Articoli di riviste sul tema "Fox Glacier"

AbstractWe have measured the glacier area changes in the central Southern Alps, New Zealand, between 1978 and 2002 and have compiled the 2002 glacier outlines using an image scene from the Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER). Three automated classification methods were tested: (1) band ratio, (2) normalized-difference snow index and (3) supervised classification. The results were compared with the glacier outlines photo-interpreted from the ASTER data, and were further validated using GPS-aided field mapping of selected test glaciers. The ASTER 3/4 band ratio provided the best results. However, all the classification methods failed to extract extensive debris-covered parts of the glaciers. Therefore, the photo-interpreted 2002 outlines were used when comparing with the existing 1978 glacier inventory derived from aerial photographs. Our results show a ∼17% reduction of glacier area, mainly driven by the retreat of the large valley glaciers. Despite the large climatic gradient from west to east, glaciers on both sides of the Main Divide lost similar percentages of area, except Franz Josef and Fox Glaciers which advanced. Smaller glaciers were found to have changed very little in the study period.

AbstractCoverage of ice velocities in the central part of the Southern Alps, New Zealand, is obtained from feature tracking using repeat optical imagery in 2002 and 2006. Precise orthorectification, co-registration and correlation is carried out using the freely available software COSI-Corr. This analysis, combined with short times between image acquisitions, has enabled velocities to be captured even in the accumulation areas, where velocities are lowest and surface features ephemeral. The results indicate large velocities for mountain glaciers (i.e. up to ∼5 m d−1) as well as dynamic changes in some glaciers that have occurred between 2002 and 2006. For the steep and more responsive Fox and Franz Josef Glaciers the speed increased at the glacier snout during the advance period, while the low-angled and debris-covered Tasman Glacier showed no measurable velocity change. Velocity increases on the steeper glaciers are the result of an observed thickening and steepening of the glacier tongues as they moved from a retreat phase in 2002 to an advance phase in 2006. This contrasting behaviour is consistent with historic terminus position changes. The steeper glaciers have undergone several advance/retreat cycles during the observation period (1894 to present), while the low-angled glacier showed little terminus response until retreat resulting from the accelerating growth of a proglacial lake commenced in 1983.

ABSTRACT Relationships between stable isotopes (δD–δ18O), ice facies and glacier structures have hitherto gone untested in the mid-latitude maritime glaciers of the Southern Hemisphere. Here, we present δD–δ18O values as part of a broader study of the structural glaciology of Fox Glacier, New Zealand. We analyzed 94 samples of δD–δ18O from a range of ice facies to investigate whether isotopes have potential for structural glaciological studies of a rapidly deforming glacier. The δD–δ18O measurements were aided by structural mapping and imagery from terminus time-lapse cameras. The current retreat phase was preceded by an advance of 1 km between 1984 and 2009, with the isotopic sampling and analysis undertaken at the end of that advance (2010/11). Stable isotopes from debris-bearing shear planes near the terminus, interpreted as thrust faults, are isotopically enriched compared with the surrounding ice. When plotted on co-isotopic diagrams (δD–δ18O), ice sampled from the shear planes appears to show a subtle, but distinctive isotopic signal compared with the surrounding clean ice on the lower glacier. Hence, stable isotopes (δD–δ18O) have potential within the structural glaciology field, but larger sample numbers than reported here may be required to establish isotopic contrasts between a broad range of ice facies and glacier structures.

Abstract. There is an increasing number of DEMs available worldwide for deriving elevation differences over time, including vertical changes on glaciers. Most of these DEMs are heavily post-processed or merged, so that physical error modelling becomes impossible and statistical error modelling is required instead. We propose a three-step methodological framework for assessing and correcting DEMs to quantify glacier elevation changes: remove DEM shifts, check for elevation-dependent biases, and check for higher-order, sensor-specific biases. An analytic, simple and robust method to co-register elevation data is presented in regions where stable terrain is either plentiful (case study New Zealand) or limited (case study Svalbard). The method is exemplified using the three global elevation data sets available, SRTM, ICESat and the ASTER GDEM, and with automatically generated DEMs from satellite stereo instruments of ASTER and SPOT5-HRS. After three-dimensional co-registration, significant biases related to elevation were found in some of the stereoscopic DEMs. Biases related to the satellite acquisition geometry (along/cross track) were detected at two frequencies in the automatically generated ASTER DEMs. The higher frequency bias seems to be related to satellite \\emph{jitter}, most effective in the back-looking pass of the satellite. The origins of the more significant lower frequency bias is uncertain. ICESat-derived elevations are found to be the most consistent globally available elevation data set available so far. Before performing regional-scale glacier elevation change studies or mosaicking DEMs from multiple individual tiles (e.g. ASTER GDEM), we recommend to co-register all elevation data to ICESat as a global vertical reference system. The proposed methodological framework is exemplified for elevation changes on the Fox, Franz Joseph, Tasman and Murchison glaciers of New Zealand and the glaciers of central Spitsbergen, Svalbard.

Photographic surveys have been used since the early 1940’s to document coastlines, fuel supplies and river courses. The US Navy, post world war II, flew over the Arctic coast to document possible locations for oil extraction. These very same photos are now being utilized to compare changes in tundra vegetation at the same locations today. John Muirs’ photos of Glacier Bay are a startling testament to the melted glaciers no longer visible from the same vantage point in present times. Taking photographs to monitor change may not tell the entire story behind a change in landscape. However, photos taken over a number of years from the same vantage points, can help monitor landscape changes due to habitat fragmentation, global warming, forest fire, cattle grazing and other land management issues. Photo monitoring is inexpensive, simple and can portray change to many different groups. Of course, photos taken to reveal change must start with documenting current or normal conditions. This is sometimes called baseline monitoring. The park ranger in Glacier National Park did not realize when he took his picture of the Grinnell glacier in 1911 that his photo would become an alarming baseline photo for evidence of global warming. The purpose of this project was to document the Snake River headwater basin and its riparian zones as a document in time for future reference. The original documentation included 48 images of two main headwater areas; the Shoshone and Lewis Lake areas and the Fox Park-Two Ocean Bear Management Areas near the Yellowstone Park border. Since the Shoshone-Lewis lakes are easily assessable and photo space here is limited, I have chosen to only use photos from the more remote areas.

AbstractThe altitude of the 0°C isotherm obtained from radiosonde data of the aerological Chilean stations Antofagasta, Quintero/Santo Domingo, Puerto Montt and Punta Arenas are analyzed, along with surface temperature and precipitation records from nearby stations. The strong effect of the 1976/77 climate shift due to a change in the Pacific Decadal Oscillation is evident in the temperature and precipitation data. The data are used as input for an empirical model which reconstructs annually the equilibrium-line altitude (ELA) for the last 49 years on the western side of the southern Andes. The model takes air temperature, precipitation and altitude as the main parameters, and was first developed by Fox (1993) and applied by Condom and others (2007). From the radiosonde data, a significant positive trend of the 0°C isotherm has occurred in the northern, central and southern regions, indicating an ELA rise due to regional warming. General glacier retreat, ice thinning and negative mass balance observed during the past few decades in virtually all the Chilean Andes concur with the observed ELA reconstruction. In the Punta Arenas radiosonde record there is slight evidence for precipitation increase but no evidence for significant warming in the past few decades. This results in a slight lowering of the ELA according to the model reconstruction, which does not agree with the strong and increased glacier retreat observed in recent decades in Patagonia.

