Tesi sul tema "Individual poverty"

Measuring and explaining poverty and its geographic differences in Indonesia is mostly confined to a single measure of poverty and to macro-level explanations. This thesis moves beyond these constraints to investigate regional poverty trends using multiple measures of poverty and to explore household and individual level explanations. The analyses in the thesis are undertaken using data from the SUSENAS core, covering the period 2000-2009. Different measures of poverty produce different numbers of poor. Some 33 million additional Indonesians were identified as poor using the $1.25 a day poverty measure than the official measure used by the government. The differences between both measures of poverty are, however, driven by poverty trends in the early 2000s, following the devastating impact of the 1997-1998 financial crisis. In the latter part of the 2000s, poverty trends were converging between the two poverty measures, suggesting some degree of reliability of Indonesia's official poverty measure. At the macro level, on average, increasing GDP is significantly associated with falling levels of poverty. The association is reduced marginally when the share of the informal workforce is taken into account, but in general the negative relationship remains robust. Regional analyses, however, reveal that GDP has a very small, insignificant negative association with poverty in the poorest region. At the individual level, education strongly determines poverty, independently of employment status. A substantial share of the primary and lower secondary qualified population is employed in informal work, yet their risk of poverty is substantially lower when compared to those with no formal qualification engaging as informal workers. More importantly, the highest risk of poverty exists among the unemployed who lack a formal education. This finding is highlighted because unemployment is often seen as having little relevance to poverty, since a higher proportion of the unemployed are tertiary educated. The 'penalty' on poverty for those occupying the lower tiers of educational qualification is heavier in less developed regions. Household level analysis show that the different groups of female-headed households (de facto, widows and divorcees) are less likely to be in poverty than male-headed couple households. After controlling for socioeconomic characteristics and the number of young children within households, however, female-headed divorcee households are found to be marginally poorer than male-headed couple households. Regional level analyses reveal that poverty is significantly higher in female divorcee-led households than in male-headed couple households in all regions, except in the most and least developed ones, where poverty is comparable between both groups.

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Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior
A distribuição dos recursos nos domicílios é importante para a compreensão do bem-estar material de seus integrantes e para a formulação de políticas redistributivas. Apesar da aparente importância da dimensão intrafamiliar da desigualdade, muito pouco tem sido feito para entender o quanto dos recursos do domicílio são apropriados pelos indivíduos que o compõem, e assim, tentar avaliar a pobreza individual. De fato, a avaliação da pobreza e da desigualdade, muitas vezes, assume uma distribuição igualitária dos recursos entre os membros do agregado familiar. Além disso, as medidas de pobreza não apenas negligenciam a distribuição dos recursos dentro dos domicílios, mas também os ganhos decorrentes do consumo conjunto. No entanto, a parcela de recursos domésticos dedicados a cada membro da família é difícil de identificar porque o consumo é medido ao nível do domicílio e os bens podem certamente ser compartilhados. Esta pesquisa tentou analisar o grau de desigualdade dentro das famílias e sua contribuição para os níveis de pobreza no contexto brasileiro. Em particular, estimou-se o processo de alocação de recursos e as economias de escala nos domicílios do Brasil usando um modelo coletivo de consumo das famílias. Mais especificamente, tentou-se analisar as parcelas de recursos de crianças e adultos e a relação com as economias de escala decorrentes do consumo conjunto e o processo de barganha dos pais, a fim de calcular uma medida direta da pobreza individual para o Brasil. A identificação da parcela de recursos dos membros do agregado familiar requer, além da observação de bens específicos dos adultos, a estimativa conjunta de curvas de Engel para domicílios de casais e solteiros. Esta estratégia de identificação difere do método tradicional de Rothbarth na medida em que é compatível com as economias de escala, bem como com o processo de barganha parental. A base de dados utilizada foi a Pesquisa de Orçamentos Familiares do Brasil (POF 2008-2009). Os principais resultados forneceram evidência de desigualdade e economias de escala dentro dos domicílios brasileiros, o que nos leva à rejeição do modelo unitário de consumo e da abordagem tradicional de Rothbarth no caso do Brasil, respectivamente. Os resultados também mostraram que a parcela dos gastos totais dos homens é ligeiramente maior do que as parcelas das mulheres para quase todas as estruturas familiares consideradas no presente trabalho. Por sua vez, a magnitude das parcelas das crianças, interpretadas como o custo dos filhos para os pais, é comparativamente menor. Outros resultados também mostraram como os recursos destinados a cada membro variam de acordo com o tamanho e a estrutura da família, e, em particular, como as medidas tradicionais de pobreza tendem a superestimar a incidência da pobreza infantil. Além disso, encontrou-se que a parcela de recursos dedicada às crianças aumenta com o número de crianças, mas a parcela média por cada criança tende a diminuir. Por outro lado, verificou-se que as economias de escala dos adultos são grandes e afetam as medidas de pobreza. Especificamente, a pobreza entre adultos é menor porque os pais são altamente compensados pelas economias de escala decorrentes do consumo conjunto. Apesar de os filhos comandarem uma parcela de recursos razoavelmente grande do agregado familiar, tal parcela não é suficiente para evitar que eles tenham taxas mais elevadas de pobreza do que os seus pais. Além disso, foi encontrado que as mães parecem contribuir com mais recursos para os filhos do que os pais, e por outro lado, não foram encontradas diferenças de gênero, mas sim diferenças etárias nas parcelas de recursos entre as crianças. Ainda, os resultados fornecem evidências indicando que o poder de barganha das mulheres dentro da família melhora com a idade, nível de educação e a participação no mercado de trabalho. No geral, a principal conclusão é que a desigualdade intrafamiliar é significativa. Uma consequência importante disso é que as medidas tradicionais per capita de pobreza, que, por construção, ignoram a desigualdade intrafamiliar, apresentam uma imagem enganosa da pobreza, em especial para as crianças. Finalmente, essas estimativas são importantes para as intervenções de políticas redistributivas, porque constituem medidas mais precisas do bem-estar material relativo dos brasileiros em domicílios de diversas composições. Igualmente, o fato de que é plausível medir as parcelas de recursos de cada membro das famílias é um passo muito útil para medir a pobreza individual e, assim, informar de forma mais precisa aos formuladores de políticas que estão focados na redução da pobreza.
The distribution of resources within households is crucial to the understanding of its members’ material well-being and for the design of redistributive policies. Although the apparent importance of the intra-household dimension of inequality, very little research has focused on how much of the family resources are dedicated to each member, and thereby attempting to assess individual poverty. In fact, the assessment of poverty and inequality often assumes an equal distribution of resources among household members. Moreover, poverty measures not only neglect the distribution of resources within families, but also the gains from joint consumption. However, the share of household resources devoted to each family member is hard to identify, because consumption is measured at the household level and goods can indeed be shared. This research attempted to analyze the extent of inequality within households and its contribution to levels of poverty in the Brazilian context. In particular, we estimated the process of resources allocation and economies of scale in households from Brazil using a collective model of household consumption. More specifically, we attempted to analyze the resource shares of children and adults in relation with the scale economies of joint consumption and the parental bargaining in order to calculate a direct measure of individual poverty for Brazil. The identification of the household member’s resource share requires the observation of adult-specific goods and a joint estimation on couples and singles. This identification strategy differs from the traditional Rothbarth method, in that it is compatible with economies of scale as well as with parents’ bargaining. The database used was Pesquisa de Orçamentos Familiares (POF 2008-2009). The main results provide evidence of inequality and economies of scale within Brazilian households, which leads us to the rejection of the unitary model and the traditional Rothbarth approach for Brazil, respectively. Our findings also showed that men’s share of total expenditures is slightly larger than women's shares for almost all the family structures considered here. The magnitude of children’s shares, interpreted as the cost of children for the parents, is in turn comparatively smaller. We also showed how resources devoted to each household member vary by family size and structure, and we find that, particularly, standard poverty measures tend to overstate the incidence of child poverty. Furthermore, we found that the share of resources devoted to children rises with the number of children, but the average share per child tends to decrease. On the other hand, we found that adult's scale economies are large and affect poverty measures. Specifically, adult poverty is smaller because parents are highly compensated by the scale economies due to joint consumption. Despite that the children command a reasonably large share of household resources, such share is not enough to avoid having higher rates of poverty than their parents. In addition, we found that mothers seem to contribute more resources than fathers to children, and we do not find evidence of gender but age differences in children’s resource shares. Also, results provide evidence indicating that women’s bargaining power within the household improves with their age, level of education and participation in the labor market. Overall, our main finding is that there is substantial intra-household inequality. One important consequence of this is that standard per-capita poverty measures, which by construction ignore intra-household inequality, present a misleading picture of poverty, particularly for children. Finally, our estimates are important for redistributive policy interventions, because they constitute more accurate measures of the relative material welfare of Brazilians in households of varying composition. Furthermore, the fact that it is plausible to measure of each member’s resource shares within households is a very useful step in measuring individual poverty, and thus informing in a more precise way to policy makers which are focused on poverty alleviation.
Sem Lattes

