Tesi sul tema "Informal chains"

The research aim was to gain a more detailed understanding of the operation of different key segments for fresh produce supply chains originating in the Highlands Provinces in Papua New Guinea (PNG). The research investigates a number of supply chain dimensions of effectiveness which include, value creation and integration of processes, logistics, quality, information, relationship/vertical integration and overall effectiveness. These were linked together in SC framework. Two potato chains were investigated, one formal, the other informal. The informal potato chain involves small holder farmers, input suppliers and local markets including kai bars and the urban market. The chain originates and ends within the Western Highlands Province. The formal potato chain has farmers, input suppliers, wholesaler/marker, transport companies (trucking and coastal shipping agents), supermarkets, hotels and kai bars. This chain originates in Mt Hagen, Western Highlands Province and ends in Port Moresby, National Capital District. The effectiveness of both the formal and informal chains was identified, and comparisons were made to see how each chain differed. The informal chain was found to have different problems to the formal chains. However, participants to both chains demonstrate a high entrepreneurial behavior. A key finding of the study was that the chains spread their risk by operating in multiple market segments and this can help to solve issues with variable quality. The marketers in each chain position themselves in these different market segments. It was clear from this work that focusing on functions and not the whole chain can lead to a distorted view of chain performance. For example, for the informal chain, a focus on logistics issues, particularly poor roads and problems with availability of seeds, can misrepresent the effectiveness of this chain. Therefore, it was concluded that it is important to look at the overall performance of each chain rather than looking specifically at particular chain functions in isolation.

Thesis (M. Eng. in Logistics)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Engineering Systems Division; and, (M.C.P.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Urban Studies and Planning, 2012.<br>Cataloged from PDF version of thesis.<br>Includes bibliographical references (p. 114-118).<br>A large degree of economic activity in developing countries operates unregulated and unreported in what has become known as the informal economy. Within the informal economy, a large number of individuals work in waste picking and recycling. In Indonesia, up to 70% of all employment is within the informal economy. In Bandung, the nation's third largest city, there are estimated to be more than 3000 individuals working in the informal recycling sector as waste pickers and middlemen. The informal recycling supply chain begins with waste pickers that collect waste materials from homes, businesses, streets, waste transfer sites, and landfills. These materials are then sold through a series of middlemen before reaching the factories that reuse them as inputs to production. Traditionally, academics, policy makers, and advocacy groups have focused their attention on waste pickers, while dismissing recycling middlemen as being exploitative. However, in the case of Bandung, the middlemen industry has a great deal of heterogeneity in terms of earnings and vulnerability. Middlemen also add value to supply chain by providing needed capital and transportation. Using the case of recycling in Bandung, this thesis argues in favor of policies that take into consideration all actors within an informal supply chain. In order to design effective policies, policy makers should have a clear understanding of the supply chain dynamics as well as the roles that each actor in the system serves. This thesis purposes an evaluation tool to aid policy makers in assessing informal supply chains on aspects of both efficiency and social conditions. The application of this tool is then demonstrated in the design of several policy recommendations for enhancing informal recycling activities in Bandung.<br>by Michael A. Tuori.<br>M.C.P.<br>M.Eng.in Logistics

<p>The main objective of this study was to identify ways in which transaction costs can be lowered to improve small-scale farmers&rsquo<br>participation in and returns from agricultural output markets, with specific reference to small-scale mango farmers in Limpopo province. This study hypothesizes that transaction costs are lower in informal spot markets and increase when small-scale farmers sell in more structured markets (formal markets). This study builds on transaction cost economics (TCE) to demonstrate how to overcome transaction cost barriers that small-scale mango farmers face in the agro-food markets. The approach to collect primary information was sequenced in two steps: first, key informant and focus group interviews were conducted and, secondly, a structured survey instrument was administered in two districts of Limpopo. A total of 235 smallscale mango farmers were interviewed. A binary logistic regression model was used to estimate the impact of transaction costs on the likelihood of households&rsquo<br>participation in formal (=1) and informal (=0) agro-food markets. STATA Version 10 was used to analyse the data. This study found that a larger proportion of male than female farming households reported participation in the formal markets, suggesting deep-seated gender differentiation in market participation. The average age of small farmers participating in formal markets is 52, compared to 44 for those in informal markets, implying that older farmers might have established stronger networks and acquired experience over a longer period. Farmers staying very far from the densely populated towns (more than 50 km) participate less in the formal markets than those staying closer (0 &ndash<br>25 km and 26 &ndash<br>49 km), which implies that the further they are from the towns, the less the likelihood of farmers selling in the formal markets. Farmers who own storage facilities and a bakkie (transportation means) participate more in formal markets compared to those who do not own these assets, which suggests that these farmers are able to store mangoes, retaining their freshness and subsequently delivering them to various agro-food markets on time. Households that participate in formal markets have high mean values of income and social grants. However, this study found that the likelihood of a household&rsquo<br>s participation in the markets is less as income and social grants increase. This suggests that households do not invest their financial assets in order to overcome market access barriers. A large proportion of households that own larger pieces of arable land participate in the formal markets, which implies that they are able to produce marketable surplus. Households that have a high mean value (in Rand) of cattle participate more in formal markets than in informal markets. However, this study found that the likelihood of a household&rsquo<br>s participation in the markets does not change with an increase in the value of its livestock. These findings suggest that households do not sell their cattle in order to overcome market access barriers. Reduced transaction costs for small-scale mango farmers in Limpopo should improve their participation in and returns from the agro-food markets. Policy interventions to support this need to focus on: access to storage and transportation facilities, enforcement of gender equity requirements in existing policies, and better access to information about markets.</p>

