Letteratura scientifica selezionata sul tema "Buildings stock"
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Articoli di riviste sul tema "Buildings stock"
1
Röck, M., G. Pristerá, D. Ramon, E. Van de moortel, L. Mouton, J. Kockat, Z. Toth e K. Allacker. "Science for Policy: Insights from Supporting an EU Roadmap for the Reduction of Whole Life Carbon of Buildings". IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1363, n. 1 (1 giugno 2024): 012008. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/1363/1/012008.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
Abstract The European Union (EU) aims at climate-neutrality by 2050, necessitating a transformation of the entire economy, including the construction and buildings sectors. This study, initiated by the European Commission’s DG ENV, provides a basis for a roadmap to mitigate building-related greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from a life cycle perspective. This paper presents methodological developments and findings for the baseline year 2020. The research assesses whole life cycle (WLC) GHG emissions from European buildings, covering various archetype buildings. It supports the creation of an EU roadmap to reduce WLC GHG emissions by 2050. The study employed attributional LCA and five key steps: 1) Characterization of building stock based on four climatic regions; 2) Selection of representative archetypes; 3) Modelling of building life cycle inventories; 4) life cycle assessment using the GWP indicator; 5) Upscaling of building results to the building stock level. The results emphasize the relevance of reducing both operational and embodied GHG emissions at both the individual building and building stock level. At the level of individual new buildings with advanced energy performance, embodied GHG emissions average 66% of life cycle emissions, ranging from 43% to 97%. At stock level, embodied GHG emissions make up 21% of whole life cycle GHG emissions, even though only about 1% of building stock area is newly constructed in the baseline year. The remaining 79% of WLC emissions are coming from the operation of existing buildings. Within the embodied emissions, new building production and construction process stages account for 55%, existing building’s use phase embodied contributes another 20%, and refurbishment of the existing stock makes up around 15%, while end-of-life processes contribute only 2%. The study provides a novel perspective on GHG emission in the life cycle of buildings and building stocks. It lays the groundwork for an EU roadmap to reduce WLC GHG emissions. Outcomes will aid policy formulation, target setting, and implementation of suitable GHG emission reduction strategies.
2
Zhou, Wei, Alice Moncaster, David M. Reiner e Peter Guthrie. "Estimating Lifetimes and Stock Turnover Dynamics of Urban Residential Buildings in China". Sustainability 11, n. 13 (8 luglio 2019): 3720. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su11133720.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
Building lifetime and stock turnover are both key determinants in modelling building energy and carbon. However in China, aside from anecdotal claims that urban residential buildings are generally short-lived, there are no recent official statistics, and empirical data are extremely limited. We present a system dynamics model where survival analysis is used to characterise the dynamic interplay between new construction, aging, and demolition of residential buildings in urban China. The uncertainties associated with building lifetime were represented using a Weibull distribution, whose shape and scale parameters were calibrated based on official statistics on floor area up to 2006. The calibrated Weibull lifetime distribution allowed us to estimate the dynamic stock turnover of Chinese urban residential buildings for 2007 to 2017. We find that the average lifetime of urban residential buildings was around 34 years, and the overall residential stock size reached 23.7 billion m2 in 2017. The resultant age-specific sub-stocks provide a baseline for the overall stock, which—along with the calibrated Weibull lifetime distribution—can be used in further modelling and for analysis of policies to reduce the whole-life embodied and operational energy and CO2 emissions in Chinese residential buildings.
3
Rosales, Manuel, Chrysanthi Efthymiou, Nikolaos Barmparesos, Panagiotis Tasios, José Manuel Salmerón Lissén e Margarita Niki Assimakopoulos. "Identification of Reference Buildings in Mediterranean Countries: The HAPPEN Project Approach". Applied Sciences 12, n. 11 (1 giugno 2022): 5638. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app12115638.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
This study’s scope is to collect and analyze all the needed information related to the residential building stocks in Mediterranean countries, especially those that participated in the framework of the HAPPEN project (Greece, Croatia, Cyprus, Italy, Slovenia, Spain, and France). A specific procedure was followed in order to conduct a coordinated evaluation of the residential building stock. The most important variables for a statistical examination of the building stock are outlined, as well as an approach for establishing reference buildings. National data for the seven participating nations were collected and evaluated using the prescribed methodology. The research findings identify six distinct reference buildings in each nation. More specifically, the most representative buildings were distinguished through a cross-country comparison of the obtained data, after classifying the buildings into different classes to which the same approach for deep renovation/refurbishment can be applied.
4
Braun, Andreas, Gebhard Warth, Felix Bachofer, Tram Thi Quynh Bui, Hao Tran e Volker Hochschild. "Changes in the Building Stock of Da Nang between 2015 and 2017". Data 5, n. 2 (23 aprile 2020): 42. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/data5020042.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
This descriptor introduces a novel dataset, which contains the number and types of buildings in the city of Da Nang in Central Vietnam. The buildings were classified into nine distinct types and initially extracted from a satellite image of the year 2015. Secondly, changes were identified based on a visual interpretation of an image of the year 2017, so that new buildings, demolished buildings and building upgrades can be quantitatively analyzed. The data was aggregated by administrative wards and a hexagonal grid with a diameter of 250 m to protect personal rights and to avoid the misuse of a single building’s information. The dataset shows an increase of 19,391 buildings between October 2015 and August 2017, with a variety of interesting spatial patterns. The center of the city is mostly dominated by building changes and upgrades, while most of the new buildings were constructed within a distance of five to six kilometers from the city center.