Abstract. The glacier mass balance is an important variable to describe the climate system and is used for various applications like water resource management or runoff modelling. The direct or glaciological method and the geodetic method are the standard methods to quantify glacier mass changes, and both methods are an integral part of international glacier monitoring strategies. In 2011, we established two glacier mass-balance programmes on Yala and Rikha Samba glaciers in the Nepal Himalaya. Here we present the methods and data of the directly measured annual mass balances for the first six mass-balance years for both glaciers from 2011/2012 to 2016/2017. For Yala Glacier we additionally present the directly measured seasonal mass balance from 2011 to 2017, as well as the mass balance from 2000 to 2012 obtained with the geodetic method. In addition, we analysed glacier length changes for both glaciers. The directly measured average annual mass-balance rates of Yala and Rikha Samba glaciers are −0.80 ± 0.28 and −0.39 ± 0.32 m w.e. a−1, respectively, from 2011 to 2017. The geodetically measured annual mass-balance rate of Yala Glacier based on digital elevation models from 2000 and 2012 is −0.74 ± 0.53 m w.e. The cumulative mass loss for the period 2011 to 2017 for Yala and Rikha Samba glaciers is −4.80 ± 0.69 and −2.34 ± 0.79 m w.e., respectively. The mass loss on Yala Glacier from 2000 to 2012 is −8.92 ± 6.33 m w.e. The winter balance of Yala Glacier is positive, and the summer balance is negative in every investigated year. The summer balance determines the annual balance. Compared to regional mean geodetic mass-balance rates in the Nepalese Himalaya, the mean mass-balance rate of Rikha Samba Glacier is in a similar range, and the mean mass-balance rate of Yala Glacier is more negative because of the small and low-lying accumulation area. During the study period, a change of Yala Glacier's surface topography has been observed with glacier thinning and downwasting. The retreat rates of Rikha Samba Glacier are higher than for Yala Glacier. From 1989 to 2013, Rikha Samba Glacier retreated 431 m (−18.0 m a−1), and from 1974 to 2016 Yala Glacier retreated 346 m (−8.2 m a−1). The data of the annual and seasonal mass balances, point mass balance, geodetic mass balance, and length changes are accessible from the World Glacier Monitoring Service (WGMS, 2021), https://doi.org/10.5904/wgms-fog-2021-05.

Abstract. Glacier mass balance measurements help to provide an understanding of the behavior of glaciers and their response to local and regional climate. In 2005 the United States Geological Survey established a surface mass balance monitoring program on Sperry Glacier, Montana, USA. This project is the first quantitative study of mass changes of a glacier in the US northern Rocky Mountains and continues to the present. The following paper describes the methods used during the first 11 years of measurements and reports the associated results. From 2005 to 2015, Sperry Glacier had a cumulative mean mass balance loss of 4.37 m w.e. (water equivalent). The mean winter, summer, and annual glacier-wide mass balances were 2.92, −3.41, and −0.40 m w.e. yr−1 respectively. We derive these cumulative and mean results from an expansive data set of snow depth, snow density, and ablation measurements taken at selected points on the glacier. These data allow for the determination of mass balance point values and a time series of seasonal and annual glacier-wide mass balances for all 11 measurement years. We also provide measurements of glacier extent and accumulation areas for select years. All data have been submitted to the World Glacier Monitoring Service and are available at doi:10.5904/wgms-fog-2016-08. This foundational work provides valuable insight about Sperry Glacier and supplies additional data to the worldwide record of glaciers measured using the glaciological method. Future research will focus on the processes that control accumulation and ablation patterns across the glacier. Also we plan to examine the uncertainties related to our methods and eventually quantify a more robust estimate of error associated with our results.

AbstractSummer 2000/01 ASTER and Landsat 7 scenes and semi-automated digitization were used to compile a glacier inventory for local glaciers of the Geikie Plateau region, central East Greenland. Of the 332 glaciers (41 591 km2), 120 are tidewater-terminating and drain 90% of the glacierized area. Differencing the 2000/01 tidewater margins from the 1980s GEUS map database ice polygons (113 glaciers) and from 2004/05 ASTER tidewater margins (78 glaciers) shows a cumulative tidewater terminus width decrease from 196 km to 183 km between the 1980s and 2000s, with a corresponding areal loss of ~31 km2 and an effective length change of –14.3 km. Between 2000/01 and 2004/05, areal loss was 26 km2. Average margin retreat rate increased two- to threefold, from 1.7–2.1km2 a–1 (1980s– 2000) to 3.9–5.7km2 a–1 (2000–05). Advances are negligible, apart from two surges, of which one was previously undetected. Coastal, ‘outer’ fjord-terminating, glaciers have two to three times larger areal and effective length retreat rates than ‘inner’ fjord-terminating glaciers. We investigate possible causes and hypothesize that, in addition to ocean temperature and sea ice, changes in sea fog may affect coastal-terminating more than inner fjord-terminating glaciers.

Abstract. Marine Isotope Stage 3 (MIS 3) interstadials are marked by a sharp increase in the atmospheric methane (CH4) concentration, as recorded in ice cores. Wetlands are assumed to be the major source of this CH4, although several other hypotheses have been advanced. Modelling of CH4 emissions is crucial to quantify CH4 sources for past climates. Vegetation effects are generally highly generalized in modelling past and present-day CH4 fluxes, but should not be neglected. Plants strongly affect the soil-atmosphere exchange of CH4 and the net primary production of the vegetation supplies organic matter as substrate for methanogens. For modelling past CH4 fluxes from northern wetlands, assumptions on vegetation are highly relevant since paleobotanical data indicate large differences in Last Glacial (LG) wetland vegetation composition as compared to modern wetland vegetation. Besides more cold-adapted vegetation, Sphagnum mosses appear to be much less dominant during large parts of the LG than at present, which particularly affects CH4 oxidation and transport. To evaluate the effect of vegetation parameters, we used the PEATLAND-VU wetland CO2/CH4 model to simulate emissions from wetlands in continental Europe during LG and modern climates. We tested the effect of parameters influencing oxidation during plant transport (fox), vegetation net primary production (NPP, parameter symbol Pmax), plant transport rate (Vtransp), maximum rooting depth (Zroot) and root exudation rate (fex). Our model results show that modelled CH4 fluxes are sensitive to fox and Zroot in particular. The effects of Pmax, Vtransp and fex are of lesser relevance. Interactions with water table modelling are significant for Vtransp. We conducted experiments with different wetland vegetation types for Marine Isotope Stage 3 (MIS 3) stadial and interstadial climates and the present-day climate, by coupling PEATLAND-VU to high resolution climate model simulations for Europe. Experiments assuming dominance of one vegetation type (Sphagnum vs. Carex vs. Shrubs) show that Carex-dominated vegetation can increase CH4 emissions by 50% to 78% over Sphagnum-dominated vegetation depending on the modelled climate, while for shrubs this increase ranges from 42% to 72%. Consequently, during the LG northern wetlands may have had CH4 emissions similar to their present-day counterparts, despite a colder climate. Changes in dominant wetland vegetation, therefore, may drive changes in wetland CH4 fluxes, in the past as well as in the future.