The adversarial multi-agent patrol problem is an active research topic with many real-world applications such as physical robots guarding an area and software agents protecting a computer network. In it, agents patrol a graph looking for so-called critical vertices that are subject to attack by adversaries. The agents are unaware of which vertices are subject to attack by adversaries and when they encounter such a vertex they attempt to protect it from being compromised (an adversary must occupy the vertex it targets a certain amount of time for the attack to succeed). Even though the terms adversary and attack are used, the problem domain extends to patrolling a graph for other interesting noncompetitive contexts such as search and rescue. The problem statement adopted in this work is formulated such that agents obtain knowledge of local graph topology and critical vertices over the course of their travels via an API ; there is no global knowledge of the graph or communication between agents. The challenge is to balance exploration, necessary to discover critical vertices, with exploitation, necessary to protect critical vertices from attack. Four types of adversaries were used for experiments, three from previous research – waiting, random, and statistical - and the fourth, a hybrid of those three. Agent strategies for countering each of these adversaries are designed and evaluated. Benchmark graphs and parameter settings from related research will be employed. The proposed research culminates in the design and evaluation of agents to counter these various types of adversaries under a range of conditions. The results of this work are agent strategies in which each agent becomes solely responsible for protecting those critical vertices it discovers. The agents use emergent behavior to minimize successful attacks and maximize the discovery of new critical vertices. A set of seven edge choosing primitives (ECPs) are defined that are combined in different ways to yield a range of agent strategies using the chain of responsibility OOP design pattern. Every permutation of them were tested and measured in order to identify those strategies that perform well. One strategy performed particularly well against all adversaries, graph topology, and other experimental variables. This particular strategy combines ECPs of: A hard-deadline return to covered vertices to counter the random adversary, efficiently checking vertices to see if they are being attacked by the waiting adversary, and random movement to impede the statistical adversary.

Este trabalho tem como objetivo apresentar uma Metodologia pra implantar um Modelo de Processo Informado de Supply Chain usando tecnologia RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) aplicado ao Agronegócio. Para criação deste Modelo desenvolveu-se uma Metodologia própria utilizando-se de Ferramentas Computacionais Livres que conduziram a criação de um programa especializado para o Supply Chain da Semente de Milho, que foi o caso escolhido para o estudo. Os procedimentos adotados para criação deste Modelo podem facilmente ser remodelados para outras Cadeias do Agronegócio, tais como a Carne, as Frutas, Grãos Comerciais, gerando assim vantagens competitivas aos produtos até então vistos como puras commodities. As aplicações tradicionais do RFID têm sido limitadas ao posicionamento de produtos em armazéns, deixando abertas muitas possibilidades de estudo, como é o caso do Modelo Informado, permitindo ao consumidor final do produto ter todas as informações necessárias para garantia da qualidade junto ao item. A integração de conhecimentos originados no Supply Chain, Processo Informado, RFID e Agronegócio é feita com base em uma estrutura que distribui a informação entre os equipamentos e bancos de dados associados aos leitores de RFID. Neste trabalho a questão da segurança contra leitura não autorizada não foi incluída.<br>This paper aims to present a methodology to deploy a Process Model Informed \"Supply Chain\" using RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) applied to Agribusiness and Precision Agriculture. The intent of this proposal is to allow tend users of precision agriculture product to handle all the data need to ensure the quality of a target product. Traditional applications of RFID have been limited to product placement in stores, leaving a wide possibility of innovations in Supply Chain management. This case is strongly observed in agribusiness, a very important issue in Brazilian economy, where commodities are susceptible to failure or block orders. The coalescing of knowledge from Supply Chain, Process Informed, RFID and Agribusiness Study is made by a fair distribution of information among tags and databases, generally connected to RFID readers. Finally, a case study was included related to the supply of corn seeds to a culture inserted in the paradigm of precision agriculture.

This thesis focuses on the intersection of gender, households, and the non-timber forest product market. Based around the concept of commodity chain analysis, this research examines each stage in two non-timber forest products', straw brooms and coco baskets, life cycles from extraction to final sale. The first objective of this research is to contribute to the literature on NTFPs, and in general gender roles in Latin America, by examining the gendered division of labor within and among the stages of two specific NTFP commodity chains, and the ways in which this division influences how important these products are to household income and conservation. The second objective is look at how commodity chain analysis can be used to examine the above issues, thereby contributing to both NTFP and commodity chain analysis literature. The research shows that the construction of gender in Nicaragua underlies the different roles that men and women perform throughout the two non-timber forest product chains. The two chains represent varying degrees of participation by women and men, and this difference is explained by the prevalence of certain tasks. In the basket commodity chain there were more tasks that are labeled feminine, and in the broom commodity chain there are more tasks labeled male. In addition, the varying participation of men and women influence how income from these products are viewed within the households as well as where men and women stand as conservation stakeholders. Commodity chain analysis served as a useful tool to examine more closely the relationship of gender and households in non-timber forest products, and could be of great assistance to the various development projects using these products as a tool for sustainable development.<br>Master of Science