5
Eriksson, Petra, Vlatko Milić e Tor Brostrom. "Balancing preservation and energy efficiency in building stocks". International Journal of Building Pathology and Adaptation 38, n. 2 (29 ottobre 2019): 356–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ijbpa-02-2019-0025.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
Purpose Energy use in buildings needs to be reduced to meet political goals; however, reducing energy use can conflict with heritage preservation objectives. The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate a method that combines quantitative and qualitative analyses of the potential of energy savings in an historic building stock. Specifically, this study examines how requirements of historic building preservation affect the energy saving potential on a building stock level. Design/methodology/approach Using the World Heritage Town of Visby, Sweden as a case study, this paper illustrates a step-by-step method as a basis for implementing energy savings techniques in an historic building stock. The method contains the following steps: categorisation of a building stock, definition of restriction levels for energy renovation scenarios and life cycle costs optimisation of energy measures in archetype buildings representing the building stock. Finally, this study analyses how different energy renovation strategies will impact heritage values and energy saving potentials for different categories of buildings. Findings The outcome of the study is twofold: first, the method has been tested and proven useful and second, the results from the application of the method have been used to formulate differentiated energy renovation strategies for the case study. Originality/value The study shows that it is possible to integrate techno-economic analysis with assessment of heritage values in a given building stock in order to facilitate a strategic discussion balancing policies and targets for energy savings with policies for the preservation of heritage values. The findings will contribute to sounder policy development and planning for historic building stocks.
6
Verma, Saurabh, Satya N. Mandal, Spenser Robinson, Deepak Bajaj e Anupam Saxena. "Investment appraisal and financial benefits of corporate green buildings: a developing economy case study". Built Environment Project and Asset Management 11, n. 2 (3 marzo 2021): 392–408. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/bepam-06-2020-0108.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
PurposeThis case study aims to appraise the financial benefits of green building construction in developing countries. The case study presents, green building's positive net present value (NPV) investment in real terms and potentially enhanced stock market returns at the firm level compared to competitors.Design/methodology/approachThe case study examines secondary data on a green building certification and longitudinal operation costs to estimate green building investments' financial benefits. The case study also compares the stock market performance of green building portfolio company with non-green building competitors of similar size and industry.FindingsThe case study finds out that the real return rate on green building investment is higher than the weighted average cost of capital (WACC) of the company with an inflation-adjusted payback period of fewer than ten years. Findings compare favourably to the extant literature which was mostly in developed economies. The paper further highlights that stock market performance for a green building focused company shows improved returns to shareholders relative to non-green competitors.Research limitations/implicationsThe results are specific to the time and building researched; green buildings costs have reduced over time, and a new study may show improved case study findings. The case study results on stock market performance are indicative and may need further research for evaluation.Practical implicationsThe case study presents a model for critical appraisal of green buildings investment. The paper further indicates that green building investment may lead to operational savings and superior stock performance compared to competitors.Originality/valueThe paper presents a green building investment appraisal model which might be useful for the industry and academia. Developing countries have limited literature on green buildings' financial benefits; this case study quantifies the financial benefits and compares them with the available literature related to developed economies’ green buildings.
7
Stavrakakis, George M., Dimitris Bakirtzis, Korina-Konstantina Drakaki, Sofia Yfanti, Dimitris Al Katsaprakakis, Konstantinos Braimakis, Panagiotis Langouranis, Konstantinos Terzis e Panagiotis L. Zervas. "Application of the Typology Approach for Energy Renovation Planning of Public Buildings’ Stocks at the Local Level: A Case Study in Greece". Energies 17, n. 3 (31 gennaio 2024): 689. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en17030689.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
According to the latest energy efficiency European directive (EED 2023/1791/EU), the expected energy renovation rate of at least 3% of the buildings’ floor area each year towards nearly zero-energy buildings (nZEBs) is extended to include public buildings not only of the central government (as per the first EED 2012/27/EU) but also of regional and local authorities. This poses a great challenge, especially for Municipalities that often manage large building stocks with high energy demands. In response to this challenge, this paper presents the application of the so-called “typology approach” for conducting public buildings’ energy renovation plans at the local level. A computational survey is initially introduced to decide the optimal set of building-stock clustering criteria among all possible combinations, involving the minimization of the RMSE index regarding the primary energy consumption of each building. For a representative building from each identified typology, the key performance indicators (KPIs) are computed for alternative energy-upgrading scenarios. Exploiting the IMPULSE Interreg-MED project tools, the KPIs from each representative building are at first extrapolated to all buildings of the examined stock and, finally, a gradual energy renovation plan is automatically produced based on user-defined decision parameters including the required annual renovation rate. The methodology is applied for the case of the Municipality of Hersonissos in Greece. For the specific 44-buildings’ stock it was found that the optimal clustering set included four criteria, building use, construction year, heating, and a cooling system, leading to 15 building typologies. Finally, assuming a 7% renovation rate per year, a 12-year gradual renovation (nZEB transformation) plan is obtained foreseeing an 85% CO2 emissions’ reduction.
8
Bennadji, Amar, Mohammed Seddiki, Jamal Alabid, Richard Laing e David Gray. "Predicting Energy Savings of the UK Housing Stock under a Step-by-Step Energy Retrofit Scenario towards Net-Zero". Energies 15, n. 9 (22 aprile 2022): 3082. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en15093082.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
The UK has one of the least energy-efficient housing stocks in Europe. By 2030, the emissions from UK homes need to fall by at least 24% from 1990 levels to meet the UK’s ambitious goal, which is reaching net-zero emissions. The originality of this paper is to apply the building typology approach to predict energy savings of the UK housing stock under a step-by-step energy retrofit scenario, targeting the Passive House Standard for refurbishments of existing buildings, namely the EnerPHit “Quality-Approved Energy Retrofit with Passive House Components.” The typologies consist of twenty reference buildings, representative of five construction ages and four building sizes. The energy balance of the UK residential buildings was created and validated against statistical data. A building stock retrofit plan specifying the order in which to apply energy efficiency measures was elaborated, and energy savings were calculated. The predicted total energy demand for the UK residential building stock for the year 2022 is 37.7 MTOE, and the carbon emissions estimation is 65.33 MtCO2e. The energy-saving potential is 87%, and carbon reductions are about 76%, considering all the steps of renovation applied. It has been demonstrated that the step that provides the biggest savings across the housing stock is the one that involves replacing windows, draught-proofing, and installing mechanical ventilation with heat recovery.