Master of Science
School of Family Studies and Human Services
Melinda Markham
Resiliency in the low-income population includes individual as well as familial and community achievement. In order to break down the barriers of poverty, all three must be interconnected. This report provides a review of the current literature on factors that affect individuals and families to become resilient and what programs are available for support along the way. Circles Manhattan is one program in the Manhattan, Kansas community that rallies around individuals and families in poverty and works to see them through to earning 200% of the Federal Poverty Guidelines. This report also provides an evaluation of the Circles Manhattan Circle Leader training using pre-evaluation, post-evaluation, and weekly evaluation tools. Based on the results of the evaluation, recommendations are made for the future of Circles Manhattan as well as for researchers studying the topic of resiliency and poverty.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--Indiana University, School of Education, 2008.
Title from PDF t.p. (viewed on May 11, 2009). Source: Dissertation Abstracts International, Volume: 69-08, Section: A, page: 3025. Advisers: Edward P. St. John; Thomas J. Huberty.

The purpose ofthis project was to establish a system of structured parental involvement utilizing parent liaisons in Verde Elementary and Peres Elementary Schools within the West Contra Costa Unified School District in Northern California. This system would facilitate parental engagement in the educational process of the students.

The target population, urban students of poverty and color, has been shown to have lower levels of academic achievement and high school graduation rates than other students. Parental involvement has been shown to enhance academic achievement and to benefit families, schools, and communities. The primary goal of the program is to increase the level of engagement of all parents within the school by actively reaching out to them, with the assumption that increased parental involvement will increase student performance, attendance, retention, and graduation rates. The concept of cultural humility will serve as the central theoretical framework which guides the establishment and operation of all aspects of this project. The actual submission and/or funding of this grant were not required for successful completion of this project.

With many families in poverty in need of assistance in the United States, the government has implemented stricter work requirements to get individuals off welfare and to work. Recipients must now work a state specified number of hours per week to receive aid. Some research suggest that these policies may increase employment rates amongst recipients, yet not lead to their economic growth and independence. This study examines the effect of TANF work requirements on various socioeconomic outcomes for individual recipients, including employment, job quality and income. Data on TANF recipients come from 2014 Survey of Income and Participation. Results suggest a negative reserve effect than what policy-makers intended for, yet are inconclusive of the net effect of work requirements. Other factors, such as race, sex and educational attainment play a significant role in various outcomes.

Economie informelle et pauvreté en Turquie : une analyse des comportements individuels sur des données des dépenses monétaires et temporelles de 2003 à 2006
Since it was first introduced by Hart in 1973, the concept of “informal economy” has had vast implications for social-scientific research. Over the last four decades, informal economy has received increased attention in literature and has been keenly discussed by public authorities and scholars. There were two main motivations behind these efforts to identify the informal economy: to measure its size and to know its determinants. From a practical point of view, informal economy has been an enigma for economists seeking to identify its nature and to measure activities that have various economic motivations. Informality has been denoted by many names, such as “shadow”, “underground”, “second” or “parallel” economy- a plethora of terms resulting from the struggle to define informality. Likewise, the various approaches to studying the phenomenon differ greatly in the way that they relate to socio-economic characterization. Although there is great variation between definitions of informality, these diversifications allow authorities to deal more easily with the source of the problem, being able to inform themselves and create accurate policies. Generally speaking, these policies aim to increase the level of productivity for any given sector and to protect growth in an economy as a whole. The implicit goal of these strategies is to prevent informal earnings by protecting formal market transactions (Schneider and Enste, 2002) and thereby combat informality. To this end, identifying the stimulating economic factors behind informal activities by gathering information about participants, their actions and the concurrency of these activities becomes essential for the optimal distribution of economic resources

Cette thèse analyse les modèles d'inégalités intra-ménage dans les pays non développés et la manière dont ils sont affectés par la culture et les politiques. À l'aide d'enquêtes sur les dépenses des ménages, j'utilise un modèle collectif pour analyser la répartition de la consommation des ménages et ses moteurs, et pour évaluer ses implications pour la pauvreté individuelle.Dans le premier chapitre, je présente des résultats inédits sur la répartition des ressources au sein des ménages dans 45 pays à revenu faible ou intermédiaire. Les résultats révèlent que les femmes sont presque deux fois plus pauvres que les hommes à l'échelle mondiale, et que les enfants sont encore plus démunis. En outre, les disparités au sein des ménages sont plus prononcées dans les pays pauvres et, au sein des pays, parmi les ménages pauvres.Dans le deuxième chapitre, je cherche à savoir si les coutumes de résidence post-matrimoniale fondées sur la parenté - en particulier la patrilocalité (résidence avec les parents du marié) et la matrilocalité (résidence avec les parents de la mariée) - continuent d'influencer le partage de la consommation des ménages et les niveaux de pauvreté individuels au Ghana et au Malawi. L'analyse indique que la patrilocalité ancestrale, comparée à la matrilocalité, correspond à une allocation réduite des ressources aux femmes et à une incidence notablement plus élevée de la pauvreté chez les femmes pour les différents niveaux de consommation des ménages.Dans le troisième chapitre, j'examine l'impact du plus grand programme d'aide sociale de l'Uruguay, qui cible les familles pauvres avec enfants et qui est versé aux femmes. En utilisant un modèle de discontinuité de la régression dans un cadre d'estimation structurelle, je constate une augmentation significative de l'allocation des ressources aux femmes éligibles dans les zones rurales, sans effets sur les enfants. Je traduis ces résultats en termes de pauvreté individuelle : tous les membres de la famille bénéficient de l'effet de revenu, mais l'effet de négociation réduit encore plus la pauvreté des femmes
This dissertation analyzes the patterns of intra-household inequalities in non-developed countries and how they are affected by culture and policies. Using household expenditure surveys, I employ a collective model to analyze household consumption allocation and its drivers, and to assess its implications for individual poverty.In the first chapter, I present novel findings on intra-household resource distribution for 45 low- and middle-income countries. The results reveal that women are nearly twice as poor as men on a global scale, with children experiencing even greater deprivation. Furthermore, intra-household disparities are more pronounced in poor countries and, within countries, among poor households.In the second chapter, I investigate whether kinship-based post-marital residence customs—specifically, patrilocality (residing with the groom's parents) and matrilocality (residing with the bride's parents)—continue to influence household consumption sharing and individual poverty levels in Ghana and Malawi. Analysis indicates that ancestral patrilocality, compared to matrilocality, corresponds with reduced resource allocation to women and a notably higher incidence of poverty among women across various household consumption levels.In the third chapter, I examine the impact of Uruguay's largest social assistance program, which targets poor families with children and paid to women. Employing a regression discontinuity design within a structural estimation framework, I find a significant increase in resource allocation to eligible women in rural areas, with no effects on children. I translate these results into terms of individual poverty: all family members benefit from the income effect, but the bargaining effect reduces women's poverty even more

nÃo hÃ
This paper aims to do a study on the State Fund to Combat Poverty - FECOP, its creation, laws, objectives and performance, especially in the aspect of its ability to foster change through the proposed projects, strengthening the individual assets and therefore improving the quality of life of beneficiary families, whose families are those who are below the poverty line, defined as those who perceive an income below half the minimum wage per person. This thesis also aims to describe the actions taken by FECOP, making a diagnosis of poverty at the municipal level, quantifying and mapping the specific needs of each municipality by the IDF - Development Index of the Family, built from CADÃNICO.
O presente trabalho se propÃe a fazer um estudo sobre o Fundo Estadual de Combate à Pobreza â FECOP, sua criaÃÃo, legislaÃÃo, objetivos e desempenho, notadamente no aspecto de sua capacidade de promover transformaÃÃes, atravÃs dos projetos propostos, fortalecendo o patrimÃnio individual e consequentemente melhorando a qualidade de vida das famÃlias beneficiadas; cujas famÃlias sÃo aquelas que estÃo abaixo da linha de pobreza, ou seja, aquelas que percebem renda mensal inferior a meio salÃrio mÃnimo por pessoa. Esta dissertaÃÃo tambÃm tem por objetivo descrever as aÃÃes realizadas pelo FECOP, realizando um diagnÃstico da pobreza ao nÃvel municipal, quantificando e mapeando as carÃncias especÃficas de cada municÃpio, atravÃs do IDF â Ãndice de Desenvolvimento da FamÃlia, construÃdo a partir de informaÃÃes do CADÃNICO.

