
Antilahy, Herimpitia Tsilavina Chrystelle. "Développement et mise en œuvre d’un mécanisme « 4D-addressing Wakeup radio » pour la réduction de la consommation d’énergie dans les réseaux de capteurs sans fil". Thesis, La Réunion, 2018. http://www.theses.fr/2018LARE0038.
Testo completoWireless sensor networks that are suitable for a wide range of applications, represent a promising solution that meets any requirement for continuous monitoring. The energy autonomy of sensor nodes constitutes a vulnerability factor that directly affects their longevity and the capacity of the network to ensure long coverage of the geographical area of interest. Energy consumption management is the only way to increase the lifespan of these networks and to give them a reasonable autonomy. Software solutions proposed through MAC protocols, bring significant improvements to the minimization of the energy expenditure of sensor nodes. They reduce the idle-listening periods which represents the most expensive operation in terms of energy, in the operation of the wireless sensor nodes. However, Focusing lonely on these solutions is not enough to guarantee acceptable longevity. The only way to optimize energy conservation in the WSN is to constantly put each node in low power mode and use a wakeup mechanism through wake-up signals. This involves the use of low-power wake-up circuits that provide channel monitoring, and trigger node wake-up only whenever event of interest occurs. In this context, a significant amount of work has proposed the use of an addressing mechanism (MAC addresses or other binary informations), to allow non-concerned nodes to quickly return to their sleep state. This approach is interesting, but involves a significant energy expenditure, related to address information’s reception and processing at all nodes. The most energy efficient solution would be the use of another type of address. This thesis is part of the context of minimizing the energy consumption of the WSN, using an addressing system that allows sensor nodes to receive and process the wake-up signals, without turning on their main communication module. It is to eliminate the energy expenditure related to the RF module’s activation and the reception of address packets, by exploiting wakeup signals duration. Our solution is based on the hardware characteristics of the microcontroller (IRQ, Timer/Counter) of sensor nodes. It reduces the complexities related to wakeup signals conditioning. Our solution is implemented on a small network. Its evaluations were done experimentally and its energy performance is compared to a conventional wake-up mechanism without addressing,and a conventional scheme based on duty-cycling