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Nägeli, Claudio, Liane Thuvander, Holger Wallbaum, Rebecca Cachia, Sebastian Stortecky e Ali Hainoun. "Methodologies for Synthetic Spatial Building Stock Modelling: Data-Availability-Adapted Approaches for the Spatial Analysis of Building Stock Energy Demand". Energies 15, n. 18 (15 settembre 2022): 6738. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en15186738.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
Buildings are responsible for around 30 to 40% of the energy demand and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in European countries. Building stock energy models (BSEMs) are an established method to assess the energy demand and environmental impact of building stocks. Spatial analysis of building stock energy demand has so far been limited to cases where detailed, building specific data is available. This paper introduces two approaches of using synthetic building stock energy modelling (SBSEM) to model spatially distributed synthetic building stocks based on aggregate data. The two approaches build on different types of data that are implemented and validated for two separate case studies in Ireland and Austria. The results demonstrate the feasibility of both approaches to accurately reproduce the spatial distribution of the building stocks of the two cases. Furthermore, the results demonstrate that by using a SBSEM approach, a spatial analysis for building stock energy demand can be carried out for cases where no building level data is available and how these results may be used in energy planning.
10
Russell, Alistair P., e Jason M. Ingham. "Prevalence of New Zealand’s unreinforced masonry buildings". Bulletin of the New Zealand Society for Earthquake Engineering 43, n. 3 (30 settembre 2010): 182–201. http://dx.doi.org/10.5459/bnzsee.43.3.182-201.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
Unreinforced masonry (URM) buildings remain New Zealand's most earthquake prone class of building. New Zealand URM buildings are classified into typologies, based on their general structural configuration. Seven typologies are presented, and their relative prevalence, age and locations are identified.
There are estimated to be 3,750 URM buildings in existence in New Zealand, with 1,300 (35%) being estimated to be potentially earthquake prone and 2010 (52%) to be potentially earthquake risk, using the NZSEE Initial Evaluation Procedure. Trends in the age of these buildings show that construction activity increased from the early days of European settlement and reached a peak at about 1930, before subsequently declining sharply. The preponderance of the existing URM building stock was constructed prior to 1940, and as such, almost all URM buildings in New Zealand are between 80 and 130 years old (in 2010). Overall the URM building stock has a 2010 market value of approximately $NZ1.5 billion, and constitutes approximately 8% of the total building stock in terms of floor area.
Details are also provided regarding the development of New Zealand building codes and the associated provisions for assessing existing earthquake risk buildings, and provides some background to the history of the URM building stock in New Zealand.
Tesi sul tema "Buildings stock"
1
Leach, Jamison Dane. "Prediction of Building Count and Dimensions from U.S. Census Data Using Multiple Regression". Thesis, Virginia Tech, 2001. http://hdl.handle.net/10919/35424.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
Providers of high-speed, wireless data services need to know where in their service area to place transmitters to reach potential customers. Viewshed analysis, a technique found in Geographic Information Systems (GIS) software, can be used to model propagation of the wireless signals from different locations to find the best transmitter site. To carry out viewshed analysis, digital data are required for all obstructions the signal may encounter along its path. One such obstruction, terrain, can be represented in the GIS by easily available Digital Elevation Models (DEMs). Another obstruction is buildings, which are common in populated areas, and therefore of particular concern to wireless providers. Unfortunately, digital data for buildings in U.S. cities and towns are often non-existent, difficult to obtain, or very costly.