Mestrado em Econometria Aplicada e Previsão
O objetivo desta dissertação consiste na análise das características mais influentes na determinação da situação de pobreza de um indivíduo em Portugal. Tendo como base os dados longitudinais disponibilizados pelo Inquérito às Condições de Vida e de Rendimento entre os anos de 2006 e 2009, foram estimados três modelos probit sobre uma estrutura de dados em painel, um modelo estático e dois modelos dinâmicos, onde neste último foram seguidas as metodologias desenvolvidas por Wooldridge (2005) e Orme (2001). Posteriormente, de maneira a quantificar o efeito de cada variável explicativa, foram calculados os respetivos efeitos marginais médios. Além do tratamento da heterogeneidade individual não observada prova-se que a estimação dinâmica sobre esta estrutura de dados beneficia a análise do problema, nomeadamente no peso significativo da variável dependente desfasada um período na determinação da probabilidade de um indivíduo estar em situação de pobreza. Conclui-se também que a inserção em agregados familiares numerosos ou monoparentais, a viver em áreas pouco povoadas, com dificuldades em fazer face aos encargos usuais, baixos níveis de scolaridade e membros do agregado em situação de desemprego foram outros fatores que influenciaram a ocorrência deste fenómeno.
The objective of this thesis consists in analyzing the most influential factors that determine individual poverty situation in Portugal. Based on longitudinal data provided by the Statistics on Income and Living Conditions survey between the period of 2006 and 2009, we have estimated three probit models for a panel data structure, one being static and two dynamic, whereas for the latter, we followed the ethodologies developed by Wooldridge (2005) and Orme (2001). Futhermore, in order to quantify the effect the effect of each single explanatory variable, we have calculated the respective average marginal effects. In addition to the unobserved heterogeneity treatment, evidence is provided that the dynamic estimation of this data structure benefits the problem analysis,namely concerning the significant importance of the one period lagged dependent variable when determining the probability of an individual being in a poverty situation. It is also concluded that large or one-parent families, living in sparsely populated areas, thriving to cope with monthly burdens, with low educational attainment levels and that live in jobless households are among other factors that influence the occurrence of this phenomena.

The aim of this bachelor thesis was to examine attitudes among social workers, particularly their attitudes toward their clients’ poverty and towards economic counseling as a method. A further aim was to study the relationship between attitudes towards poverty and economic counseling. Primary data used for the study was assembled among social workers (n = 111) with the use of an electronic questionnaire that was sent out to social welfare offices in 34 city districts in Stockholm,Gothenburg and Malmö. The findings showed that a majority of the social workers had a structural understanding of poverty and a positive attitude towards economic counseling. No correlations were found between the attitudes towards poverty and towards economic counseling. Although economic counseling can be seen as a method for individual change, the social workers had a positive attitude towards using it with clients’ whose inability to support themselves was interpreted as structurally implied. This was understood as a means to minimize the negative effects of poverty and as a way to go beyond administrative tasks. Through Giddens duality of structure theory, economic counseling was interpreted as a way of affecting the structurally caused problem of poverty by changing the actions of the client.

Business Administration/Finance
D.B.A.
Better access to financial literacy programs in underserved communities has the potential to improve financial decision making and to help individuals and families escape poverty. This multimethod dissertation explores some of the challenges of developing financial literacy programs for underserved individuals and provides insights into the cultural and institutional factors that discourage financial literacy and sound financial decision making. This research re-examines the construct of financial literacy, reviews relevant past research, and presents a conceptual model with hypotheses regarding factors that affect financial literacy. To test the model, multiple studies were conducted in underserved communities in rural and urban areas to understand the complexity of the relationship between financial literacy and financial decision making. These studies were supplemented by a series of in-depth interviews with financial literacy experts, community leaders, and underserved individuals. The results indicate the importance of refining both financial literacy instruments and training to rural and urban underserved communities, while also building stronger ties to community leaders and financial institutions.
Temple University--Theses

Como é representado o trabalho dos pobres? Esta tese objetiva compreender as transformações, deslocamentos, tensões e disputas em torno das articulações das categorias trabalho e pobreza, analisando-as sob duas óticas diferentes, mas conectadas, a governamental e a individual. Por isso, a investigação empírica se realizou em dois âmbitos: o do Estado brasileiro que, com suas políticas, classifica alguns de seus cidadãos como pobres, e o dos indivíduos por ele assim classificados. Analisamos as ações governamentais e as formulações institucionais que pautaram as políticas sociais brasileiras nos anos 2000 e 2010, revelando as estratégias e narrativas que sustentaram as ações governamentais voltadas para o problema da inserção dos indivíduos pobres no mundo produtivo. Esse processo foi reconstituído a partir da consulta a materiais institucionais e de entrevistas com agentes governamentais nos níveis federal e municipal. Documentamos que, conforme a conjuntura brasileira se transformava e as políticas sociais se desenvolviam, os discursos governamentais produziam novas formas simbólicas de enlaçar pobreza e trabalho. A temática foi igualmente investigada pela ótica das experiências cotidianas de um grupo de indivíduos e famílias beneficiárias dos programas de superação da pobreza. Com base em uma pesquisa etnográfica em um bairro periférico do município de São Paulo, analisamos as trajetórias de famílias institucionalmente categorizadas como pobres, evidenciando tanto a multiplicidade de arranjos de sobrevivência e garantia de renda e bem-estar, quanto a diversidade de formas nativas de descrevê-las e representá-las. Composição e dinâmica familiar, origem, gênero e geração foram dimensões cruciais de análise. Esta revelou a intensidade com que diferentes significados de trabalho eram construídos, manipulados e disputados no cotidiano dos indivíduos em contextos de pobreza. Observamos que se transformavam as narrativas, as estratégias e as dinâmicas de relações dos pobres com os circuitos estruturantes da sua sobrevivência: os mercados, o Estado, a família e as redes de amizade e vizinhança. Essa trama complexa de atividades que os indivíduos desempenham para ganhar a vida - formais e informais, legais e ilegais, morais e imorais, visíveis e invisíveis -, desafiam tanto os discursos e práticas governamentais, quanto a compreensão da Sociologia do Trabalho.
This thesis intends to grasp transformations, displacements, tensions and disputes concerning the articulations of the categories labor and poverty, by analyzing them from two different but connected points of view, the governmental and the individual perspectives. Consequently, the empirical investigation is conducted considering two frameworks: the Brazilian state perspective, which, through its policies, classifies some of its citizens as poor, and the individuals categorized as poor outlook. We analyzed the governmental actions and institutional formulations that drove Brazil\'s social policies in the 2000s and 2010s, revealing the strategies and narratives that have sustained government actions oriented to the problem of placing poor individuals in the productive world. This process was reconstructed through the extensive examination of institutional materials and interviews with governmental agents at federal and municipal levels. We documented that, as the scenario in Brazil transformed and social policies developed, governmental discourses produced new symbolic ways to entangle poverty and labor. These subjects were likewise investigated considering the point of view and everyday experiences of a group of individuals and families who benefitted from poverty relief programs. To do so, we conducted an ethnographic study in an peripheral neighborhood in São Paulo city, analyzing the families trajectories institutionally categorized as poor, demonstrating the multiplicity of survival strategies and means of guaranteeing income and well-being, as well as the diversity of native forms of describing and representing these strategies. Familial composition and their dynamics, origin, gender and generation appeared as crucial dimensions in analysis. It revealed the intensity with which different meanings of labor were constructed, manipulated and disputed in the daily lives of individuals in contexts of poverty. We observed the transformations in the narratives, strategies and dynamics of poor people\'s relationships with the structural circuits of their survival: markets, State, family, friendships and neighborhood networks. This complex mesh of activities with which individuals engage in to earn a living formal and informal, legal and illegal, moral and immoral, visible and invisible , challenge governmental discourses and practices as well as the understanding of the Sociology of Labor.