Bakgrund: Det råder en i allmänhet ökad efterfrågan om hållbara leverantörskedjor. Tillverkningen av hemelektronik är däremot både socialt och miljömässigt icke-hållbar vilket på senare år har uppenbarat sig i stor omfattning. Med tanke på att återförsäljarna av hemelektronik är många gånger fler än tillverkarna är återförsäljarna i en potentiell beroendeställning gentemot tillverkarna vilket väcker intresse för hur svenska återförsäljare av hemelektronik bör verka för hållbara leverantörskedjor. Syfte: Denna studie avser att beskriva konsumenters efterfråga och myndigheters påverkan på hållbara leverantörskedjor, beskriva den potentiellt asymmetriska relationen mellan tillverkare och återförsäljare på hemelektronikmarknaden samt utforska hur svenska återförsäljare bör verka för en hållbar leverantörskedja. Detta med tanke på den i allmänhet ökade efterfrågan på hållbara leverantörskedjor och den potentiellt svaga förhandlingskraft som återförsäljare av hemelektronik i Sverige innehar gentemot tillverkare. Slutsats: Konsumenters efterfrågan om hållbara leverantörskedjor i hemelektroniken är låg medan myndigheters efterfrågan om hållbar hemelektronik yttrar sig i form av striktare lagar. Beroendeställningen som svenska återförsäljare av hemelektronik har till tillverkare påverkar möjligheten att upprätthålla sina egenformulerade uppförandekod gentemot leverantörer, möjligheten till leverantörsbyte och garantin av en genomgående hållbarhet leverantörskedjan. För att påverka leverantörskedjorna till att bli mer hållbara använder sig återförsäljarna av styrmedel som uppförandekoder för leverantörer, relationsbyggande, utbildning och tillit. För att dessa ska ha största möjliga effekt rekommenderas en kombination av flera styrmedel. Formella som informella. Kunskapsbidrag: Då studien varit inriktat mot den svenska hemelektronikmarknaden har gjort resultatet till en vidareutveckling av befintliga teorier. Studien förväntas vara ett bidrag för framförallt återförsäljande aktörer och branschorganisationer på den svenska hemelektronikmarknaden Vidare är även resultatet användbart för organisationer som identifierar sig i den beroendeställning som studiens fallföretag befinner sig i samt ämnar att påverka hållbarheten i sina leverantörskedjor.<br>Background: There is a generally growing demand for sustainable supply chains. On the other hand, the production of consumer electronics is both socially and environmentally unsustainable, which has been revealed in recent years. Considering that the retailers of consumer electronics are many times more than manufacturers, dealers could potentially be in a state of dependence against manufacturers, which raises interest in how Swedish retailers of consumer electronics can work for sustainable supply chains. Aim: This study intends to describe consumers’ demand governments’ impact on sustainable supply chains, describe the potentially asymmetric relationship between manufacturers and retailers in the consumer electronics market, as well as investigating how Swedish retailers should work for a sustainable supply chain. This in view of the generally increased demand for sustainable supply chains and the potentially weak negotiating power that retailers of consumer electronics in Sweden hold against manufacturers. Conclusion: Consumers' demand for sustainable supply chains in consumer electronics is low, while authorities demand for sustainable consumer electronics expresses itself in the form of stricter laws. Swedish electronic retailers dependency on manufacturers affects the ability to maintain their proprietary code of conduct vis-à-vis suppliers. Moreover it affects the possibility of switching suppliers and the guarantee of an overall sustainable supply chain. In order to influence the supply chains to become more sustainable, retailers use instruments such as codes of conducts for suppliers, relationship building, education and trust. In order for these to have the greatest effect, a combination of several instruments is recommended. Formal as informal. Contribution of knowledge: Since this study has been focused on the Swedish consumer electronics market has made the result a development of existing theories. The thesis is expected to be a contribution primarily for retailers and industry organizations that are active on the Swedish consumer electronics market. Furthermore, the result is also useful for organizations that identify themselves in the same dependency as the study’s cases and intend to influence the sustainability on their supply chain.