In light of the difficulties surrounding acquisition of building data for wireless propagation studies, this study used Multiple Regression analysis to construct models to predict building count and dimensions. U.S. Census Housing and Demographic data, aggregated at the Census Block level, served as the predictor variables in the regression equations. The models were built from sample data collected from four U.S. cities. For each variable to be predicted (Y), the top models were compared to find the optimum one. The model chosen for Building Count (per Block) showed quite good results, and future research in the prediction of this variable shows promise. Results for the models of Average Building Height and Average Building Footprint Area (both per Block) were not nearly as encouraging, but additional work modeling these variables may still yield insights.Master of Science
2
Szecsödy, Emma. "Green Buildings – Legal and economic possibilities and limitations to increase the green building stock". Thesis, KTH, Fastigheter och byggande, 2016. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-190979.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
Buildings account for about thirty percent of the total emissions of greenhouse gases annually in the world. Forty percent of the world´s energy is consumed by buildings. Buildings are a large part of the world´s environmental problems and it´s hard to ignore this fact. The last decade, awareness of the negative environmental impact we humans have on our planet has increased, and many different environmental commitments flourish in the world today. One way for the construction and real estate sector to reduce its environmental footprint is through green buildings. The purpose of this thesis is to examine the economic and legal possibilities and limitations in order to increase the stock of green buildings. The thesis will be based on four questions: What are the incentives for green buildings, Does the law differ for green buildings compared to conventional buildings? Are other markets using green incentives?, What does property management companies think of green buildings? The study is based on literature studies and interviews with industry professionals. The results of the study show that green buildings mean many economic opportunities, such as lower operating and maintenance costs, higher property value, better indoor environment a stronger brand. One economic limitation is that many people mistakenly believe that green buildings means a higher investment cost, but it doesn’t have to be. The lack of knowledge regarding green buildings could mean that some choose not to build them, which is an indirect economic limitation. The Swedish car market and the real estate market in the US use tax reliefs and various forms of green bonuses to push environmental commitments, which is proved to work as environmental cars and green buildings increased in use and in stock. In Sweden there is no specific legislation for green buildings. Swedish buildings comply under the same laws, whether they are green or not. The laws to apply are the planning and building act, the environmental code and the law of energy declaration. In addition to these laws, there are also government regulations from Boverket in boverkets building regulations that has to be followed. These laws, rules and regulations demands certain building performances and are relatively tough. A green building has tougher demand on a building’s technical features than a conventional building has. In 2015 a new legislation was formed that prohibited municipalities to set higher demands on a buildings technical features, than what is in the law. The law is to be followed by the municipality when they operate as an administrative authority and when they enter into land allocation agreements. This means that municipalities themselves in these two cases can’t require a building with higher demands. But in those cases when the developer requires stricter requirements in partnership with municipalities, there is still a possibility to get a green building, as the law doesn’t mention this exception. By offering economic incentives, such as the US housing market and the Swedish car market does to push environmental commitments, it can be used on the Swedish housing market to increase the want to build green buildings. To increase the opportunities for municipalities to build green the law needs to change. Both these methods are expensive and time consuming. Since it within a few years probably will be a requirement for building companies and other companies to build, manage and offer green buildings in order to be able to compete on the market, the conclusion of the thesis is that it is more efficient to let the development of society take its time. The development will mean that the demand for green buildings will increase and in the future will make green building market position even stronger.Byggnader står för ungefär trettio procent av de totala utsläppen av växthusgaser årligen i världen. Fyrtio procent av all världens energi förbrukas av byggnader. Det senaste decenniet har medvetenheten kring den negativa miljöpåverkan vi människor har på vår jord ökat och många olika miljöengagemang florerar i världen. Ett sätt för bygg- och fastighetssektorn att minska dess miljöavtryck är genom gröna byggnader. Syftet med detta arbete är att undersöka vilka ekonomiska och juridiska möjligheter och begränsningar som finns för att öka beståndet av gröna byggnader. Arbetet kommer utgå från fyra frågeställningar: Vilka är incitamenten för gröna byggnader?, Skiljer sig lagen åt för gröna byggnader jämfört med konventionella byggnader?, Använder andra marknader sig utav gröna incitament?, Hur ställer sig fastighetsförvaltningsbolag sig till gröna byggnader? Undersökningen baseras på litteraturstudier och intervjuer med branschfolk. Resultatet av undersökningen visar på att gröna byggnader innebär många ekonomiska möjligheter, som lägre drift- och underhållskostnader, högre fastighetsvärde, bättre inomhusmiljö och ett starkare varumärke. En ekonomisk begränsning som finns är att många felaktigt tror att gröna byggnader innebär högre investeringskostnader, vilket det inte behöver göra. Okunskapen kring gröna byggnader kan göra att många väljer att inte bygga dessa vilket innebär en indirekt ekonomisk begränsning. Bilmarknaden i Sverige och fastighetsmarknaden i USA använder sig utav skattelättnader och olika former av gröna bonusar för att driva på miljöengagemang, vilket visat sig fungera då miljöbilar och gröna byggnader ökat i användning respektive bestånd. I svensk lag finns det ingen särlagstiftning för gröna byggnader. Svenska byggnader lyder alla under samma lag, oavsett grön eller inte. De lagar som gäller är plan- och bygglagstiftningen, miljöbalken och lagen om energideklaration. Utöver dessa lagar finns det även myndighetsföreskrifter från Boverket i boverkets byggregler som ska följas. Dessa lagar, regler och föreskrifter ställer alla krav på byggnaders prestanda och är relativt hårda. För att få till en grön byggnad kräver det att kraven på byggnadens tekniska egenskaper skärps, men inget i lagen begränsar en byggherre att sätta högre krav. 2015 blev det dock förbjudet för kommuner att ställa högre krav på en byggnads tekniska egenskaper än vad som står i lag. Lagen ska tillämpas då kommuner agerar myndighet och vid markanvisningar. Detta medför att kommuner i dessa fall inte själva kan kräva en byggnad som möter hårdare krav. Men i de fall byggherren själv kräver hårdare krav vid samarbeten med kommuner finns fortfarande en möjlighet att få till en grön byggnad, eftersom att lagen inte nämner detta undantag. Genom att erbjuda ekonomiska incitament så som fastighetsmarknaden i USA och bilmarknaden i Sverige gör för att driva på miljöengagemang kan man få fler att vilja bygga grönt även på fastighetsmarknaden i Sverige. För att öka möjligheterna för kommuner att bygga grönt måste man ändra lagen. Båda dessa metoder är kostsamma och tar lång tid. Eftersom det inom några få år förmodligen kommer vara ett måste för byggaktörer och andra företag att bygga, förvalta eller erbjuda gröna byggnader för att kunna konkurrera på marknaden är slutsatsen med arbetet att det är effektivare att följa med i den samhällsutveckling som idag sker. Utvecklingen kommer innebära att efterfrågan på gröna byggnader ökar och i framtiden kommer göra gröna byggnaders position på marknaden vara ännu starkare.