La notion de personne vulnérable est employée de manière exponentielle dansdifférentes branches du droit international contemporain. Si elle est rarement définie par lesacteurs qui l’emploient, la notion désigne un individu dont la faiblesse et/ou la situationparticulière le prédispose à la réalisation d’un risque grave. La personne vulnérable recouvreainsi des hypothèses diversifiées. La plasticité de la notion permet une protectionfonctionnelle de l’individu, adaptable selon ses besoins. La personne vulnérable s’insère ainsidans le droit positif, sans que sa définition ne soit précisée, tout comme, en conséquence, sesbénéficiaires et les modalités de protection de ceux-ci. Mais précisément parce que la notionproduit des effets juridiques, sa conceptualisation devient nécessaire. Dès lors qu’elle prendune réalité en droit international, elle influence l’ordonnancement juridique mais égalementl’environnement social qu’il traduit, et suscite ainsi de profondes remises en questionthéoriques
The term vulnerable person is more and more frequently used in the different fieldsof contemporary international law. Although rarely defined when used, a vulnerable personcan be understood as an individual whose weakness and/or particular situation predisposeshim to serious risks. The term can then cover various situations. The adaptability of the termenables a practical protection of the individual, according to each specific need. The term ofvulnerable person thus takes a place in the positive law without any specific and expressdefinition. As a consequence, neither the beneficiaries nor the terms of protection of the latterare defined. However, as the identification of an individual as a vulnerable person produceslegal effects, the conceptualization of such term becomes necessary. As it has become areality in international law, it influences not only the legal order but also the socialenvironment, and as a consequence arouses theoretical questionings

Social integration in community is especially important for individuals with disabilities well-being. Although individuals with disabilities reside within the community's physical environment, they are often marginalized in the social environment. This may be the result of individuals with disabilities residing in physical environments that negatively affect opportunities for integration in the social environment. However, there has been little investigation to understand the impact of the physical environment on the social integration of individuals with disabilities in community. The purpose of this investigation was to (a) examine the current body of evidence concerning the impact of a community's physical environment on opportunities for social integration, and (b) determine to what extent individuals with disabilities reside in physical environments that contribute to opportunities for social integration in community. To address the first study purpose, a review of the current body of evidence suggests that community environments that are pedestrian-oriented, possess appropriate common spaces, and fewer neighborhood incivilities, are likely to promote social integration. Secondly, two questions were evaluated: (a) to what extent adults with disabilities' places of residence are correlated with mixed-land use community environments, and (b) to what extent adults with disabilities' place of residence are correlated with community common space. Linear regression was used to determine the magnitude of the relationship between Utah's Davis and Weber counties' census block groups' percent of population with disabilities, percent of population below poverty level, land use diversity, and the percent of the area within walking distance of community common space. The most significant association with individuals with disabilities places of residence are socioeconomic. This study indicates that poverty level predicts 30-35% of the variance in individuals with disabilities place of residence. Given, the very modest association with mixed-land use (4%) and common space (2%), poverty level is the most useful predictor of an individual with disabilities place of residence. Future research should explore more appropriate measures of community common space, at the residence and neighborhood level, and the pedestrian-orientation of the community environment. Future research should also explore the strong association between socioeconomic factors and individuals with disabilities places of residence.

The justification of property ownership based on individual subjective rights is tightly bound to humanist moral perspectives. God is left out as irrelevant to the just grounds of ownership, which is established primarily on the basis of human self-referential, moral capacity. This thesis aims at developing an alternative justification, both for property as an institution and as a private holding, with a view to bringing God back into the centre stage and thereby placing property ownership on the objective concept of right. A tradition hitherto generally left unnoticed, yet uncovered here as the source of inspiration, vests the whole project with a moral-teleological tone. The tradition, enunciated by St. Augustine and developed by St. Bonaventure and John Wyclif, invites us to see property from the perspective of a moral end: it ought to be used for the love of God and neighbours, and as such it can be owned only by the just. In spite of important insights into the moral nature of property, the Augustinian thesis not only fails to spell out what ‘use for love’ means but also suffers from elitism. Nor does it offer an adequate justification of private property. Such weaknesses call for revision. When we reinterpret the Augustinian thesis through the concept of the divine imperative of service coupled with a proper understanding of human work, property acquires a distinctive justification. Property, as an institution, is justified as a requisite for carrying out God’s redemptive work towards the world. From this general justification ensues the particular justification. We hold property as specifically ‘mine,’ since each person’s ordained mission to participate in God’s work requires a uniquely personal material means, although the recognition and fulfilment of individual mission still demands communal efforts. The duty to carry out the God-commanded mission at first allows us to possess private property only in a non-proprietorial and non-exclusive manner. Yet in the prevailing condition of economic scarcity and human greed, civil jurisdiction must provide a structure of rights to enforce property institution. As God’s invitation for the transformation of the world is a universal command, everybody should have a minimum of property, and yet in differentiation of the scope and kinds commensurate with the particularities of individual mission.