Abstract. Calving is an important process in glacier systems terminating in the ocean, and more observations are needed to improve our understanding of the undergoing processes and parameterize calving in larger-scale models. Time-lapse cameras are good tools for monitoring calving fronts of glaciers and they have been used widely where conditions are favourable. However, automatic image analysis to detect and calculate the size of calving events has not been developed so far. Here, we present a method that fills this gap using image analysis tools. First, the calving front is segmented. Second, changes between two images are detected and a mask is produced to delimit the calving event. Third, we calculate the area given the front and camera positions as well as camera characteristics. To illustrate our method, we analyse two image time series from two cameras placed at different locations in 2014 and 2015 and compare the automatic detection results to a manual detection. We find a good match when the weather is favourable, but the method fails with dense fog or high illumination conditions. Furthermore, results show that calving events are more likely to occur (i) close to where subglacial meltwater plumes have been observed to rise at the front and (ii) close to one another.

Canine circovirus (CanineCV) is a recently identified virus affecting both domestic and wild carnivores, including foxes, sometimes in presence of severe clinical signs. Its circulation in wild animals can thus represent a potential threat for endangered species conservation and an infection source for dogs. Nevertheless, no data were available on its circulation in the Alps region of Northern Italy. In the present study, samples collected from 186 foxes in the period 2009–2020 from Valle d’Aosta and Veneto regions were tested using a real-time PCR assay, demonstrating a viral circulation of approximatively 2–5%, depending on the considered regions. Two complete or almost complete genome sequences were obtained, highlighting that the detected strains were part of a so defined “fox only” clade, which suggests that, despite common contact opportunities, Alps foxes are not involved in frequent transmission events to domestic dogs. Such genetic isolation could be at least partially attributed to some sort of independent evolution occurred in the foxes, leading to species barrier. Additionally, CanineCV strains in foxes from Italy were unexpectedly related to those previously identified in foxes from the United Kingdom and Scandinavian area. Combining the history of fox distribution in Europe since the last glacial maximum (LGM) with the viral history allowed us to speculate a long-standing coexistence between European canine circovirus and this host, justifying the peculiar geographic distribution and evolutionary paths of the fox infecting clade.

The Volchia Griva is the largest site in Asia where the mammoth fauna remains are buried in situ. It is located in the Baraba forest-steppe (Western Siberia). In the 20th century, remains of at least 70 mammoths, 5 horses, 3 bisons and 1 wolf, as well as 37 stone artifacts were found here. The latest excavations of 2015–2017 on ~30 m2 revealed over 1500 bones and teeth, 95% of which belong to mammoths (at least 14 individuals), and the rest are from horses (3), bison, wolf, red fox, arctic fox, and rodents; associated artifacts – 23 items. With an average thickness of the bonebearing lens ~ 0.3–0.5 m, the local remain concentration exceeded 130/m2. The forty five crossed 14C dates were obtained from these materials, which reveal a burial period of ~20–10 ka BP. Obviously, there was the southernmost and one of the youngest mammoth refugia of Eurasia on this territory. The favorable Ca-Na geochemical landscape of the beast solonetz was the main reason for mammoth to visit the Volchia Griva. During the mineral starvation, the site attracted hundreds of large mammals, the remains of which were buried in mud baths and erosion forms. The main levels of the bone-bearing horizon have been forming for several thousand years, and that matched two waves of the megafauna’s geochemical stress in the Last Glacial Maximum and Late Glacial. Typical bone pathologies, such as exostoses, osteoporosis, erosion of articular surfaces, etc., characterize this process. These facts, together with the lack of strong evidence of hunting and butchering, indicate that the Volchia Griva was the natural mammoth death site, which was well known and used by Palaeolithic humans.

Abstract. We present a 1986 through March 2020 estimate of Greenland Ice Sheet ice discharge. Our data include all discharging ice that flows faster than 100 m yr−1 and are generated through an automatic and adaptable method, as opposed to conventional handpicked gates. We position gates near the present-year termini and estimate problematic bed topography (ice thickness) values where necessary. In addition to using annual time-varying ice thickness, our time series uses velocity maps that begin with sparse spatial and temporal coverage and end with near-complete spatial coverage and 12 d updates to velocity. The 2010 through 2019 average ice discharge through the flux gates is ∼487±49 Gt yr−1. The 10 % uncertainty stems primarily from uncertain ice bed location (ice thickness). We attribute the ∼50 Gt yr−1 differences among our results and previous studies to our use of updated bed topography from BedMachine v3. Discharge is approximately steady from 1986 to 2000, increases sharply from 2000 to 2005, and then is approximately steady again. However, regional and glacier variability is more pronounced, with recent decreases at most major glaciers and in all but one region offset by increases in the northwest region through 2017 and in the southeast from 2017 through March 2020. As part of the journal's living archive option and our goal to make an operational product, all input data, code, and results from this study will be updated as needed (when new input data are available, as new features are added, or to fix bugs) and made available at https://doi.org/10.22008/promice/data/ice_discharge (Mankoff, 2020a) and at https://github.com/mankoff/ice_discharge (last access: 6 June 2020, Mankoff, 2020e).

Refugia and dispersal routes of smallmouth bass ( Micropterus dolomieu ) into the Great Lakes were identified using 427 mitochondrial sequences from across their native range. Overall, smallmouth bass accessed the Great Lakes via long-distance dispersal from multiple refugia, and the distribution of genetic variation reflected the consequences of vicariant, dispersal, and paleogeological events. Proximity of lakes to glacial outlets had a greater predictive power on the resulting distribution of mitochondrial diversity relative to interbasin migration. Populations in the Eastern and Interior Highlands contained the most divergent and oldest haplotypes, reflecting their role as glacial refugia and subsequent high incidence of endemicity. Lake Superior, Lake Michigan, and northern Lake Huron were colonized by bass of a single mitochondrial clade that accessed the Brule–Portage (Mississippi and St. Croix rivers) and Chicago (Illinois and Fox rivers) outlets. Lakes Huron and Erie contained admixed mitochondrial lineages in part due to numerous access points, including the Fort Wayne (Wabash and Maumee rivers), Lower Peninsula of Michigan (Grand River valley), and Kirkfield (Kawartha Lakes) outlets. In contrast, populations in Lake Ontario, Georgian Bay of Lake Huron, and the St. Lawrence River were monomorphic, indicating a single but unidentified source. These patterns were consistent with many examples from the North American freshwater ichthyofauna.