3
Arababadi, Reza. "Energy Use in the EU Building Stock - Case Study: UK". Thesis, Linköpings universitet, Energisystem, 2012. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-85840.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
Previous studies in building energy assessmnet have made it clear that the largest potential energy efficiency improvements are conected to the retrofitting of existing buildings. But, lack of information about the building stock and associated modelling tools is one of the barriers to assessment of energy efficiency strategies in the building stocks. Therefore, a methodology has been developed to describe any building stock by the means of archetype buildings. The aim has been to assess the effects of energy saving measures. The model which is used for the building energy simulation is called: Energy, Carbon and Cost Assessment for Buildings Stocks (ECCABS). This model calculated the net energy demand aggregated in heating, cooling, lighting, hotwater and appliances. This model has already been validated using the Swedish residential stock as a test case. The present work continues the development of the methodology by focusing on the UK building stock by discribing the UK building stock trough archetype buildings and their physical properties which are used as inputs to the ECCABS. In addition, this work seekes to check the adequacy of applying the ECCABS model to the UK building stock. The outputs which are the final energy use of the entire building stock are compared to data available in national and international sources. The UK building stoch is described by a total of 252 archetype buildings. It is determined by considering nine building typologies, four climate zones, six periods of construction and two types of heating systems. The total final energy demand calculated by ECCABS for the residential sector is 578.83 TWh for the year 2010, which is 2.6 % higher than the statistics provided by the Department of Energy and Climate Change(DECC). In the non-residential sector the total final energy demand is 77.28 TWh for the year 2009, which is about 3.2% lower than the energy demand given by DECC. Potential reasons which could have affected the acuracy of the final resualts are discussed in this master thesis.
4
Kelly, Scott. "Decarbonising the English residential sector : modelling policies, technologies and behaviour within a heterogeneous building stock". Thesis, University of Cambridge, 2013. https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/244708.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
The residential sector in England is often identified as having the largest potential for emissions reduction at some of the lowest costs when compared against other sectors. In spite of this, decarbonisation within the residential sector has not materialised. This thesis explores the complexities of decarbonising the residential sector in England using a whole systems approach. It is only when the interaction between social, psychological, regulatory, technical, material and economic factors are considered together that the behaviour of the system emerges and the relationships between different system components can be explained giving insight into the underlying issues of decarbonisation. Building regulations, assessments and certification standards are critical for motivating and driving innovation towards decarbonising the building stock. Many existing building performance and evaluation tools are shown to be ineffective and confound different policy objectives. Not only is the existing UK SAP standard shown to be a poor predictor of dwelling level energy demand but it perversely incentivises households to increase CO2 emissions. At the dwelling level, a structural equation model is developed to quantify direct, indirect and total effects on residential energy demand. Interestingly, building efficiency is shown to have reciprocal causality with a household’s propensity to consume energy. That is, dwellings with high-energy efficiency consume less energy, but homes with a propensity to consume more energy are also more likely to have higher energy efficiency. Internal dwelling temperature is one of the most important parameters for explaining residential energy demand over a heterogeneous building stock. Yet bottom up energy demand models inadequately incorporate internal temperature as a function of human behaviour. A panel model is developed to predict daily mean internal temperatures from individual dwellings. In this model, socio-demographic, behavioural, physical and environmental variables are combined to estimate the daily fluctuations of mean internal temperature demand. The internal temperature prediction model is then incorporated in a bottom-up engineering simulation model. The residential energy demand model is then used to project decarbonisation scenarios to 2050. Under the assumption of consistent energy demand fuel share allocation, modelling results suggest that emissions from the residential sector can be reduced from 125 MtCO2 to 44 MtCO2 after all major energy efficiency measures have been applied, the power sector is decarbonised and all newly constructed dwellings are zero carbon. Meeting future climate change targets will thus not only require extensive energy efficiency upgrades to all existing dwellings but also the complete decarbonisation of end use energy demand. Such a challenge can only be met through the transformation of existing building regulations, models that properly allow for the effects of human behaviour, and flexible policies capable of maximising impact from a heterogeneous residential building stock.
5
Wang, Qian. "Toward Industrialized Retrofitting : Accelerating the Transformation of the Residential Building Stock in Sweden". Licentiate thesis, KTH, Installationsteknik, 2013. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-133994.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
Energy utilization issues are becoming increasingly important around the world. Existing residential and building service sectors represent a large part of total energy utilization, and the corresponding operational costs and environmental impacts are high. Retrofitting is considered an effective way to accelerate the sustainable transformation of the existing building stock. In Sweden, 1945–1975 was a boom period for the construction of residential buildings. After 40–70 years of use, large contingents of buildings need to be systematically retrofitted. In the past, most Swedish buildings were retrofitted individually, and occasionally in small clusters. Cost-effective retrofitting for large-scale implementation has not yet been substantially attained. Standardizing and industrializing the retrofitting process is expected to produce the following benefits: availability of standardized toolkits based on building typologies; simplified and more efficient decision-making process; lower retrofitting costs; shorter project durations; greater resource-efficiency; lower environmental impact; and higher profitability.The overall aim of the present study is to contribute to the knowledge regarding industrialized retrofitting toolkits in Swedish residential buildings and evaluate the various toolkits. More specifically, the study aims to analyze the energy demand saving potential of different retrofitting measures and long-term profits based on the typology of residential buildings. Based on a