Diese Arbeit bietet eine solide theoretische Grundlage zu Philanthropie und religiös motivierten Spendenaktivitäten und deren Einfluss auf Wohltätigkeitstrends, Entwicklungszusammenarbeit und einer auf dem Gedanken der sozialen Gerechtigkeit beruhenden Philanthropie. Untersucht werden dafür die Strukturen religiös motivierte Spenden, für die in der islamischen Tradition die Begriffe „zakat“, „Waqf“ oder im Plural auch „awqaf-“ oder „Sadaqa“ verwendet werden, der christliche Begriff dafür lautet „tithes“ oder „ushour“. Aufbauend auf diesem theoretischen Rahmenwerk analysiert die qualitative und quantitative Feldstudie auf nationaler Ebene, wie die ägyptische Öffentlichkeit Philanthropie, soziale Gerechtigkeit, Menschenrechte, Spenden, Freiwilligenarbeit und andere Konzepte des zivilgesellschaftlichen Engagements wahrnimmt. Um eine umfassende und repräsentative Datengrundlage zu erhalten, wurden 2000 Haushalte, 200 zivilgesellschaftliche Organisationen erfasst, sowie Spender, Empfänger, religiöse Wohltäter und andere Akteure interviewt. Die so gewonnen Erkenntnisse lassen aussagekräftige Aufschlüsse über philanthropische Trends zu. Erstmals wird so auch eine finanzielle Einschätzung und Bewertung der Aktivitäten im lokalen Wohltätigkeitsbereich möglich, die sich auf mehr als eine Billion US-Dollar beziffern lassen. Die Erhebung weist nach, dass gemessen an den Pro-Kopf-Aufwendungen die privaten Spendenaktivitäten weitaus wichtiger sind als auswärtige wirtschaftliche Hilfe für Ägypten. Das wiederum lässt Rückschlüsse zu, welche Bedeutung lokale Wohltätigkeit erlangen kann, wenn sie richtig gesteuert wird und nicht wie bislang oft im Teufelskreis von ad-hoc-Spenden oder Hilfen von Privatperson an Privatperson gefangen ist. Die Studie stellt außerdem eine Verbindung her zwischen lokalen Wohltätigkeits-Mechanismen, die meist auf religiösen und kulturellen Werten beruhen, und modernen Strukturen, wie etwa Gemeinde-Stiftungen oder Gemeinde-„waqf“, innerhalb derer die Spenden eine nachhaltige Veränderung bewirken können. Daher bietet diese Arbeit also eine umfassende wissenschaftliche Grundlage, die nicht nur ein besseres Verständnis, sondern auch den nachhaltiger Aus- und Aufbau lokaler Wohltätigkeitsstrukturen in Ägypten ermöglicht. Zentral ist dabei vor allem die Rolle lokaler, individueller Spenden, die beispielsweise für Stiftungen auf der Gemeindeebene eingesetzt, wesentlich zu einer nachhaltigen Entwicklung beitragen könnten – und das nicht nur in Ägypten, sondern in der gesamten arabischen Region. Als konkretes Ergebnis dieser Arbeit, wurde ein innovatives Modell entwickelt, dass neben den wissenschaftlichen Daten das Konzept der „waqf“ berücksichtigt. Der Wissenschaftlerin und einem engagierten Vorstand ist es auf dieser Grundlage gelungen, die Waqfeyat al Maadi Community Foundation (WMCF) zu gründen, die nicht nur ein Modell für eine Bürgerstiftung ist, sondern auch das tradierte Konzept der „waqf“ als praktikable und verbürgte Wohlstätigkeitsstruktur sinnvoll weiterentwickelt.
This work provides a solid theoretical base on philanthropy, religious giving (Islamic zakat, ‘ushour, Waqf -plural: awqaf-, Sadaqa and Christian tithes or ‘ushour), and their implications on giving trends, development work, social justice philanthropy. The field study (quantitative and qualitative) that supports the theoretical framework reflects at a national level the Egyptian public’s perceptions on philanthropy, social justice, human rights, giving and volunteering and other concepts that determine the peoples’ civic engagement. The statistics cover 2000 households, 200 Civil Society Organizations distributed all over Egypt and interviews donors, recipients, religious people and other stakeholders. The numbers reflect philanthropic trends and for the first time provide a monetary estimate of local philanthropy of over USD 1 Billion annually. The survey proves that the per capita share of philanthropy outweighs the per capita share of foreign economic assistance to Egypt, which implies the significance of local giving if properly channeled, and not as it is actually consumed in the vicious circle of ad-hoc, person to person charity. In addition, the study relates local giving mechanisms derived from religion and culture to modern actual structures, like community foundations or community waqf that could bring about sustainable change in the communities. In sum, the work provides a comprehensive scientific base to help understand- and build on local philanthropy in Egypt. It explores the role that local individual giving could play in achieving sustainable development and building a new wave of community foundations not only in Egypt but in the Arab region at large. As a tangible result of this thesis, an innovative model that revives the concept of waqf and builds on the study’s results was created by the researcher and a dedicated board of trustees who succeeded in establishing Waqfeyat al Maadi Community Foundation (WMCF) that not only introduces the community foundation model to Egypt, but revives and modernizes the waqf as a practical authentic philanthropic structure.

Tens of thousands of people worldwide die each day from poverty-related causes. More staggering than the statistics is the fact that these deaths, and the appalling living conditions surrounding them, are avoidable yet largely ignored. Not only have concrete strategies for poverty relief and sustainable development been suggested, but their implementation would require minimal sacrifice on the part of individuals in affluent nations. The normative implications of these facts are not, however, obvious. Do the "global rich" have responsibilities of assistance towards those suffering severe deprivation? I take for granted that the global rich have what David Miller refers to as "remedial responsibility" for global poverty. That is, they have a special responsibility to contribute to remedying the situations of the worst-off. A separate but related question has to do with how remedial responsibility is to be distributed. I argue that, although several factors can contribute to the assignment of remedial responsibility, an agent's capacity to act in accordance with the requirements of remedial responsibility imposes a minimum constraint its assignment. With this in mind, I evaluate the claim that institutional agents should be treated as the primary bearers of remedial responsibility in the case of global poverty. I argue that because institutional agency depends on the motivation of individuals, the motivation of the individual constituents of an institutional agent constrain its capacity to act. In order to argue that institutional agents should be treated as the main bearers of remedial responsibility for global poverty, it must be the case that at least some of their individual constituents are sufficiently motivated to pursue the eradication of global poverty. The assignment of remedial responsibility for global poverty thus requires sensitivity to the constraints on the capacities of the potential bearers of that responsibility.

This study is an exploration of the relationship between housing and the rearing of young children among families in poverty. A year long open-ended, qualitative investigation was conducted with three families living in a small town. Frequent visits allowed for familiarity with family members, household routines, social networks, changing circumstances, and life problems. Families spent at least part of the year in secure and pleasant non-profit housing; but time was also spent in inadequate housing, doubled up with relatives, or in one case in a homeless shelter. The children involved ranged from one to nine years of age. An in-depth analysis of particular events and circumstances in the household lives of these families clarified ways in which housing contributed to patterns of parental behavior and perception which powerfully undermined or supported the best interests of these children. A case is made for considering housing assistance as a most appropriate form of support for families living in poverty.

This study explores poor urban working class women's sexual and birth control experiences within the context of income allocation and control in the household. The nature of women's agency in sexual and birth control domains and their forms of societal subordination as a gender and class are examined in the process. The study involves 100 respondents selected through a purposive non-random sampling design from fifteen slums in Calcutta, India. Cross-sectional data is collected from structured and unstructured open-ended interviews, observation of slum communities and document reviews. Methods include descriptive and correlational analysis of quantitative data and case-historical analysis of qualitative data. The results generated in the study (1) elucidate how proportional differences in household income contribution of the women and their husbands are linked to the nature of sexual and birth control negotiations in the household, (2) show how impoverished women's household gender and material resource dynamics are linked to processes of gender and class formation in Indian society and, (3) suggest innovative population responsive methods sensitized to women's household contexts and geared to enhance women's control over reproduction that can be used in family planning policies
acase@tulane.edu

In the streets of Tegucigalpa, the capital of Honduras the official unemployment rate nears 30 percent and women and children support themselves by selling produce, sweeping and hauling trash, or picking garbage. Many children work alongside their mothers 'in' the streets while increasing numbers, known as children 'of' the street, are alone and homeless. Although cross-cultural studies of children and third-world poverty examine structural causes, recent culture-of-poverty explanations suggest that matrifocal families produce street children This case study of over 1200 children in and of the street, by far the largest sample of street children ever available for research purposes, provides an extensive description of this population. A subsample of mothers broadens the scope of analysis to reveal differences among them and their mothers' ability to protect them. Regression analyses test the hypothesis of cultural versus structural causes of poverty Borrowing Wilson's (1987) theory of the ghetto underclass, I examine the premise that social isolation and weak attachments to the labor force, result in an urban underclass. I find that the major distinction among street children is their access to better jobs available in the street markets. Those children having mothers employed in the market, or some other adult mentor, are more likely to have such access and less likely to sleep in the streets, use drugs, or to steal. Further analysis of dual-parent families shows that where fathers contribute more to the family, both in time and money, the children's welfare is improved. In families where the mother contributes more than half of the total expenses, fathers are more likely to use threats and violence to maintain control Children who report poor family relationships are more likely to abandon their family for street life, gangs, and drugs; they are also evaluated to have more physical and mental health problems. Comparing the health problems of Honduran street children with those of homeless children in the United States, I find surprising similarities. Further, the differences found are largely explained by structural variances in the two countries, reinforcing Wilson's argument for social reform rather than individual rehabilitation in both contexts
acase@tulane.edu

The study assesses effectiveness of CDGs on poverty reduction among individual members. This is based on the concept of sustainable development with context, structures and strategies as factors affecting poverty reduction. Quantitative and qualitative research designs were used. These involved 120 participants, 5 FGDs and 5KIIs. Participants were purposively and randomly sampled. Results reveal CDGs as a potential strategy in effective community development benefiting group members for poverty reduction. Such benefits include; social, economic, physical, human or environmental. However, group composition and processes pose challenges for benefits to trickle down to some members. Structural arrangement requiring leaders and other influential people like educated members to be in the forefront of interventions has proved challenging to the approach. This happens when self interests are at play leading to deprivations of some members to access benefits. Monitoring membership diversity focusing on group composition and operations is recommended for groups to effectively reduce poverty.
Development Studies
M.A. (Development Studies)