AbstractPhotosynthesis by microbes on the surfaces of glaciers and ice sheets has the potential to fix carbon, alter the albedo of ice surfaces via the production of organic matter and so enhance ice melt. It could also be important for supplying labile organic matter and nutrients to in situ and downstream ecosystems. This study compares in situ 24 hour incubation methods for measuring rates of gross photosynthesis, respiration and net community production (NCP) in cryoconite holes on three Svalbard valley glaciers. Rates of gross photosynthesis and respiration measured by the ΔCO2method were closely balanced, resulting in rates of NCP close to the detection limit (mean of –1.3 μg C g−1d–1) consistent with previous measurements in Arctic cryoconite holes. This suggests that organic matter within cryoconite holes may be derived largely from allochthonous sources. The molar ratio of ΔO2to ΔCO2in incubations gave mean respiratory and photosynthetic quotients of 0.80 ± 0.17 (1 × SD) and 1.24 ± 0.20 (1 × SD), respectively. The 14C method typically underestimated rates of gross photosynthesis (ΔCO2method) by more than one order of magnitude and measured a rate closer to NCP.

Iron is thought to limit the biomass of phytoplankton populations in extensive regions of the ocean, which are referred to as high-nutrient low-chlorophyll (HNLC) regions. Iron speciation in soils is still poorly understood. We have investigated inorganic and organic standard substances, diluted mixtures of common Fe minerals in insoluble dust in snow from the Laohugou No.12 glacier, and sand (including soil and moraine) samples that were collected from western China. The speciation of iron (Fe) in insoluble dust and sand was determined by X-ray absorption near-edge structure (XANES) spectroscopy. A linear fit combination (LCF) analysis of the experimental spectra compared to a large set of reference compounds showed that all spectra can be fitted by only four species: Fe2O3, Fe3O4, biotite, and ferrous oxalate dihydrate (FOD). A significant altitude effect was detected for snow. The proportion of Fe2O3 in snow decreases gradually, and vice versa for FOD. As for Fe3O4 and biotite, the altitude effect was also detected, but separate regions should be considered to be deduced by topography. The Fe species in moraines and soils were also analyzed to identify the source of moraines and the heterogeneity of soils, and were compared with snow.

Alveolar echinococcosis caused by metacestode stage of the tapeworm Echinococcus multilocularis is considered as one of the most pathogenic zoonoses in temperate and arctic regions. To more thoroughly ascertain genetic diversity in E. multilocularis tapeworms from Europe and to indicate transmission patterns of parasite, 25 isolates from a contiguous territory of eight European countries were subjected to sequencing of mitochondrial and nuclear DNA. A total of 2 715 nucleotide sequences in nad1, cox1, rrnS, atp6 and actII genes were screened in the current study. Whereas in 24 isolates profiles belonging to a previously described European clade were identified, the interesting feature was related to the detection of the form being close to North American strain N1 (that appeared to have lower zoonotic potential) in Austrian patient. The known occurrence of this variant has thus extended from the St. Lawrence Island in the Bering Sea and Russian isolates in Yakutia to central Europe. The finding indicates that N1 genotype has not only circumpolar trans-Beringian distribution, but during glacial events in Pleistocene a more southerly fox dispersal has likely transmitted N1 into central Europe. Further distinguished genotype was confined to four isolates from southern Germany (mountain range of Swabian Jura) and had five substitutions compared to the main European form. One Latvian isolate had two mutations in cox1, one of which was identical to German isolates from Feldstetten. Single nucleotide polymorphisms were detected in single isolates from Slovakia, Hungary and France in cox1 and actIIgenes. Lower genetic diversity detected in the examined isolates in more peripheral zones of its European distribution has supported Knapp ́s model (2009) suggesting that parasite focus in Europe is governed by “mainland-island” transmission where ancestral foci supply hitherto non-endemic areas by dispersal generated by fox mobility and migration.

On the green slopes of Slieve Martin in County Down where the Mourne Mountains reach Carlingford Lough rests a forty-ton glacial rock called Cloughmore. According to Irish folklore, the giant Fionn M'Comhal hurled the enormous boulder at Benandonner, his Caledonian foe from Scotland, and many believe that ancient Druids chose the site for their rituals. Rain obscures the view from the stone's side some two hundred days of the year, but on a clear day, a stunning vista from Cloughmore emerges: streams trickling down to the shores of the deep Irish Sea and, amidst woods running uphill, the small village of Rostrevor.

The first part of the Upper Pleniglacial (around 26000—20000 BP) is characterized by a deterioration in weather conditions, which reached its peak during the Last Glacial Maximum. In the East European Plain, most of its lands were dominated by a periglacial steppe-tundra with the maximum extension of ice sheet in the North and permafrost. The different animal species had to adapt to these environments, also as human groups.The recent works realized in Ukraine permit to better understand the lifestyles of the Palaeolithic human groups, particularly their subsistence activities, the modalities of settlements and the technocultural practices. We based our study on the main sites, Dorochivtsy III, Galich 1, Klussy, Korman, Molodova V, Obollonia, Oselivka, Pushkari 1 and Pogon (Pushkari 8). These sites are very important to better understand the human occupations for all the East European Plain. Here we particularly focus on the zooarchaeological remains, which permitted to better determine the taphonomic conditions, the human activities, the seasonality of occupations and the human and other animal relationships. The main species present in archaeological sites are Mammoth, Reindeer, Horse, Fox and Wolf, who have important implication on the territory modification and the food resource for humans. Moreover the animal eco-ethology involvement of their acquisition-exploitation by nomadic hunter-gatherers, permits to highlight the potential human behavioral strategies. They show the continuous occupation of the territories by humans, in any seasons, with the persistence of organized activities, innovations and varied behaviors. This period corresponds to the changes between middle Gravettian and late Gravettian, then first Epigravettian features. The end of the Last Glacial Maximum peak marks the disappearance of Late Gravettian and of human populations between 19—16000 BP, followed by a hiatus until 16000 BP.

AbstractA scanning and transmission electron microscopy study has been performed on Oligocene glacio-marine sediments, Devonian sandstones, and Jurassic dolerites recovered during CRP-3 drilling in the Ross Sea (Antarctica). Newly formed clay minerals occur in the rock matrices and as fillings in veins and faults which crosscut the whole sequence. Authigenic clays in sediments consist of beidellite-montmorillonite, berthierine/chlorite intergrowths and illite. Al,K-rich smectites and kaolinite occur in the Devonian sandstones. Saponite, berthierine/chlorite intergrowths, and Fe-hydroxides develop in the altered dolerites. Hence, the composition of the secondary phases depends also on the geochemistry of the rock they grow in. Within each sample, the same authigenic minerals form in the matrix and in the vein/fault. Clays precipitated from fluids, with variable fO2 values, which circulated in the system during the contemporaneous diagenetic and faulting events.