Magister Philosophiae (Land and Agrarian Studies) - MPhil(LAS)<br>In the Western Cape, snoek (Thyrsites atun) is a target for small scale fisheries. This fishery is comprised of recreational, subsistence and traditional line fisheries in the province. Snoek contributes 40% to 50% of the line fish which is landed. This thesis sought to identify the roles which are performed by informal snoek traders in certain Cape Town coloured1 townships in the snoek value chain. There are various aspects of this fish which heightens its importance in the Western Cape. Snoek is significant in the provision of food security for many poor and working class individuals and households within the coloured townships of Cape Town. Snoek is an omega 3-rich fish and is one of the Cape’s most well-known gastronomic traditions. It provides affordable and easily absorbable proteins, vitamins and minerals for township people. Poor people mostly rely on starches and fail to afford the most expensive protein sources like red meat. The snoek trade also helps in the creation of jobs and enables people to earn cash income. The study revealed that there is specialisation and division of labour between snoek traders and fishers. Snoek is sold via the auction system at the various landing zones scattered all over the Western Cape. It was observed that the snoek value chain is dominated by men and there are few women in the value chain who sell or clean snoek. Informal snoek traders ply their business next to shops or on the sides of busy roads using ‘bakkies’2 from where the fish is flayed and sold to the waiting customer to emphasise its freshness. Snoek traders create convenience by bringing fresh fish to customers in the townships. They also assume risks which come with venturing in business. Some snoek traders engage in multiple livelihood strategies by diversifying income generating activities rather than relying on one income source. Among the several challenges which snoek traders confront, one pressing challenge they need to address is their lack of organisation which prohibits them from speaking with one voice. The snoek value chain should be more efficient so that it keeps supplying the much needed nutrients in the townships. Both primary and secondary data collection techniques were used. Snoek traders face a myriad of challenges which require the authorities to address. They have no access to infrastructure with sanitary facilities. The other problem they face is that they are disorganised amongst themselves which weaken their cause. Traders and fishers would like to see the real transformation taking place within this snoek fishery. Traders are convinced that there is corruption within the fisheries department and many have lost faith in the system.

The use of alien plant species as part of the livelihood resources of poor people raises conflicts with national legislation, which views these plants as threats to native plant biodiversity. However, there is also increasing body of literature on the contribution that some of these plants make to the livelihoods of poor people. The level of significance of some alien plant species to livelihoods is mostly highlighted in the case of female market participants who are in a position of household headship. Since most African cultures dictate the role of females as solely being that of homemaker while males are assigned the role household headship and breadwinner, women often find themselves having to shoulder the household responsibilities when the household head is no longer there. This was the case in the Nelson Mandela Bay informal prickly pear market that this study sought to investigate. Even though there were also male participants in the prickly pear market, the majority of participants in the market were female who also mentioned they were the sole breadwinner for their households. This study investigated the economic contribution that the prickly pear (Opuntia ficus-indica) informal market makes to the livelihoods of people living in the Nelson Mandela Bay. The significance of the market’s contribution to their livelihoods was examined through using the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework. The study revealed that although the prickly pear income was largely supplementary due to it being available for only three months of the year, the income was a safety net resource for the market participants who had limited access to other sources of income. The results also highlighted the reasons people were engaging in the informal prickly pear market. The main reason that was mentioned was unemployment. Through a livelihoods analysis using the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework, it was revealed that the other factors that were contributing to their unemployment were low levels of education, low levels of marketable skills, and old age. The study revealed through calculations of the estimated economic value of each market activity the potential of the prickly pear to be used as a poverty fighting tool. Although the results of this study only highlight the economic value of the prickly pear to people in a small area compared to the rest of the province and the country, the informal market’s significance still presents a strong case for the establishment of an agroprocessing industry, which would support the production of value-added products. Since the largest populations of the prickly pear in Uitenhage are currently under effective control by the cochineal species, promotion of its economic value instead of eradicating it without considering its value to the livelihoods of the people in the market could also ensure that its populations are kept under control. Job creation in the agroprocessing industry would not only improve the livelihoods of those involved in the market, but would also feed into the national economy instead of taking from it via the costs incurred during clearing.

Magister Educationis (Adult Learning and Global Change) - MEd(AL)<br>This study investigates “why adults participate in learning activities” and “what barriers deter adults from participating in learning activities.” Learning activities can include informal learning initiatives and formal education programmes. According to Larson and Milana (2006) “the question of why some people participates in adult education and training while others don’t thus” (p. 2) is as relevant and urgent as ever as we want to make lifelong learning accessible for everybody. While working at a Community College in the Western Cape (South Africa), for the period October 2007 until June 2010, I have observed and noticed that many of the learners who entered the different programmes were all of a certain age. Many of them experienced an excess of barriers deterring them from participation in learning. For the purpose of this study, I am going to use the Chain-of-Response (COR) Model by Cross (1981a) to investigate specifically the situational barriers affecting those learners. Cross (1981a) developed the COR model. The rationale behind it was to better understand what urges people to participate in higher education or learning institutions. This model can be seen as cyclic, and involves seven steps developed by Cross (1981a) which have different impacts on the decision-making process of whether to enter or participate and persist in an adult learning course. Cross (1981a) argues that “an adult’s participation in a learning activity is not an isolated act but is the result of a complex chain of responses based on the evaluation of the position of the individual in their environment” (p. 36). Responses leading to participation tend to originate within the individual, as opposed to outside forces; it can either encourage or discourage participation in learning.