Die vorliegende Dissertation umfasst vier Aufsätze, von denen die ersten beiden die regionale und individuelle Persistenz von Arbeitslosigkeit analysieren. Der dritte Aufsatz erforscht das passende Design für die Höhe von finanziellen Leistungen im Rahmen von Cash-Transfer-Programmen und der vierte Aufsatz präsentiert eine alternative internationale Armutsgrenze verglichen mit der aktuellen offiziellen Armutsgrenze der Weltbank. Während die ersten drei Essays sich auf die Situation Indonesiens beziehen, geht der vierte Aufsatz auf die Situation aller Entwicklungsländer ein. Der erste Essay testet die Hysterese-Hypothese gegen verschiedene Hypothesen zur Persistenz von Arbeitslosigkeitsraten in den Provinzen Indonesiens und verwendet dabei Zeitreihen- und Panel-Unit-Root-Analysen mit Daten aus den Jahren 1990 bis 2012. Die Ergebnisse zeigen einerseits, dass die meisten individuellen Tests auf Provinzebene, die sich auf lineare Trends und CBS-Definitionen stützen, die Hysterese-Hypothese nicht verwerfen können. Andererseits wird die Hysterese-Vermutung vermehrt verworfen, wenn die Tests quadratische Trends und die alte Definition (U1) nutzen. Die wichtigsten Ergebnisse der Tests, die die Hysterese-Hypothese anhand verschiedener Sample-Kategorien, wie beispielsweise Geschlecht, analysieren, legen das Verwerfen der Hypothese ebenfalls nahe. Wenn die Ergebnisse mittels Panel-Daten untersucht werden, verwirft die Mehrheit der Tests Hysterese, ganz gleich ob lineare oder quadratische Trends benutzt werden. Schließlich stellt der Artikel fest, dass lokale Wirtschaftsmaßnahmen zur Investitionsförderung und Politiken, die auf das Wachstum der realen regionalen Mindestlöhne ausgerichtet sind, sich besser als die Erhöhung lokaler staatlicher Ausgaben dazu eignen, die Arbeitslosenquote zu senken und sie an normale Levels auf den lokalen Arbeitsmärkten anzupassen. Der zweite Essay führt eine dynamische Probit-Analyse bezüglich dem Auftreten individueller Arbeitslosigkeit durch und benutzt dabei Paneldaten des National Socio-Economic Surveys (Susenas) von 2008-2010. Der Aufsatz vergleicht mehrere dynamische Random-Effects-Schätzer miteinander, wobei er besonders auf die Ansätze von Heckman (1981) und Wooldridge (2005) eingeht. Die Ergebnisse finden starke Belege für die Persistenz bzw. die zeitliche Abhängigkeit individueller Arbeitslosigkeit in Indonesien. Dieses Resultat fügt sich in die Theorie des "Scar-Unemployment" ein. Der dritte Essay untersucht die derzeitige Empfängergruppe von Cash-Transfer-Programmen (mit Fokus auf BLT und PKH Programmen) in Indonesien. Als Alternative zu bestehenden, fixen, staatlichen Leistungen der indonesischen Regierung im Rahmen der Cash-Transfer-Programme, schlägt der Aufsatz bessere Methoden für das Design und die Berechnung der Höhe der finanziellen Unterstützung vor. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass eine signifikante Anzahl von nicht-armen oder nicht-berechtigten Haushalten staatliche Leistungen erhalten. Auf der Grundlage von Simulationen ergeben sich deshalb folgende alternative Optionen für die Höhe der Auszahlungen: (1) die Transferzahlungen so anpassen, dass sie dem Einkommensdefizit des armen Haushalts zzgl. der erwarteten Inflation entsprechen, oder (2) die Leistungen so auszahlen, dass sie dem 75%-Perzentil des Einkommensdefizits der Haushalte zzgl. der erwarteten Inflation in den entsprechenden Provinzen entsprechen. Diese zwei alternativen Optionen reduzieren die regionalen Armutsraten signifikant verglichen mit der derzeitigen fixen und generellen staatlichen Transferleistung. Schließlich zeigen wir mit dem letzten Aufsatz, dass die von Ravallion, Chen, und Sangraula (2009) geschätzte Beziehung zwischen durchschnittlichem Konsum und nationalen Armutsgrenzen für die Herleitung der absoluten internationalen Armutsgrenze in Höhe von $1.25 pro Tag statistisch problematisch ist. Unsere alternative statistische Schätzung erzeugt einen Punktschätzer einer absoluten internationalen Armutsgrenze, der substanziell höher liegt als $1.25 pro Tag; allerdings verfügen die Schätzer über sehr hohe Standardfehler.

O presente trabalho tem como objectivo geral estudar a resiliência familiar em famílias em situação de pobreza urbana, partindo da sua percepção sobre as forças familiares, a resiliência individual e o stress percebido. Uma vez que, este estudo parte da necessidade sentida (na prática profissional) de adoptar uma perspectiva positiva sobre o funcionamento destas famílias e dos seus membros, um outro objectivo é o de retirar implicações relacionadas com a população em análise, com vista à intervenção. A amostra é constituída por 61 adultos, de ambos os sexos, com idades entre os 18 e os 77 anos, pertencentes a 31 famílias que vivem em situação de pobreza no concelho de Lisboa. Utilizaram-se os seguintes instrumentos de auto-relato: o Questionário de Forças Familiares (Melo & Alarcão, 2011); a Escala de Resiliência de Connor-Davidson (Connor & Davidson, 2003; versão portuguesa de Anjos & Ribeiro, 2008); a Escala de Stress Percebido (Cohen, Tamarck & Mermelstein, 1983; versão portuguesa de Rocha & Ribeiro, 2008, cit. por Rocha, 2009); e, por último, um questionário de caracterização sócio-demográfica. Os resultados indicam que os participantes são capazes de percepcionar as forças da sua família, ou seja, processos familiares associados à resiliência, o que significa que identificam aspectos positivos do seu funcionamento. Além disso, percepcionam um bom nível na escala de resiliência individual e níveis médios de stress percebido. Estes resultados realçam a importância de pensar uma intervenção centrada na família e baseada nas forças, que opere uma mudança social positiva em situação de pobreza urbana.
The general goal of this work is to study family resilience in families living a situation of urban poverty, based on their perception of family strengths, individual resilience and perceived stress. Considering that study resulted from the need felt by the professional practice of adopting a positive view on the functioning of these families and their members, another goal was, therefore, added to study which consists on apprehending its implications on the population under analysis so as to enable intervention. The sample is made up of 61 adults of both genders, with ages from 18 to 77, from a population of 31 families living in poverty in the municipality of Lisbon. The following self-reporting tools were used: the inquiry on family strengths Questionário de Forças Familiares (Melo & Alarcão, 2011); the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (Connor & Davidson, 2003; Portuguese version by Anjos & Ribeiro, 2008); the Perceived Stress Scale (Cohen, Tamarck & Mermelstein, 1983; Portuguese version by Rocha & Ribeiro, 2008, cit. by Rocha, 2009); and last, a social and demographic inquiry. The results show that participants are able to perceive the strengths of their family - the family processes associated to resilience - meaning that they can identify the positive aspects of their functioning. Furthermore, they’ve shown to have a good perception level on the individual resilience scale as well as an average level on the perceived stress. These results underline how important it is to think of a family centered intervention based on strengths, which is likely to operate a positive social change in a situation of urban poverty.

Yes
Recent research on health inequalities moves beyond illustrating the importance of psychosocial factors for health to a more in-depth study of the specific psychosocial pathways involved. Social capital is a concept that captures both a buffer function of the social environment on health, as well as potential negative effects arising from social inequality and exclusion. This systematic review assesses the current evidence, and identifies gaps in knowledge, on the associations and interactions between social capital and socioeconomic inequalities in health. Through this systematic review we identified studies on the interactions between social capital and socioeconomic inequalities in health published before July 2012. The literature search resulted in 618 studies after removal of duplicates, of which 60 studies were eligible for analysis. Self-reported measures of health were most frequently used, together with different bonding, bridging and linking components of social capital. A large majority, 56 studies, confirmed a correlation between social capital and socioeconomic inequalities in health. Twelve studies reported that social capital might buffer negative health effects of low socioeconomic status and five studies concluded that social capital has a stronger positive effect on health for people with a lower socioeconomic status. There is evidence for both a buffer effect and a dependency effect of social capital on socioeconomic inequalities in health, although the studies that assess these interactions are limited in number. More evidence is needed, as identified hypotheses have implications for community action and for action on the structural causes of social inequalities.