Side-looking, C-band synthetic-aperture radar (SAR) penetrates cloud and fog, and operates day or night, to produce pseudo-three-dimensional terrain images with enhanced topography and surface roughness. The images, which have a 20 m resolution and cover large areas, have been used to map the regional trends, patterns of lineaments, and terrain types over a 6200 km2 area of complex lithology, structure, and drift cover. Four lineament classes are differentiated. Glacial trends are clear, and bedrock structures (faults, fractures, joints, foliation, and folded bedding) with relief expression at the surface show through the drift as lineaments. They accurately reproduce most known features when compared with bedrock and Quatenary geology maps. Hitherto unrecognized structural elements are revealed. Tones and textures reflect minute surface roughness variations useful in terrain classification. SAR wide-swath-mode imagery is thus a valuable complement to aerial photography, and is superior in revealing hummocky moraine, ribbed moraine, boulder fields and stony till. Wider use of this imagery is encouraged.

Abstract Build Your Own Earth was designed as a web-based tool for the user to select various characteristics of a planet and see what the climate of that planet would be like. Because of the limitations of computer resources, presimulated Earths were run using the Fast Ocean Atmosphere Model at relatively coarse resolution. The tool provides 50 different Earth configurations in three categories: Recent, Ancient, and Alien Earths. Recent Earths fix the continental configuration at the present day and vary the axial tilt, eccentricity, and greenhouse gas concentrations. Ancient Earths include a series of paleoclimate simulations from the Last Glacial Maximum 21,000 years ago to the Ediacaran 600 million years ago. Alien Earths include an aquaplanet, terraplanet, ice planet, and various idealized continental configurations. Fifty different monthly averaged quantities are available to view in an annual cycle from four different map projections. Build Your Own Earth was built and designed for a massive open online course, but it has also been used in the classroom at the University of Manchester, as well as research projects on paleoclimate and planetary habitability, for example. The tool is freely available online (www.buildyourownearth.com) for anyone to access.

ABSTRACT As the Arctic becomes more heavily populated and more open to commercial shipping operations, the threat of an oil spill increases. On the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, both fixed and mobile oil rigs drill for the region's highly lucrative natural oil resources. This region also happens to be one of the most dangerous shipping areas in the world. The cold Labrador Current travels south from the Arctic bringing with it icebergs calved from the glaciers along the Western Greenland coast. As these icebergs travel south, they intersect directly with the transatlantic shipping lanes following the Great Circle route just south of Cape Race, Newfoundland. The cold waters of the Labrador Current interact with the warm waters of the Gulf Stream to create extensive regions of fog with little to no visibility. As the Arctic Ocean becomes more accessible to shipping, vessels will not only transit this region travelling east and west, but also north and south to new production areas in the Arctic. Any vessel entering or exiting the Northwest Passage must transit through this region. An oil spill caused by an explosion on one of the Grand Banks' oil rigs, an allision of an iceberg with one of the rigs, or a collision of a commercial tank vessel with an iceberg are just a few of the possible scenarios that could cause a devastating incident in this region. Pervasive fog limiting aerial and satellite coverage, the diverse seabird, fish, and marine mammal population, and the presence of sea ice and icebergs during more than half of the year would result in one of the most challenging responses in the world. Transport Canada, the Canadian Coast Guard, and the Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers have conducted extensive preparations for an oil spill response in this region. However, a more far-reaching response plan must be created through consultation between government and industry stakeholders, using lessons learned from the Deepwater Horizon incident in the Gulf of Mexico to prepare for an internationally-significant event. With the opening of the Arctic Ocean and the increase in the shipping and offshore drilling in this area, a comprehensive plan must be developed before an internationally-significant oil spill occurs.

There are two caves containing groups of wall paintings of the Upper Paleolithic age known in the Southern Ural: Kapova (Shulgan-Tash) and Ignatievskaya (Yamazy-Tash). In total, about 200 pictorial motifs have been recorded in the Kapova cave, among which there are life-like depictions of Pleistocene animals (mammoth and rhinoceros). Some 180 pictorial motifs have been found in the Ignatievskaya cave, which also show images of the Pleistocene fauna (mammoth and rhinoceros), although less realistic than those in the Kapova cave. The cultural layers have been discovered in the cave sediments at both sites. Archaeological excavations in the Kapova cave revealed multiple cultural layers which contained remains of the hearths, stone artefacts, fragments of ochre, decorations made of stone and tusk, a piece of burnеd clay cup, bone tools and animal bones (some with traces of ochre paint). In the Ignatievskaya cave, the Paleolithic cultural layer contains numerous fragments of charcoal, stone artefacts, rare fragments of ochre, decorations made from teeth of arctic fox and bison and from mammoth tusk, as well as the bones of Pleistocene animals. In the past two decades, a series of radiocarbon dates has been reported by different researchers based on the charcoal and bones from the cultural layers in both caves. Seventeen dates have been reported for the Kapova cave, including 14 Upper Paleolithic, 2 Bronze Age and 1 modern dates. The materials from the cultural layer of the Ignatievskaya cave have yielded 6 radiocarbon dates; another 3 dates were obtained directly from the charcoal used for the black paintings in the cave. Our analysis of publications, in which the radiocarbon dates from the Upper Paleolithic cultural layers of the Kapova and Ignati-evskaya caves are used, has revealed that the dating results are often reported inaccurately or incompletely, which leads to serious errors in interpretations. In particular, the incorrect use of non-calibrated radiocarbon dates as calendar ages, completely changes the paleoclimatic context of the cave occupation; for the Kapova cave, for instance, such misinterpretation shifts the dates of the cave visiting and painting from the late part of the Last Glacial Maximum and early deglaciation to the Bølling-Allerød interstadial. In this paper, we revisit the published radiocarbon ages for these two Southern Ural sites, provide practical recommendations and re-emphasize the importance for accurate and complete reporting of radiocarbon ages in publications.

nalysis of landscape geochemical conditions of the territory of Kivertsi National Nature Park “Tsumanska Pushcha” was carried out also the levels of pollution of landscapes within the park and adjacent territories were established. Features of the accumulation and distribution of pollutants in the landscapes of the territory under conditions of natural and Technogenic geochemical anomalies are considered. The landscapes of the studied migration classes (calcium, calcium carbonate, carbonate clayey, acidic calcium) are characterized by a relatively high coefficient of migration intensity due to relatively weak buffering capacity, low water retention capacity and contrasting moisture regime. However, strong gleyed horizons are able to fix contaminants during their surface movement. Using the methods of landscape geochemical research, analytical methods, data on the gross and mobile content of heavy metals were obtained and analyzed. The highest concentrations of manganese and chromium are found in soils differentiated on loess sediments, nickel and copper on glacial sediments. Most of the studied heavy metals exceed the regional geochemical background. In terms of the gross content in soils, trace elements form the following geochemical series: Zn>Cu>Pb>Ni>Mn>Cr. The accumulation of lead up to 2-3 MPC in forest litters is clearly traced. Dependences of the stability of landscapes to Technogenic pollution on the level of conservation of natural geochemical parameters of soils, the degree of their anthropogenic transformation and the level of heavy metals incomings have been established. All studied plants maximally accumulated Mn, Cu, Cr and minimally Zn and Ti which is consistent with the patterns of migration of these elements in the soil. The high accumulation of heavy metals in the aboveground part of the studied plants indicates a significant removal of elements from the soil, which, in turn, makes it possible to consider certain plant species as potential phytoremediators. According to the average values of the concentration of macro elements in plants, the following geochemical series is established: CaO>K2O>MgO>P2O5>SiO2>SO3> Al2O3> Fe2O3>Na2O>TiO2. On the basis of the data obtained, 4 types of biogeochemical bonds between chemical elements in the soil – plant system for the territory of the NPP were identified: V, Ti - soil> plant; Ni - soil <plant; Cr - soil> plant; Mn, Cu - soil <plant.