systematic set of building properties and classification of existing residential types in Sweden, four slab houses (lamellhus) were selected as the major sub-types of building stock for the demonstration cases. The case buildings were constructed between 1945 and 1975 and are currently used as single-family houses, multi-family houses, or apartment blocks. The main approaches applied to model the retrofitting profits were Consolis Energy +, parametric-based sensitivity analysis, and life-cycle-based economic assessment.Based on the theoretical modeling and analytical results from the case studies, it was found that the energy-saving potential is strongly dominated by the building type, which affects the design of retrofitting toolkits and defines life cycle costs. The results show that improving the efficiency of heat recovery in exhaust ventilation systems is an effective retrofitting measure for energy demand savings in the studied building types. However, the efficiency of other measures is highly dependent on the typology of the buildings. From an economic perspective, toolkits that include all of the possible retrofitting measures may not lead to larger expected reduction in LCC compared to standard retrofits that only include the most sensitive parameters. In addition, the impacts of energy price changes to the LCC in the future are highly diverse in different types of residential buildings. Developing systematic retrofitting guidelines for Swedish residential buildings requires both further research and a close collaboration between all stakeholders involved in the retrofitting process.QC 20131118
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Sousa, Ramírez Gustavo Alfonso. "Analysis of strategies to decarbonise the UK housing stock". Thesis, University of Nottingham, 2017. http://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/47390/.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
The purpose of this Thesis is to revise the adoption of strategies for both new and existing housing towards the reduction of carbon emissions associated to energy demand, particularly by identifying promising technical improvements, as well as by capturing potential incentives to adopt these improvements. The case of housing is particularly interesting because although it is straightforward to categorise each building, perhaps by its physical properties, it can be considered unique because of the quasi-random behaviour of their occupants which can be determined as collective (e.g. peer pressure influencing the installation of solar panels), circumstantial (e.g. local incentives or sales in efficient devices), biological (e.g. occupants needs according to age and health conditions), or cultural (e.g. habits and patterns). It is also interesting because domestic buildings—or dwellings—represent a starting point in which our decisions to improve energy demand are taken, specially because these are biased by the exercise of rights and privileges, which do not necessarily comply with inhabitant’s comfort and satisfaction. The Thesis describes the development of an open-source platform for energy simulation, and its subsequent application in the development and testing of strategies to reduce energy demand in dwellings. The platform summarises the steps taken for its systematic development, which consist of the optimisation of a database to generate archetypes, the conformation of richer archetypes with more useful variables, the generation of volumetric archetypes, the dynamic simulation of archetypes and, finally, the systematic evaluation of results. Under this protocol, the foundations for developing scenarios are established in this work. This Thesis summarises the relevant elements that must be considered to improve robustness in the development of strategies to improve energy conservation and to reduce energy demand in dwellings. It also identifies those points that should be considered promptly in the future, and concludes with the vitality of this project for the participation of multiple disciplines and the use of new paradigms of work that today are paramount.
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Liddiard, Robert. "Characterising space use and electricity consumption in non-domestic buildings". Thesis, De Montfort University, 2012. http://hdl.handle.net/2086/6105.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
Energy used in the operation of the United Kingdom’s non-domestic buildings contributes 18% of national carbon dioxide emissions and reducing these is government policy. The use of electrical equipment in buildings is a major contributor to overall consumption, due to both its intrinsic energy consumption and the effects of incidental internal gains resulting from its operation. Knowledge of how and where consumption and internal gains occur in buildings is important in understanding the consumption characteristics of the building stock. The overall aim of this research was to improve the prediction of energy consumption in the non-domestic stock through the inference of appliance electricity consumption and resultant heat gains, for internal space uses of premises, as identified in UK property taxation data. To achieve this, the objectives were to: 1. Develop a method for inferring space usage in premises. 2. Infer values for the electricity consumption of appliances, and hence internal gains, for space uses within premises. 3. Apply the method to a dataset at the urban scale and use a suitable model to deduce the energy consumption. 4. Compare the results with measured data. Objectives 1 and 2 were achieved through analyses of detailed energy surveys of more than 300 non-domestic premises. By excluding equipment used for heating and cooling, both intrinsic electricity consumption and internal gains from appliances have been characterised for combinations of internal space use and premises activity type. For each combination, the characteristics include the energy intensity (kWh/m2/year) for: • overall appliance use • 14 end uses of appliances (e.g. lighting, catering, computers) • 18 groups of appliance activity descriptions (e.g. sales, office work, process) These characteristics were mapped onto subdivisions of space use, within premises, listed in property taxation data for a test urban area (City of Leicester). Using only 115 descriptions of space use, appliance consumption characteristics have been inferred for 91.5% of the measured internal floor area of the test dataset; this achieved the third objective. More than 80% of the floor area was identified using standard space use descriptions utilised in real estate taxation datasets. The total estimated consumption accounted for 75% of the recorded annual electricity consumption of the test area (the fourth objective). This result is acceptable, given the known limitations of the datasets and suggests that the method constitutes an improvement to stock energy modelling, thus meeting the overall aim. By inferring appliance electricity consumption and internal gains at a finer spatial resolution than previous methods, the diversity of energy consumption characteristics of the non-domestic stock may be represented more faithfully than by values applied to entire homogenised premises or premises types. The method may be used by policy makers as part of an urban energy model and as a means of evaluating potential energy interventions in the non-domestic stock, or parts thereof.