Business Administration, Business Process &amp; Supply Chain Management, Degree Project (master), 15 higher education credits, 4FE06E, Spring 2011 Authors: Marjorie Laporte and Jérôme Le Duff Tutor: Fredrik Karlsson Title: Trust and contract effects on the efficiency of the supplier-manufacturer relationships – A dyadic perspective Background: The current global situation leads to a tightening of the supply chains. Since supply chain management is primarily about managing relationships, developing an efficient relationship appears to be the best way to stay competitive. Trust and contracts are elements that influence the efficiency of the relationships, but there is a debate concerning the way they impact efficiency. The focus has been made on the supplier-manufacturer relationships. Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to investigate the supplier-manufacturer relationships of Ferrero France, in order to increase the understanding of trust in relation to different types of contracts, while providing a managerial contribution by describing their impact on efficiency. Method: Interviews have been run among Ferrero France, manufacturer of confectionery products, and two of its suppliers. The empirical findings have been analyzed and compared to the existing theory in order to draw relevant conclusions. The results and conclusions also give rise to a broader strategic reflection about the impact of trust and contract on the whole supply chain, and not only on the supplier-manufacturer relationship. Results, conclusions: The results of this research point out some similarities and differences compared to the existing theory. The dyadic perspective provides a broader point of view, and results in stating that trust is the most important factor leading to efficiency. Moreover, several types of contracts exist. Formal contracts and trust are substitutes and can work together to improve the efficiency, even if the legal framework may limit the increase of efficiency. Informal contracts and trust have a much moreTrust and contract effects on the efficiency of the supplier-manufacturerrelationshipsMaster Thesis – Spring 20123important relationship, and are key elements to achieve greater efficiency and long-term success of the supplier-manufacturer relationship, as well as the whole supply chain. This study provides managers with a better understanding of the role of trust and contract to improve the competitiveness of the whole supply chain, while contributing to enrich the existing theory with new perspectives.

Investments in space systems are substantial, indivisible, and irreversible, characteristics that make them high-risk, especially when coupled with an uncertain demand environment. Traditional approaches to system design and acquisition, derived from a performance- or cost-centric mindset, incorporate little information about the spacecraft in relation to its environment and its value to its stakeholders. These traditional approaches, while appropriate in stable environments, are ill-suited for the current, distinctly uncertain and rapidly changing technical, and economic conditions; as such, they have to be revisited and adapted to the present context. This thesis proposes that in uncertain environments, decision-making with respect to space system design and acquisition should be value-based, or at a minimum value-informed. This research advances the value-centric paradigm by providing the theoretical basis, foundational frameworks, and supporting analytical tools for value assessment of priced and unpriced space systems. For priced systems, stochastic models of the market environment and financial models of stakeholder preferences are developed and integrated with a spacecraft-sizing tool to assess the system's net present value. The analytical framework is applied to a case study of a communications satellite, with market, financial, and technical data obtained from the satellite operator, Intelsat. The case study investigates the implications of the value-centric versus the cost-centric design and acquisition choices. Results identify the ways in which value-optimal spacecraft design choices are contingent on both technical and market conditions, and that larger spacecraft for example, which reap economies of scale benefits, as reflected by their decreasing cost-per-transponder, are not always the best (most valuable) choices. Market conditions and technical constraints for which convergence occurs between design choices under a cost-centric and a value-centric approach are identified and discussed. In addition, an innovative approach for characterizing value uncertainty through partial moments, a technique used in finance, is adapted to an engineering context and applied to priced space systems. Partial moments disaggregate uncertainty into upside potential and downside risk, and as such, they provide the decision-maker with additional insights for value-uncertainty management in design and acquisition. For unpriced space systems, this research first posits that their value derives from, and can be assessed through, the value of information they provide. To this effect, a Bayesian framework is created to assess system value in which the system is viewed as an information provider and the stakeholder an information recipient. Information has value to stakeholders as it changes their rational beliefs enabling them to yield higher expected pay-offs. Based on this marginal increase in expected pay-offs, a new metric, Value-of-Design (VoD), is introduced to quantify the unpriced system's value. The Bayesian framework is applied to the case of an Earth Science satellite that provides hurricane information to oil rig operators using nested Monte Carlo modeling and simulation. Probability models of stakeholders' beliefs, and economic models of pay-offs are developed and integrated with a spacecraft payload generation tool. The case study investigates the information value generated by each payload, with results pointing to clusters of payload instruments that yielded higher information value, and minimum information thresholds below which it is difficult to justify the acquisition of the system. In addition, an analytical decision tool, probabilistic Pareto fronts, is developed in the Cost-VoD trade space to provide the decision-maker with additional insights into the coupling of a system's probable value generation and its associated cost risk.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior<br>The present study of agricultural marketing in Itabaiana city analyzed the structure, form, function and process, from the identification and demonstration of the main horticultural imports and exports for this market. In this sense, the research aimed to reflect the dynamic socio-spatial and economic for the marketing of fresh produce in the city. This was justified in desire to contribute to the knowledge of trade and to check the flows and networks established in this space. Therefore, it assumed the direct and indirect observations of facts, through field work, with interviews of various social actors, including: farmers, traders, wholesalers, market traders and supermarkets, interviews and survey data federal, state and municipal and literature research. Information obtained testified that agricultural marketing is a complex activity among those involving the steps of the agriculture production, because it includes several segments that appropriate the production. This process is found in Brazil in the state of Sergipe and more specifically in Itabaiana city, the integration of various social actors in the production chain. In Itabaiana, the establishment of several chains of agricultural products was favored by natural conditions, the suitable farming practices, the historical events that made the city a crossing point between the coast and hinterland, the economic base in trade and agriculture; the "truck culture" that encouraged the import and export of these products. These chains and more specifically agricultural marketing in Itabaiana have been controlled by agents that promote the import and distribution of horticultural and thus feed the formal and informal markets, both local and regional scale. In this way, agricultural marketing has contributed to Itabaiana firm as the largest wholesale market in Sergipe, competing in terms of commercial appeal, with the major wholesaler markets in the Northeast.<br>O presente estudo de comercialização agrícola na cidade de Itabaiana analisou a estrutura, a forma, a função e o processo, a partir da identificação e demonstração dos principais hortifrutigranjeiros importados e exportados por esse mercado. Neste sentido, a pesquisa teve por objetivo refletir a dinâmica sócio-espacial e econômica decorrente da comercialização de hortifrutigranjeiros no município. Essa se justificou na pretensão de contribuir para o conhecimento das relações comerciais e para verificar os fluxos e as redes estabelecidas nesse espaço. Para tanto, partiu-se de observações diretas e indiretas dos fatos, através do trabalho de campo, com realização de entrevistas entre diversos atores sociais, entre os quais: agricultores, intermediário-atacadistas, feirantes e supermercados; de entrevistas e levantamento de dados com órgãos federais, estaduais e municipais; e de pesquisa bibliográfica. As informações obtidas atestaram que a comercialização agrícola é uma atividade complexa dentre aquelas que envolvem as etapas da cadeia produtiva da agricultura, pois abrange diversos segmentos que se apropriam da produção. Esse processo é verificado no Brasil, no Estado de Sergipe e mais especificamente no município de Itabaiana, pela integração de diversos atores sociais na cadeia produtiva. Em Itabaiana, a constituição de várias cadeias de produtos agrícolas foi favorecida pelas condições naturais, aptas as práticas da agricultura; pelos fatos históricos que fizeram do município um ponto de passagem entre o litoral e o sertão; pela base econômica no comércio e na agricultura; e pela cultura do caminhão que estimulou a importação e exportação desses produtos. Essas cadeias e mais especificamente a comercialização agrícola, em Itabaiana, têm sido controladas por intermediários que promovem a importação e a distribuição dos produtos hortifrutigranjeiros e, conseqüentemente, alimentam os mercados formal e informal, tanto em escala local quanto regional. Deste modo, a comercialização agrícola tem contribuído para que Itabaiana se firme como o maior mercado atacadista do Estado de Sergipe, competindo em termos de atração comercial, com os maiores mercados atacadistas do Nordeste.