The tropospheric NO2 concentration from OMI AURA always shows high concentrations of NO2 at a few locations in India, one of the high concentrations of NO2 hotspots is associated with the locations of seven coal-fired Thermal Power plants (TPPs) in Singrauli. Emissions from TPPs are among the major sources of black carbon (BC) soot in the atmosphere. Knowledge of BC emissions from TPPs is important in characterizing regional carbonaceous particulate emissions, understanding the fog/haze/smog formation, evaluating regional climate forcing, modeling aerosol optical parameters and concentrations of black carbon, and evaluating human health. Furthermore, elevated BC concentrations, over the Indo-Gangetic Plain (IGP) and the Himalayan foothills, have emerged as an important subject to estimate the effects of deposition and atmospheric warming of BC on the accelerated melting of snow and glaciers in the Himalaya. For the first time, this study reports BC concentrations and aerosol optical parameters near dense coal-fired power plants and open cast coal mining adjacent to the east IGP. In-situ measurements were carried out in Singrauli (located in south-east IGP) at a fixed site about 10 km from power plants and in transit measurements in close proximity to the plants, for few days in the month of January and March 2013. At the fixed site, BC concentration up to the 95 μgm−3 is observed with strong diurnal variations. BC concentration shows two maxima peaks during early morning and evening hours. High BC concentrations are observed in close proximity to the coal-fired TPPs (>200 μgm−3), compared to the outside domain of our study region. Co-located ground-based sunphotometer measurements of aerosol optical depth (AOD) show strong spatial variability at the fixed site, with AOD in the range 0.38–0.58, and the highest AOD in the range 0.7–0.95 near the TPPs in transit measurements (similar to the peak of BC concentrations). Additionally, the Angstrom exponent was found to be in the range 0.4–1.0 (maximum in the morning time) and highest in the proximity of TPPs (~1.0), suggesting abundance of fine particulates, whereas there was low Angstrom exponent over the surrounding coal mining areas. Low Angstrom exponent is characterized by dust from the unpaved roads and nearby coal mining areas. MODIS derived daily AOD shows a good match with the MICROTOPS AOD. The CALIPSO derived subtypes of the aerosol plot shows that the aerosols over Singrauli region are mainly dust, polluted dust, and elevated smoke. The preliminary study for few days provides information about the BC concentrations and aerosol optical properties from Singrauli (one of the NO2 hotspot locations in India). This preliminary study suggests that long-term continuous monitoring of BC is needed to understand the BC concentrations and aerosol optical properties for better quantification and the estimation of the emission to evaluate radiative forcing in the region.