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Heier, Johan. "Energy Efficiency through Thermal Energy Storage : Possibilities for the Swedish Building Stock". Licentiate thesis, KTH, Kraft- och värmeteknologi, 2013. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-118734.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
The need for heating and cooling in buildings constitutes a considerable part of the total energy use in a country and reducing this need is of outmost importance in order to reach national and international goals for reducing energy use and emissions. One important way of reaching these goals is to increase the proportion of renewable energy used for heating and cooling of buildings. Perhaps the largest obstacle with this is the often occurring mismatch between the availability of renewable energy and the need for heating or cooling, hindering this energy to be used directly. This is one of the problems that can be solved by using thermal energy storage (TES) in order to save the heat or cold from when it is available to when it is needed. This thesis is focusing on the combination of TES techniques and buildings to achieve increased energy efficiency for heating and cooling. Various techniques used for TES as well as the combination of TES in buildings have been investigated and summarized through an extensive literature review. A survey of the Swedish building stock was also performed in order to define building types common in Sweden. Within the scope of this thesis, the survey resulted in the selection of three building types, two single family houses and one office building, out of which the two residential buildings were used in a simulation case study of passive TES with increased thermal mass (both sensible and latent). The second case study presented in the thesis is an evaluation of an existing seasonal borehole storage of solar heat for a residential community. In this case, real measurement data was used in the evaluation and in comparisons with earlier evaluations. The literature reviews showed that using TES opens up potential for reduced energy demand and reduced peak heating and cooling loads as well as possibilities for an increased share of renewable energy to cover the energy demand. By using passive storage through increased thermal mass of a building it is also possible to reduce variations in the indoor temperature and especially reduce excess temperatures during warm periods, which could result in avoiding active cooling in a building that would otherwise need it. The analysis of the combination of TES and building types confirmed that TES has a significant potential for increased energy efficiency in buildings but also highlighted the fact that there is still much research required before some of the technologies can become commercially available. In the simulation case study it was concluded that only a small reduction in heating demand is possible with increased thermal mass, but that the time with indoor temperatures above 24 °C can be reduced by up to 20%. The case study of the borehole storage system showed that although the storage system worked as planned, heat losses in the rest of the system as well as some problems with the system operation resulted in a lower solar fraction than projected. The work presented within this thesis has shown that TES is already used successfully for many building applications (e.g. domestic hot water stores and water tanks for storing solar heat) but that there still is much potential in further use of TES. There are, however, barriers such as a need for more research for some storage technologies as well as storage materials, especially phase change material storage and thermochemical storage.Behovet av värme och kyla i byggnader utgör en betydande del av ett lands totala energianvändning och att reducera detta behov är av yttersta vikt för att nå nationella samt internationella mål för minskad energianvändning och minskade utsläpp. En viktig väg för att nå dessa mål är att öka andelen förnyelsebar energi för kylning och uppvärmning av byggnader. Det kanske största hindret med detta är det faktum att det ofta råder obalans mellan tillgången på förnyelsebar energi och behovet av värme och kyla, vilket gör att denna energi inte kan utnyttjas direkt. Detta är ett av problemen som kan lösas genom att använda termisk energilagring (TES) för att lagra värme eller kyla från när det finns tillgängligt till dess att det behövs. Denna avhandling fokuserar på kombinationen av TES och byggnader för att nå högre energieffektivitet för uppvärmning och kylning. Olika tekniker för energilagring, samt även kombinationen av TES och byggnader, har undersökts och sammanfattats genom en omfattande litteraturstudie. För att kunna identifiera byggnadstyper vanliga i Sverige gjordes även en kartläggning av det svenska byggnadsbeståndet. Inom ramen för denna avhandling resulterade kartläggningen i valet av tre typbyggnader, två småhus samt en kontorsbyggnad, utav vilka de två småhusen användes i en simuleringsfallstudie av passiv TES genom ökad termisk massa (både sensibel och latent). Den andra fallstudien som presenteras i denna avhandling är en utvärdering av ett existerande borrhålslager för säsongslagring av solvärme i ett bostadsområde. I detta fall användes verkliga mätdata i utvärderingen samt i jämförelser med tidigare utvärderingar. Litteraturstudien visade att användningen av TES öppnar upp möjligheter för minskat energibehov och minskade topplaster för värme och kyla samt även möjligheter till en ökad andel förnyelsebar energi för att täcka energibehovet. Genom att använda passiv lagring genom ökad termisk massa i byggnaden är det även möjligt att minska variationer i inomhustemperaturen och speciellt minska övertemperaturer under varma perioder; något som kan leda till att byggnader som normalt behöver aktiv kylning kan klara sig utan sådan. Analysen av kombinationen av TES och byggnadstyper bekräftade att TES har en betydande potential för ökad energieffektivitet i byggnader, men belyste även det faktum att det fortfarande krävs mycket forskning innan vissa av lagringsteknikerna kan bli kommersiellt tillgängliga. I simuleringsfallstudien drogs slutsatsen att en ökad termisk massa endast kan bidra till en liten minskning i värmebehovet, men att tiden med inomhustemperaturer över 24 °C kan minskas med upp till 20 %. Fallstudien av borrhålslagret visade att även om själva lagringssystemet fungerade som planerat så ledde värmeförluster i resten av systemet, samt vissa problem med driften av systemet, till en lägre solfraktion än beräknat. Arbetet inom denna avhandling har visat att TES redan används med framgång i många byggnadsapplikationer (t.ex. varmvattenberedare eller ackumulatortankar för lagring av solvärme) men att det fortfarande finns en stor potential i en utökad användning av TES. Det finns dock hinder såsom behovet av mer forskning för både vissa lagringstekniker samt lagringsmaterial, i synnerhet för lagring med fasändringsmaterial och termokemisk lagring.
QC 20130225
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GULOTTA, Teresa Maria. "TOWARDS THE DECARBONIZATION OF THE EU BUILDING STOCK: AN INTEGRATED BUILDING STOCK RENOVATION MODELING APPROACH". Doctoral thesis, Università degli Studi di Palermo, 2020. http://hdl.handle.net/10447/395546.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
In Europe, the residential building stock is responsible for about 40% of the energy demand and about 36% of the CO2 emission at global level. Considering that almost 70% of the existing building stock will still be used in 2050, a long-term vision is needed to align with future challenges to avoid having significant increases in carbon emissions. The European policymakers have a long-recognized potential energy saving associated with the renovation of the existing building stocks, as demonstrated by the directives on the Energy performance of buildings (EPBD), introducing also the need to developed an integrated buildings design approach with environmental analysis. The purpose of this thesis is to provide a comprehensive assessment of the existing building stock that could be renovated. The basis of a good renovation strategy is establishing an accurate understanding of the building stock, including age, building typology, heating source, etc. A detailed bottom-up breakdown by building type, age, energy carrier, climatic zone, energy performance, occupancy, and ownership are developed to underpin subsequent steps in the European decarbonization strategies in the residential sector.