Tematem rozprawy jest koncepcja bezpieczeństwa jednostki w stosunkach międzynarodowych. Za jedno z największych osiągnięć społecznych drugiej połowy XX wieku uznać można postawienie jednostki w centrum zainteresowania prawa międzynarodowego. Według stworzonego przez UNDP Human Development Reports 1994 roku, pierwszego dużego dokumentu definiującego problem, bezpieczeństwo jednostki oznacza zabezpieczenie przed stałymi zagrożeniami, takimi jak głód, choroby, ucisk, a także ochronę przed gwałtownymi i szkodliwymi wstrząsami w życiu codziennym. Koncepcja bezpieczeństwa jednostki odwołuje się do ochrony ludzi wobec starychi nowych zagrożeń dla bezpieczeństwa - od przewlekłego i uporczywego ubóstwa do przemocy etnicznej, handlu ludźmi, zmian klimatycznych, pandemii zdrowia, międzynarodowego terroryzmu oraz nagłych kryzysów gospodarczych. Koncepcja bezpieczeństwa jednostki uznaje powiązania i współzależności między rozwojem, prawami człowieka i bezpieczeństwem narodowym. Temat rozprawy dotyczy aktualnych zagadnień bezpieczeństwa międzynarodowego. Koncepcja bezpieczeństwa jednostki zdecydowanie wykracza poza tradycyjne pojęcie bezpieczeństwa narodowego i bezpieczeństwa wojskowego, obejmuje rozwój poszanowanie praw człowieka. To kompleksowa koncepcja współzależnych i podstawowych wolności: wolności od strachu, wolności od niedostatku, a także prawa do życia w godności. Na szczególną uwagę tej koncepcji zasługuje troska o jednostkę, o życie tej jednostki, która doświadcza tytanicznego tempa rozwoju technologicznego, a która ma problemy z rozwiązaniem podstawowych potrzeb egzystencjonalnych, nie jest w stanie powstrzymać zjawiska nędzy, ubóstwa, głodu, patologii społecznych,które towarzyszą rozwojowi cywilizacji. Praca opiera się przede wszystkim na materiałach źródłowych: rocznych raportach UNDP, sprawozdaniach z konferencji międzynarodowych, dokumentach organów i agend Narodów Zjednoczonych. Prezentowany temat został podjęty z powodu jego aktualności i znaczenia dla nauk o bezpieczeństwie. Przedmiotem badań jest koncepcja bezpieczeństwa jednostki. Zbadane zostały założenia koncepcji bezpieczeństwa jednostki. Podjęcie powyższego tematu wydaje się być uzasadnione, ponieważ na krajowym rynku brak całościowego i naukowego opracowania, które w sposób kompleksowy porusza problematykę pojmowania koncepcji bezpieczeństwa jednostki. Celem głównym przeprowadzonych badań było określenie założeń koncepcji bezpieczeństwa jednostki oraz ustalenie jej zakresu przedmiotowego. Głównym problem badawczym stało się pytanie: Jak założenia koncepcji bezpieczeństwa jednostki wpływająna bezpieczeństwo w stosunkach międzynarodowych?.Sformułowano główną hipotezę badawczą, że realizacja założeń koncepcji bezpieczeństwa jednostki jest istotnym warunkiem gwarancji bezpieczeństwa w stosunkach międzynarodowych w XXI w. Rozprawa, dostarczając rozszerzającą wiedzę w wyniku przeprowadzonych badań, wypełnia istniejącą lukę w badaniach naukowych na temat koncepcji bezpieczeństwa jednostki w stosunkach międzynarodowych. Wyniki przeprowadzonych badań pokazują, że koncepcja bezpieczeństwa jednostki odwołuje się do ochrony ludzi wobec starych i nowych zagrożeń dla bezpieczeństwa, od przewlekłego i uporczywego ubóstwa do przemocy etnicznej, handlu ludźmi, zmian klimatycznych pandemii zdrowia, międzynarodowego terroryzmu oraz nagłych kryzysów gospodarczych. Koncepcja bezpieczeństwa jednostki stanowi kompleksowe podejście, które wykorzystuje szeroki zakres nowych możliwości rozwiązań tych zagrożeń w zintegrowany sposób. Przeprowadzone analizy naświetliły problem związany z koncepcją bezpieczeństwa jednostki. Rozumienie koncepcji bezpieczeństwa jednostki jako wolności od strachu i wolności od niedostatku, zwraca uwagę na to, że praca i zdrowie jest fundamentem jakości życia i godności, podkreśla zależność między zdrowiem a ubóstwem.
The subject of this dissertation is the concept of human security in international relations. The concept became a central concern of international law and might be considered as one of the greatest social achievements of the 20th century. According to UNDP Human Development Reports (1994) - which was the first significant document dealing with the problem – the human security refers to protection from permanent threats such as famine, illnesses and oppression as well as protection from sudden and harmful upheavals in daily life. The concept of human security refers to protection from old and new safety threats: lingering impoverishment, ethnic violence, human trafficking, climatic changes, pandemics, international terrorism and abrupt economic crisis. The concept of human security recognises connections and correlations between development, human rights and international security. This dissertation focuses on current international security issues. The concept of human security definitely extends beyond traditional notions of national security and military security – it includes development and respecting human rights. It is a complex idea of interrelated basic rights: freedom from fear, freedom from poverty and right to dignity. In this concept particular attention deserves concern of an individual, who experiences enormous pace of technological development and who has problems with basic existential needs and cannot obstruct poverty, famine and social pathologies which are connected with the development of civilization. The dissertation primarily bases on these resources: annual UNDP reports, reports from international conferences and documents of organizational units of UN.The subject of this dissertation – concept of human security - was chosen due to its validity and importance for safety studies. Considering this particular subject seems to be justified as there is no such complete scientific report, that explores the concept of human security in a complex way. The main purpose of the research was to define main assumptions of the concept of human security and to determine its material scope. The crucial research question was : In what way the principles of concept of human security influence the security in international relations? The research hypothesis was formulated: the realization of the principles of concept of human security is important condition in guaranteeing security in international relations in the 21st century.The dissertation provides extensive knowledge from conducted research, it fills the gap in the studies of concept of human security in international relations. The results of the conducted research demonstrate that the concept of human security refers to protection from old and new security threats: lingering impoverishment, ethnic violence, human trafficking, climatic changes, pandemics, international terrorism and abrupt economic crisis. The concept of human security reflects a comprehensive approach that applies a wide range of possible solutions in an integrated way. Analyses conducted in the dissertation demonstrated the problems and ideas connected with the concept of human security. Presenting concept of human security as freedom from fear and freedom from impoverishment draws attention to the fact that work and health are the principals of living standards and dignity, it also emphasizes the correlation between health and impoverishment.