Green gram (Vigna radiata) is considered the chief legume in Pakistan. Thus, current study was conducted to examine the ameliorating effect of phytohormones pre-treatments under salt stress on proteome profile of green gram by sodium-dodecyl-sulphate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). The soluble green gram seedlings proteins were resolved on 4% stacking and 12% resolving gels. The SDS-PAGE resolved 24 polypeptide bands ranging from 200 to 17kDa. Among these, 12 out of 24 bands of proteins were essentials house-keeping or growth proteins of green grams. While, 120, 114.6, 51.8, 29.1, and 22.8 kDa bands were over-expressed under 50 to 350mM salt with phytohormones treatments. The others 104.5 kDa, 99.8 kDa, 95.3 kDa, 91.0 kDa, 55 kDa, 46 kDa, and 17kDa bands were related to the GAᴣ, IAA, and SA induced tolerance. Overall 120 kDa, 114.6 kDa, 104.5 kDa, 99.8, 95.3 kDa, 51.8 kDa, 29.1 kDa and 22.8kDa bands were first time identified in the current study. The information retrieved from NCBI protein database, the resolved peptides were principally belonging to 7S and 8S vicilin, 2S, 8S, 11S, and 16.5S globulins. It is determined that seed priming with SA enhanced tolerance in green gram by rapidly synthesizing stress alleviating peptides.Key word: Cluster analysis, dendrogram, mungbean, salt stress, SDS-PAGEINTRODUCTIONVarious world-wide health concerning organization recommended the use of high graded plant protein such as legumes to prevent the risk of metabolic disorder (Hou et al., 2019). Legumes are most important protein crop on the earth. Among the legumes, the green gram is the major pulses. Its seeds are rich in superior quality storage protein, which account 85% of the total protein while, another 15% have not been broadly studied (Yi-Shen et al., 2018). The soluble storage protein comprises of 60% globulins, 25% albumin and 15% prolamins. Globulins are further divided into 3.4% basic-type (7S), 7.6% legumin-type (11S), and 89% vicilin-type (8S) (Mendoza et al., 2001; Itoh et al., 2006). Other than proteins, the green gram seeds also contain starch, fiber, phenolic compound, saponins, vitamins, calcium zinc, potassium, folate, magnesium, manganese and very low in fat that made it meager man’s meat (Hou et al., 2019). It is also a good source of green manure and fodder (El-Kafafi et al., 2015). Its root has ability to fix 30 to 50 Kg/ha atmospheric nitrogen in the soil which is essential for maintaining soil fertility (Chadha, 2010). The green gram is the valuable and the major Rabi pulse crop of Pakistan. Its cultivation area in 2016-2017 was about 179,000 hectares with seed yield of 130,000 tones. In comparison during 2017-2018, it was cultivated on 161,800 hectares land with 118,800 tones seed yield (GOP, 2018). One of the reasons of this 9% decrease in both land and productivity is the shortage of irrigated land due to soil salinity. The salinity induce oxidative bust in the mungbean cells, caused by responsive oxygen species (ROS) such as hydrogen peroxide, singlet oxygen, hydroxyl radical and superoxide radical. The ROS create hindrance in various metabolic processes of plant via interacting with macromolecules like proteins (Alharby et al., 2016). However, phytohormones like gibberellic acid (GAᴣ), indole acetic acid (IAA), and salicylic acid (SA) take part in the biosynthesis of salt tolerance proteins under salinity. These salt tolerance proteins acclimate plants under salinity stress. Application of biotechnology plays a significant role in agriculture (Khan et al., 2017). Therefore, production of particular proteins under salt stress is a specific response of cell which can be analyzed by sodium dodecyl sulphate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). SDS-PAGE is the simple, valid, and cost-effective biochemical marker (Mushtaq et al., 2018). This marker has been widely used to determine the extent of evolutionary variations in crops (El-Kafafi et al., 2015).OBJECTIVES The present study was directed first time with the aim to investigate the toxic effect of sodium chloride (0-350 mM) and stress acclimation by pre-treatment of GAᴣ, IAA, and SA on the proteome profile of NM-92 cultivar of a Pakistani green gram.MATERIALS AND METHODSThe present study was replicated thrice in the plant laboratory of Department of Genetics, Faculty of Science, and University of Karachi. The seeds of mung bean cultivar NM-92 were acquired from National Agricultural Research Centre (NARC), Islamabad. These freshly collected 15 seedsˉ1 treatment / replication were divided into two sets. The first was named as sodium chloride (SC) stress treatments were imbibed in sterile distilled water (DW) whereas, second set soaked in gibberellic acid (GAᴣ) (BDH Chemicals, England), indole acetic acid (IAA) (Fluka, Switzerland), and salicylic acid (SA) (J.T. Baker, Holland) in the separate beaker for 24 hours under dark condition. After 24 hours, given ample time to both the sets at room temperature. After recovery, all 20 treatments were sown in the 150 X 30 mm sized petri-dishes containing 0, 50, 150, 250, and 350 millimolar (mM) sodium chloride solution (Fisher Scientific, UK) for 72 hours.Protein extraction: Protein extraction was done by taking 0.3g of seedlings in an ice chilled mortar and crushed by adding 600µL 0.2 M Tris-HCl buffer having pH 7.5 contained 5% SDS (w/v) and 5% 2-mercaptoethanol (v/v). The homogenate was incubated at 0oC for 30 min., boiled in the water bath for 3 min. at 100oC. Samples were centrifuged in Heraeus Biofuge D-37520, Germany for 30 min. at 8000 rpm. The protein supernatant was saved at below 0°C for quantitative and qualitative determination with minor modifications. The total soluble protein content of the samples was estimated via “Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA) standard curve” and explicit in µg protein milligramˉ1 fresh weight of mung seedlings.Bovine serum albumin standard curve (2000 μg/mL): Total protein standard curve was made by dissolving 0.05g of Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA) in 25mL of distilled water. Ten serial dilutions were made from 0.1 mL to 1mL by BSA solution then performed Lowry. A standard curve of total proteins was plotted by taking BSA absorbance at Y-axis and 2000 μg BSA / mL at X-axisSample preparation for SDS-PAGE: For qualitative assessment of total proteins; the 35μL of saved protein supernatant was combined with 15μL of sample diluting buffer (SDB). The SDB was made up of 0.0625 M Tris-HCl pH 6.8 with 2% of SDS, 10% of glycerol, 0.003% of bromophenol blue dye and 5% of 2-mercaptoethanol. Boil the 50μL protein SDB supernatant at 100oC in water bath for 3 min., centrifuged at 6000 rpm for 4 min. The supernatant was loaded on SDS-PAGE gel with the given formulae. The SDS- PAGE: Total proteins were fractionated via SDS-PAGE with 4% stacking and 12% resolving gel. The resolving gel of 12% was made by taking 6mL solution A, 1.8 mL 3 M Tris 1 M HCl buffer pH 8.8, 144μL 10% SDS, 5.74 mL sterile distilled water, 720μL 1.5% ammonium persulphate (APS) in deionized water and 10μL TEMED. While, stacking was composed of 1.25mL of solution A, 2.5mL of 0.5M Tris 1M HCl buffer pH 6.8, 100μL 10% SDS, 1.8 mL of distilled water, 500μL 1.5% APS and 12μL TEMED. Solution A was prepared by conjoining 30% acrylamide and 0.8% N, N’-methylene-bisacrylamide in deionized water. To avoid polymerization in the beaker; the prepared solution was quickly poured into the 3 mm thick gel plates after adding TEMED. The stacking was lined over resolving gel, then combs were inserted between the gel plates of SCIE-PLAS TV-100 separation system, UK, and allowed to polymerize for ½ an hour. After polymerization gel was placed in the tank which were filled with Tris-Glycine buffer (electrode buffer) pH 8.4 then combs were removed. The electrode buffer contained 0.3% Tris, 1.41% Glycine and 0.1% SDS in 2000mL d/w. The gel was pre-run for 15 min. at 60 volts and 120 mA currents. The prepared SDS-PAGE samples were loaded in wells with BlueStepTM Broad Range Protein Marker, AMRESCO, USA as standard and run at 60 volts & 120 mA for about 45 min. When samples entered in resolving gel, and then gave 100 volts and 200 mA currents for around 2.5 hours. Furthermore, electrophoresis was carried out at a constant watt.The Gel was washed with 30% ethanol on Uni Thermo Shaker NTS-1300 EYELA, Japan at the constant shaking for 30 min. Then gels were placed in 10% glacial acetic acid in 50% methanol solution (Fixative) for 