In this thesis a number of statistical methods have been developed and applied to habitat suitability modelling for rare and threatened species. Data available on these species are typically limited. Therefore, developing these models from these data can be problematic and may produce prediction biases. To address these problems there are three aims of this thesis. The _rst aim is to develop and implement frequentist and Bayesian statistical modelling approaches for these types of data. The second aim is develop and implement expert elicitation methods. The third aim is to apply these novel approaches to Australian rare and threatened species case studies with the intention of habitat suitability modelling. The _rst aim is ful_lled by investigating two innovative approaches for habitat suitability modelling and sensitivity analysis of the second approach to priors. The _rst approach is a new multilevel framework developed to model the species distribution at multiple scales and identify excess zeros (absences outside the species range). Applying a statistical modelling approach to the identi_cation of excess zeros has not previously been conducted. The second approach is an extension and application of Bayesian classi_cation trees to modelling the habitat suitability of a threatened species. This is the _rst `real' application of this approach in ecology. Lastly, sensitivity analysis of the priors in Bayesian classi_cation trees are examined for a real case study. Previously, sensitivity analysis of this approach to priors has not been examined. To address the second aim, expert elicitation methods are developed, extended and compared in this thesis. In particular, one elicitation approach is extended from previous research, there is a comparison of three elicitation methods, and one new elicitation approach is proposed. These approaches are illustrated for habitat suitability modelling of a rare species and the opinions of one or two experts are elicited. The _rst approach utilises a simple questionnaire, in which expert opinion is elicited on whether increasing values of a covariate either increases, decreases or does not substantively impact on a response. This approach is extended to express this information as a mixture of three normally distributed prior distributions, which are then combined with available presence/absence data in a logistic regression. This is one of the _rst elicitation approaches within the habitat suitability modelling literature that is appropriate for experts with limited statistical knowledge and can be used to elicit information from single or multiple experts. Three relatively new approaches to eliciting expert knowledge in a form suitable for Bayesian logistic regression are compared, one of which is the questionnaire approach. Included in this comparison of three elicitation methods are a summary of the advantages and disadvantages of these three methods, the results from elicitations and comparison of the prior and posterior distributions. An expert elicitation approach is developed for classi_cation trees, in which the size and structure of the tree is elicited. There have been numerous elicitation approaches proposed for logistic regression, however no approaches have been suggested for classi_cation trees. The last aim of this thesis is addressed in all chapters, since the statistical approaches proposed and extended in this thesis have been applied to real case studies. Two case studies have been examined in this thesis. The _rst is the rare native Australian thistle (Stemmacantha australis), in which the dataset contains a large number of absences distributed over the majority of Queensland, and a small number of presence sites that are only within South-East Queensland. This case study motivated the multilevel modelling framework. The second case study is the threatened Australian brush-tailed rock-wallaby (Petrogale penicillata). The application and sensitivity analysis of Bayesian classi_cation trees, and all expert elicitation approaches investigated in this thesis are applied to this case study. This work has several implications for conservation and management of rare and threatened species. Novel statistical approaches addressing the _rst aim provide extensions to currently existing methods, or propose a new approach, for identi _cation of current and potential habitat. We demonstrate that better model predictions can be achieved using each method, compared to standard techniques. Elicitation approaches addressing the second aim ensure expert knowledge in various forms can be harnessed for habitat modelling, a particular bene_t for rare and threatened species which typically have limited data. Throughout, innovations in statistical methodology are both motivated and illustrated via habitat modelling for two rare and threatened species: the native thistle Stemmacantha australis and the brush-tailed rock wallaby Petrogale penicillata.