In the first part of this doctoral thesis we analyse changes in old-age income risk in Germany using micro-simulation model due to changes in employment patterns and institutional reforms. We focus on the statutory pension scheme and we analyse the old-age income risk of individuals as well as of households with respect to the skill level. Our findings help to clarify the risk of post-retirement poverty for specific household constellations We find that the risk of old-age poverty will increase for almost all new pensioners in 2020-2022 compared to new pensioners in 2004-2006. Due to the characteristics of a PAYG pension system, political decision-makers have to improve labour market participation, e.g. by support the improvement of skill level. Moreover we take a closer look at the impact of the Hartz-Reforms on wages. We use panel data to estimate the effect of the structural break on wages and find strong evidence that the decrease in unemployment benefit lowered wages. Our findings show that the Hartz-Reform induced wage restraint and may also be partly responsible for the favourable labour market situation in Germany. After analysing the effect of institutional reforms on old-age income and wage, we examine whether households adjust their savings behaviour to a change in their individual unemployment, income and health expectations. We use survey panel data on German household savings and expectations. The findings suggest, in contrast to the theory of textbook models, that a higher unemployment expectation significantly decreases the (short-term) saving rate. This result may be due to labour market legislation after the Hartz-Reforms.:1 Introduction 1 1.1 Summary 3 1.2 Contribution to the literature 7 1.3 References 9 2 A Fragile Pillar: Statutory Pensions and the Risk of Old-age Poverty in Germany 11 2.1 Introduction 11 2.2 The German Statutory Pension Insurance 13 2.3 Methodology 16 2.4 Results 22 2.4.1 Male pensioners 22 2.4.2 Female pensioners 25 2.4.3 Relevance of skill 27 2.5 Sensitivity Analysis 31 2.6 Conclusion 34 2.7 References 37 2.8 Appendix 40 3 Is There a Growing Risk of Old-age Poverty in Eastern Germany? 44 3.1 Introduction 44 3.2 The German Pension System 46 3.3 Demographic Setting in Eastern Germany 48 3.4 Data and Methodology 49 3.5 Single-person Households 52 3.5.1 Males 52 3.5.2 Females 55 II 3.6 Two-Person-Households 57 3.7 Widows 62 3.8 Conclusion 64 3.9 References 65 3.10 Appendix 66 4 Unemployment Compensation and Wages: Evidence from the German Hartz-Reform 68 4.1 Introduction 68 4.2 The German Hartz-Reform 69 4.3 Data 71 4.4 Methodology 73 4.5 Results 76 4.6 Conclusions 82 4.7 References 84 4.8 Data 87 4.9 Appendix 88 5 Expectations and Saving Behavior: An Empirical Analysis 93 5.1 Introduction 93 5.2 Theoretical Discussion 95 5.3 Data 97 5.4 Empirical Strategy 100 5.5 Empirical Results 104 5.6 Conclusions 114 5.7 References 117 5.8 Data 119 5.9 Appendix 120

Un des défis de la promotion de la santé est de concevoir des outils théoriques et des interventions qui prennent en compte la façon dont les structures influencent le parcours de vie des individus tout en reconnaissant la capacité des individus à déterminer leur vie et à façonner, en retour, le monde dans lequel ils vivent. Le cadre d’analyse des mécanismes d’exclusion permet une telle intégration, particulièrement autour de la notion d’accès (Adam et Potvin, 2016). Ce cadre d’analyse conçoit les mécanismes d’exclusion comme un ensemble d’éléments de différents niveaux qui, en interaction, limitent l’accès aux droits, ressources et capacités pour vivre une vie en santé et mènent à des situations de vulnérabilité. Il propose de regarder les questions d’accès comme une fenêtre pertinente pour s’intéresser à l’interaction entre les individus et les structures. Partant de ce cadre d’analyse, le but de cette thèse est de comprendre comment les limites d’accès aux droits, aux ressources et aux possibilités de développer des capacités interagissent avec l’action des individus et le contexte dans lequel ils déploient cette action. Afin d’être en mesure d’examiner des contextes influencés par des mécanismes d’exclusion et d’étudier le déploiement de l’action des individus, cette recherche a pris appui sur deux postulats : 1) l’insécurité alimentaire est une manifestation de mécanismes d’exclusion limitant l’accès aux ressources financières nécessaires permettant de se nourrir en quantité et en qualité suffisante ou générant la peur de ne pas avoir la possibilité de se nourrir en quantité et en qualité suffisante; et 2) se rendre dans un organisme communautaire est une manifestation des individus de leur capacité à déployer des actions pour faire face aux obstacles qu’ils rencontrent. Partant de ces postulats, nous avons étudié, par voie d’entretiens de type récit de vie, le parcours de 12 individus en lien avec la fréquentation d’un organisme communautaire en sécurité alimentaire. Sur la base de l’analyse qualitative des récits de vie recueillis, le concept d’agir-en-contexte a été élaboré. Celui-ci comporte un système de cinq composantes : l’agentivité, les ressources, les capacités, les menaces et les opportunités. Ces composantes permettent de comprendre comment les mécanismes d’exclusion façonnent le contexte et interagissent avec la façon dont se déploie l’action des individus. En particulier, le concept d’agir-en-contexte suggère que les mécanismes d’exclusion modifient la configuration du contexte en augmentant les menaces, en diminuant les opportunités et en agissant sur les capacités et les ressources des individus et, par extension, leur agentivité. Partant de ce concept, trois types d’agir-en-contexte ont été élaborés : 1) l’agir-en-contexte motivé : les individus agissent en fonction de leurs désirs, souhaits, aspirations, valeurs et principes et font face à peu de menaces et beaucoup d’opportunités; 2) l’agir-en-contexte contraint : l’action est essentiellement orientée vers la gestion des menaces, laissant peu ou pas de place pour l’actualisation des désirs, souhaits, aspirations, valeurs et principes; et 3) l’agir-en-contexte synchronique : les individus tentent d’agir en fonction de leurs désirs, souhaits, aspirations, valeurs et principes, mais doivent déployer des actions pour faire face aux menaces qui limitent l’actualisation de leurs désirs, souhaits, aspirations, valeurs et principes. Cette thèse propose donc une nouvelle conceptualisation du contexte et donne de nouvelles clés analytiques pour comprendre l’action des individus. À terme, nos résultats suggèrent que l’intervention de promotion de la santé ayant pour finalité de renforcer la capacité d’agir des individus nécessite une analyse de la configuration de l’agir-en-contexte afin de réduire la densité des menaces et ainsi favoriser l’apparition d’opportunités, l’augmentation des capacités et de ressources et ultimement, permettre aux individus de déployer leurs actions en fonction de leurs désirs, souhaits, aspirations, valeurs et principes.
One of the challenges in health promotion is to design theoretical tools and interventions that take into consideration the way structures influence individuals’ life paths, while also recognizing individuals’ ability to make choices that shape their life and, in turn, have an effect on the world in which they live. The exclusionary mechanisms framework makes it possible to assimilate these two occurrences, particularly with regards to the notion of access (Adam & Potvin, 2016). This analytical framework conceives of exclusion mechanisms as a set of elements at various levels that, during interaction, limit access to rights, resources, and capacities for a healthy life and lead to situations of vulnerability. The framework proposes to look at issues of access as a relevant opportunity for addressing the interaction between individuals and structures. With this analytical framework as a starting point, the goal of this thesis is to understand how limited access to rights, resources, and possibilities for developing capacities interact with the context in which individuals evolve and their ability to act. In order to examine certain contexts that have been influenced by exclusionary mechanisms, as well as how individuals carry out their actions within these contexts, we postulated that: 1) Food insecurity is the result of exclusionary mechanisms that limit access to the financial resources necessary to feed oneself in sufficient quantity and quality, or that provoke anxiety that one will not be able to feed oneself in sufficient quantity and quality; and 2) Going to a community organization reflects individuals’ ability to act in the face of such adversities. Based on these postulates, and using life story interviews, we studied the paths of 12 individuals participating in a food insecurity community organization. The concept of acting-in-context has been developed based on the qualitative analysis of the life stories collected. This concept is composed of a five-part system: agency, resources, capacities, threats, and opportunities. These components make it possible to understand how exclusion mechanisms shape context and adjust individuals’ ability to act. More particularly, the concept of “acting-in-context” suggests that exclusionary mechanisms modify the context’s configuration by increasing threats, decreasing opportunities, and acting on individuals’ capacities, resources, and, by extension, agency. Based on this concept, three types of “acting-in-context” were developed: 1) motivated “acting-in-context”, in which individuals act according to their wishes, desires, aspirations, values, and principles while being faced with few threats, but many opportunities; 2) constrained “acting-in-context”, in which acting is essentially turned toward managing threats, leaving little or no room for wishes, desires, aspirations, values, and principles; and 3) synchronic “acting-in-context,” in which individuals attempt to act according to their wishes, desires, aspirations, values, and principles, but must also act otherwise in the face of threats limiting the possibility for them to realize their desires, hopes, aspirations, values and principles. This thesis therefore provides a new way of conceptualizing context and new analytical tools to understand individuals’ actions. In the end, our results suggest that a health promotion intervention that tries to strengthen individuals’ capacities needs to analyze the configuration of “acting-in-context” in order to reduce the density of threats. In this way, the intervention will increase opportunities, capacities, and resources, as well as enable individuals to act according to their wishes, desires, aspirations, values, and principles.