24 hours. SDS Gel was stained until protein bands were visible thereat placed as 5% of Methanol in 7.5% acetic acid glacial solution to destain the bands background. SDS-PAGE stain composed of 0.125% coomassie brilliant blue R-250 dissolved in 40% of Methanol and 7% acetic acid glacial solution. The stain was stirred on Magnetic stirrer & hot plate M6/1, Germany for 6-10 hours before used. Photographs were taken by Sanyo digital camera VPC-T1284BL and bands were scored through numbering pattern. Gels preserved in 10% acetic acid solution at 4°C.Interpretation of bands and data analysis: The total soluble protein bands relative mobility calculated by below formulae and Dendrogram was constructed via SPSS v. 20Where,F=(Migrated distance of protein band)/(Migrated distance of dye front)Slop=(Log MW of protein marker lower limit band–log〖MW of protein marker upper limit band )/(RF protein marker lower limit band –RF of protein marker upper limit band)RESULTS:The total soluble proteins extracted from green gram were perceived by SDS-PAGE Blue StepTm broad range biochemical markers. The protein-based marker was used to evaluate the toxic effect of sodium chloride along with pre-treatments of GAᴣ, IAA, and SA on proteome assay. In the current work, seedlings total soluble proteome resolved 24 polypeptide bands ranging from 200 to 17.1 kDa were recognized by using SDS-PAGE. The figure 1 showed Dendrogram assay, which classified the 20 treatments of SC, GAᴣ, IAA and SA into two major clusters where, the cluster I was the largest one (figure 1). Cluster I consisted of 15 treatments that further divided into I-A, and I-B. The pre-treatments of SC50+SA, SC150+SA, SC250+SA, and SC350+IAA were grouped together into C-1 of sub-cluster I-A. The C-2 of sub-cluster I-A, pre-treatment SC350+SA was most diverse among 20 treatments. The C-1 treatments showed 99% homology when compared with each other while, it was 97% similar with C-2. The sub-cluster I-B comprised another 10 treatments, SC0+GAᴣ, SC50+GAᴣ, SC150+GAᴣ, SC250+GAᴣ, SC350+GAᴣ, SC0+IAA, SC50+IAA, SC150+IAA, SC250+IAA, and SC0+SA that were also 99% similar for total proteins. Sub-cluster I-B pre-treatments was exhibiting 94% homology with the sub-cluster I-A. The second cluster was the smallest one that was divided into two sub-clusters, II-A and II-B. The II-A was comprised of SC50, SC150, and SC250 while, sub-cluster II-B consisted of SC0 and SC350. Within each sub-cluster, pre-treatments expressed 99% homology whereas, II-A was 97 different from II-B. Furthermore, cluster I showed 75% similarities with cluster II (figure 1). The seedlings storage proteome profile of green gram was shown in table 1.The results showed that 120kDa, 114.6 kDa, 51.8 kDa, 29.1 kDa and 22.8 kDa proteins bands were not induced at 0 mM SC, GAᴣ, IAA, and SA. The table 1 depicted the presence of 120 kDa and 114.6 kDa bands only at 350 mM SC level with all phytohormones treatments. Similarly, 51.8 kDa protein bands were appearing at 150SC, 250SC and 350SC stress with phytohormones. Based on the information collected from the NCBI protein database, this peptide was related to the 8S globulin alpha subunits. The two other, 7S globulins sub-units having 29.1kDa and 22.8 kDa molecular weights bands were synthesized under 50mM, 150mM, 250mM, 350mM SC stress with phytohormones. Concerning protein polypeptide of molecular weight 104.5 kDa, 99.8 kDa, 91.0 kDa, 55.0 kDa, and 46.0 kDa, those were induced by GAᴣ, IAA and SA at 0 to 350 mM SC. While, 17kDa protein band was appearing in SA, and IAA treated samples and 95.3kDa band was only present in SA treatment. Other 12 protein bands were present in all treatments proved as house-keeping proteins of green gram (table 1).DISCUSSIONThe SDS-PAGE profiling for proteome is the reliable and applied biochemical approach that has been used as biochemical marker in various crop differentiation, and characterization. In the current study, first time SDS-PAGE was utilized to investigate the impact of GAᴣ, IAA, and SA pre-soaking on green gram under salt toxicity. The salt toxicity adversely affects all seed, seedling, and plant metabolic process (Parveen et al., 2016). At salt toxicity, the endogenous GAᴣ, IAA, and SA levels markedly decrease (El-Khallal et al., 2009). In such condition, exogenous application of GAᴣ, IAA, and SA enhance seedlings survival rate by increasing synthesis of seed storage proteins. Likewise, our Dendrogram characterization based on 20 treatments showed significant diversity under 0 to 350 mM SC stress. The salicylic acid treatments were grouped together except SC0+SA treatment, exhibiting a close relationship, which proved its acclimating role under salt stress. These findings will help plant breeder toward enhancing food quality and quantity of green gram in future breeding programme on saline sodic land.The SDS-PAGE assay revealed 200. kDa, 109.4 kDa, 77 kDa, 68 kDa, 49 kDa, 38 kDa, 33 kDa, 26 kDa, 24 kDa, 22 kDa, 21 kDa and 19 kDa fractions as essential green gram proteins. Among these, 68 kDa, 49 kDa, 33 kDa, 26 kDa, 24 kDa and 21 kDa peptides were seed biotinylated isoform protein (Riascos et al., 2009), putative NADH-ubiquinone oxidoreductase subunit H (Gostinčar et al., 2019), heat shock protein 33 (Hamidian et al., 2015), globulin protein, seed coat / maturation protein (Dhaubhadel et al., 2005), and protein for dimerization. While, 22 kDa proteins belonged to the class of prolamin alpha zein Z1C1_2, Z1C1_4, and Z1C1_8 precursors, and 19kDa peptide was related with Z1A1_2, Z1A2_2, and Z1B_6 precursors (Miclaus et al., 2011). Further, the 91 kDa peptide is sucrose synthase SS1 protein, and 77kDa protein is the NADPH-cytochrome P450 reductase (Wang et al., 2004). Also, the phosphatase-associated two other proteins having 46 and 55 kDa molecular weight were reported earlier in Mucuna pruriens. Hameed et al. (2012) and Malviya et al. (2008) found 55 and 46kDa peptides as 7S vicilin small sub-units and 17kDa as 11S globulins sub-unit in the studied Vigna radiata. Some other molecular weight proteome such as 68 kDa and 49kDa are 7S vicilin, 33kDa is 8S vicilin, 38 and 26kDa 8S globulins, 24kDa 11S globulins, and 22kDa 16.5S globulins. These proteins required for germination and seed establishment of green gram plant (Hameed et al., 2012).The vast accumulation of 23kDa and 22kDa peptides under salt stress by salicylic acid, were reported previously in the mangrove Bruguiera parviffora and Zea mays (El-Khallal et al., 2009). Correspondingly, El-Kafafi et al. (2015) reported the presence of 115kDa, 23kDa, and 22kDa bands in the salt tolerant lines of green gram. These proteomes induced under salt stress may play a pivotal part in the stress acclimation and osmotic adjustment. Similarly, the induction of 104 kDa and 100kDa MW polypeptide by SC stress in the salt tolerant genotypes of green gram indicated the functional role of phytohormones in various metabolic and defense response El-Kafafi et al. (2015); Alharby et al. (2016), El-Khallal et al. (2009), Qados (2010). Ali et al. (2007), Alharby et al. (2016), and El-Kafafi et al. (2015) observed 17kDa, 26kDa, 33kDa and 77kDa bands involving in salt tolerance and can be considered as a positive biochemical marker for salt stress. Further, 26 kDa MW peptide also functions as osmotin under the salt stress that involved in enhancing the accumulation of glycine betaine and proline in the cells. Hence, proteome assay of green gram showed that GAᴣ, IAA, and SA could regulate the expression of salt stress proteins that are anticipated to play a crucial part in the salt tolerance mechanism. Likewise, the involvement of phytohormones in the induction of changes in the proteome profile pattern was attributed to their part in managing cell division by regulating some genes of apical meristems.CONCLUSIONFinally, the results revealed the presence of the ten new bands with MW of 200kDa, 120 kDa, 114.6 kDa, 109.4kDa, 104.5kDa, 99.8kDa, 95.3kDa, 51.8kDa, 29.1kDa and 22.8kDa have not reported previously under salt stress with phytohormones treatments in green gram. Furthermore, it was observed that phytohormones alleviate the negative impact of salt stress on green gram by enhancing synthesis of salt defense polypeptides. Hence, higher accumulation of proteins was observed in salicylic acid treated seedlings. Thus, present work recommended the pre-soaking of phytohormones to overcome the toxic impact of sodium chloride on green gram. 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