We have investigated the effect of Trypanosoma cruzi on the structural and functional properties of high density lipoprotein (HDL). These studies revealed that infection with T. cruzi leads to truncation of apoA-I with subsequent loss of HDL species, most notably, poorly lipidated prebeta-HDL subparticles. When lipid-free apoA-I or lipid-reconstituted apoA-I were incubated with various forms of T. cruzi, either alone or during macrophage infection, loss of full-length apoA-I was readily apparent, with concomitant replacement by lower molecular weight peptides. In vitro evidence points to the highly abundant cysteine protease cruzipain as responsible for this degradation. We suggest that degradation of apoA-I alters the functional properties of HDL, as indicated by the increased levels of cholesterol efflux achieved by T. cruzi infected mice. Since HDL is a known modifier of the macro- and microvasculature, these functional alterations may be partially responsible for the vascular abnormalities seen in chronic chagasic cardiomyopathy.<br>Nous avons examiné l'effet de Trypanosoma cruzi sur les propriétés structurelles et fonctionnelles des lipoproteins de haute densité (HDL), constituées d'apoA-I et reconnue pour leur rôle dans le système atheroprotective. Ces études ont révélé que l'infection avec T. cruzi mène à la troncation d'apoA-I avec la perte de certaines particules HDL, notamment, le prebeta-HDL. Lors de l'incubation de d'apoA-I avec diverses souches de T. cruzi, seul ou en présence du macrophage, la molécule d'apoA-I se transforme à des peptides de poids moléculaires inférieurs. Les résidus cysteine fortement abondant dans la structure de la protease cruzipain sont responsables de la dégradation d'apoA-I. Nous suggérons que la trancation d'apoA-I change les propriétés fonctionnelles du HDL, comme indiqué par l'augmentation la désorption du cholestérol cellulaire en présence du HDL des souris infectées. Il est connu que le HDL est un modificateur de la macro- et microvasculature, ces changements fonctionnels peuvent être partiellement responsables des anomalies vasculaires comme la cardiomyopathie chronique chez les patients atteints de cette maladie.

The objective of the study is to identify how micro-enterprises can be integrated into local value chains by using the so-called "value chain approach". The "value chain approach" has become a relatively popular approach among donor agencies and NGOs engaged in Private Sector Development in recent years, being based on insights from studies on global value chains. The study includes investigation into the following points: 1) Which business linkages exist among micro-enterprises and with enterprises of different sizes and sectors, and how are they related to the upgrading process of micro-enterprises? 2) What influence does the legal status of micro-enterprises have on the development of business linkages and on the upgrading process? 3) How can the development of business linkages and the upgrading process (and, therefore, the integration into value chains) be supported and enhanced within the framework of PSD? The empirical study was conducted in Uganda. It includes a combination of qualitative and quantitative approaches: (1) a questionnaire-based survey among micro-entrepreneurs, and (2) expert or key informant interviews, using a semi-structured interview guideline. The study provides an assessment of the relevance and applicability of the "value chain approach" to micro-enterprises and local value chains in the context of a developing country characterised by low levels of industrialisation, as well as policy recommendations for practitioners (from public and private sectors, as well as donor community, NGOs and civil society). Furthermore, the study highlights the importance of the issue of informality of micro- and small-scale enterprises. (author's abstract)

The aim of the research was to identify the constraints that restrict the development of informal and small formal retailers, and highlight potential opportunities that may assist in strengthening their position within the value chain. It explored the functioning of two municipal-managed static fresh produce markets in KwaZulu-Natal: Durban and Pietermaritzburg. The investigation revealed that informal and small formal retailers have relatively little impact on the fresh produce value chain and that the structure of static markets is not conducive to these groups because of their lack of capital and inability to buy produce in bulk. Predominant constraints to their economic growth include high cost of transport, high prices of produce and competition with other traders. In addition, police harassment was identified in Durban as one of the dominant constraints, but was not reflected in Pietermaritzburg. However, opportunities for small and informal retailers to strengthen their position were identified as increasing the market access for retailers, through the provision of transport, informal training workshops, cold storage facilities in the city, the formation of cooperatives and access to micro-credit. This research argues that attention must be given to enhancing the interests and role of small and informal retailers in governance and operational processes within fresh produce markets. The necessity of the development of social networks (also argued by Meagher 1995) is a critical factor in determining the success of informal and micro enterprises and could contribute to institutional reforms that help address the information and access asymmetries in the fresh produce market environment. Following the completion of this dissertation, it was distributed along with the appended log frames to the management at the Durban and Pietermaritzburg, market agents and informal retailer groups that participated. It will also be disseminated through the Learning, Monitoring and Research Facility, who funded part of the research, and is hoped that the information will aid informal retailers and empower those that were involved.<br>Thesis (M.A.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, 2008.

碩士<br>雲林科技大學<br>資訊管理系碩士班<br>98<br>Sharing knowledge in a supply chain is one way to enhance strategic competitiveness. It is generally agreed that the development of close relationships facilitates knowledge sharing among supply chain partners. Relational governance is a major perspective for the maintenance of inter-organizational relationships in supply chains. The empirical literatures seldom construct the theoretical framework to illustrate the behavior of above phenomenon of inter-organizational relationship. To address the issue of governance relationships within the partnership in a supply chain and investigate factors influencing inter-organizational knowledge sharing, this study develops a conceptual model that supply chain contagion and informal social ties as a moderating construct to examined the interactive effects that affect knowledge sharing and these relationships. The findings of the study provide practical insights in understanding how enhanced relational value can help enhancing inter-organizational knowledge sharing for achieving the competitive advantage of supply chains. This study found that the inclination of a company to develop relationships, called relational orientation, is positively associated with its willingness to share knowledge with partners. The study also found that supply chain contagion between supply chain members increases the willingness of partners to enhance their relationships with other partners for improving knowledge sharing. Moreover, informal social ties were increased to build or enhance relationships to improve knowledge sharing. Members of the network are connected through interpersonal ties that diffuse private information and advice. Firms in supply chain should reinforce their relationship collaborative behaviours and knowledge sharing in order to enhance the competitive advantage of the supply chain as a whole.

Abstract South African Breweries Limited (SAB) is the dominant player in the beer market within the South African economy. The company owns 95 per cent of the market. This astounding dominance in the market is strongly linked to the informal economy. Over 82 per cent of SAB beers are consumed in illegal shebeens in townships like Soweto. During the height of apartheid, SAB went against the apartheid government and formed illegal relationships with township shebeens in order to increase their market in these areas. Thus, SAB was instrumental in the expansion of the informal retailing of beer in shebeens. SAB also grew from this informality. The very backbone of SAB is the township market, which is called the quarts (the 750 ml bottled beer) market. Even at present SAB uses shebeens to increase its market share. Given this, there is a clear relationship between the formal and the informal economies. The main reason that SAB initiated relations with shebeens was because these enterprises formed the most crucial part of their value chain. The value chain analyses demonstrate the linkages between the formal and the informal economies through a case study of SAB and shebeens in Soweto.

The stochastic behavior of voltage-gated ion channels causes fluctuations of conductances and voltages across neuronal membranes, contributing to the neuronal noise which is ubiquitous in the nervous system. While this phenomenon can be observed also on other parts of the neuron, here we concentrated on the axon and the way the channel noise influences axonal input-output characteristics. This was analysed by working with our newly created computational compartmental model, programmed in Matlab environment, built up using the Hodgkin-Huxley mathematical formalism and channel noise implemented via extended Markov Chain Monte Carlo method. The model was thoroughly verified to simulate plausibly a mammalian axon of CA3 neuron. Based on our simulations, we confirmed quantitatively the findings that the channel noise is the most prominent on membranes with smaller number of Na+ and K+ channels and that it majorly increases the variability of travel times of action potentials (APs) along axons, decreasing thereby the temporal precision of APs. The simulations analysing the effect of axonal demyelination and axonal diameter correlated well with other finding referred in Literature. We further focused on spike pattern and how is its propagation influenced by inter-spike intervals (ISI). We found, that APs fired...

This thesis is about the quest to build effective strategies to support the development of enterprise on the margins of the economy, to create jobs and reduce poverty. A core part of this challenge includes grappling with the role of markets in development, and of markets as a critical part of the context in which enterprise development in rural and peri-urban areas can either provide a path out of poverty – or instead serve to lock people into poverty. The thesis explores these issues by tracking the experience of the Mineworkers Development Agency (MDA) as it attempted to grapple with this challenge. MDA is the development wing of South Africa’s National Union of Mineworkers (NUM) , and was set up to create jobs and support enterprise development for communities affected by the loss of jobs on the mines. The thesis covers a fourteen-year period in MDA’s history, from its inception in 1988 until 2002. It tracks the learning process across several phases in the development of MDA’s approach. These included the development of worker co-operatives, the establishment of business service centres, value-chain work in the craft sector, and the commercialization of a juice product from the indigenous marula berry. In the process, MDA engaged with an emergent paradigm in the development sector called ‘Making Markets Work for the Poor’. Can markets really be made to work for the poor? Or even just made to work ‘better’ for the poor? Or is the process of inclusion in markets inexorably and inevitably one of making the poor work for markets? The thesis explores these issues in the context of MDA’s experience, locating this within a wider set of theoretical concerns over the role of markets in society, and the ways in which societies have protected themselves from the negative impacts of the development of market economies. It draws on wider political economy approaches to argue that markets are institutions that are socially constructed, and explores what scope there might therefore be to construct them differently. While recognising the importance of social protection, the thesis argues that there is a need to go beyond defensive strategies aimed at protecting society from markets, to identify new terms of engagement within markets to shape markets, and to harness their wealth-creating potential in ways that have different distributional consequences, as part of a long-term agenda of eradicating poverty.