In this thesis, the energy and environmental effects of four possible renovation scenarios are studied using the dynamic energy simulation and the Life Cycle Assessment. Also, to account for the possible use of bio-based materials, a sensitivity analysis is performed on the improvement of the building’s envelope for four types of materials (as stone wool, wood wool cement board, cellulose fiber, and cork slab). Another two scenarios are relative to the installation of renewable energy systems (RES) as a solar thermal collector and photovoltaic systems. In particular, in some countries, the results show how the use of insulation materials could require less time for repaying the environmental impacts generated during their whole life cycle that the RES, comparing the environmental impacts generated during their production with the potential energy saving during their use. The models developed to allow to evaluated energy and environmental effects of a greater number of renovation strategies, highlighting the needs of an integrated approach for helping the policymakers, the designer and the engineering into the definition of the most sustainable solutions for EU-28.
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Gallardo, Carla. "Residential building stocks and flows as dynamic systems : Chilean dwelling stock and energy modeling, including earthquakes". Thesis, Norges teknisk-naturvitenskapelige universitet, Institutt for vann- og miljøteknikk, 2012. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:no:ntnu:diva-18786.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
The building sector comprises a very important part of each country’s economy, playing an important role in the consumption of resources and energy. In practice there is little knowledge on how the building stock develops. It is useful then to understand the dynamics and the metabolism of the built environment. Research on building stocks, predominantly on the residential sector, has been performed mainly for developed countries. There is little or none research on building stock for developing countries, so given that there is still a big gap regarding service levels (floor area per capita) between developed and developing countries, it is of importance to understand the dynamics of developing countries as well.Given that earthquakes occur in populated areas, it is important to assess the dynamics of such systems. The Chilean dwelling stock is subjected to earthquakes, so this focused on including earthquake activity to the dynamic MFA model of the dwelling stock. A leaching approach was used, basing the analysis on the typology distribution of different vulnerability classes. Different scenarios were defined in order to analyze the effect of policies on building codes and practices on the typology distribution of the stock, and hence on the demolition and renovation rate due to earthquakes. Policies for strengthening and renovating the building stock have a large positive impact on overall demolition rates. Patching types of policies have little effect when it comes to making the stock less vulnerable in the long term.An energy analysis was carried out for the overall stock, based on the mass balance yielded by the building stock dynamic MFA model. Effects of policies on energy and renovation standards are observed through the analysis of scenarios as well. The energy consumption of the stock has not reached saturation yet, and the timing for this will be strongly influenced by the energy intensity development of the stock. The combined effect of policies for decreasing the vulnerability of the dwelling stock and energy efficiency policies could be further explored if each vulnerability class could be described by an energy intensity factor. Further data gathering or modeling on this would be of importance to further understand the system.Even if there is data uncertainty and the model present weaknesses, the approach used for modeling the Chilean dwelling stock allows for a systematic view of the effects earthquakes on the system. The building sector is an important contributor of CO2 emissions. A detailed carbon analysis for the future development of the building stock is then relevant to this study. However, considering the time constraints, this research has focused on the modeling of the building stock including earthquake activity and an overall energy assessment of it. A simplified carbon analysis was left out due to the fact that by considering a constant emission factor the analysis of the trends of CO2 emissions would be equivalent to the analysis of the energy model.
Libri sul tema "Buildings stock"
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United States. Bonneville Power Administration., Energy Trust of Oregon (ETO) e Northwest Energy Efficiency Alliance, a cura di. Assessment of the commercial building stock in the Pacific Northwest: Final report. Madison, Wisconsin: Kema-Xenergy Inc., 2004.
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Great Britain. Department of Education and Science. Architects and Building Branch., a cura di. Property information systems and the educational building stock: Towards a common framework : property management in educational buildings. London: Dept. of Education & Science, Architects & Building Branch, 1986.
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Governments, Association of Bay Area. Building stock and earthquake losses: The San Francisco Bay area example. Oakland, Calif.]: The Association, 1986.
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Association of Bay Area Governments., a cura di. Building stock and earthquake losses: The San Francisco Bay Area example. [Oakland]: The Association, 1986.
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Vinci, John. The Trading Room: Louis Sullivan and the Chicago Stock Exchange. Chicago, IL: Art Institute of Chicago, 1989.
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Exchange, Malta Stock. The Upper Barracca Gardens and the Garrison Chapel. Valletta, Malta]: Borża taʼ Malta, 2002.
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Meseure, Anna. Die Architektur der Antwerpener Börse und der europäische Börsenbau im 19. Jahrhundert. München: Scaneg, 1987.
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A, Bushe N., Koni͡u︡khov A. D e Vsesoi͡u︡znyĭ nauchno-issledovatelʹskiĭ institut zheleznodorozhnogo transporta (Soviet Union), a cura di. Metody zashchity ot korrozii podvizhnogo sostava i metallokonstrukt͡s︡iĭ zheleznodorozhnogo transporta: Sbornik nauchnykh trudov. Moskva: "Transport", 1988.
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Mattei, Edouard. La Bourse en son palais. Paris: Adam Biro, 2001.
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vetenskapsakademien, Kungl Svenska, a cura di. Börshuset: Från rådhus till hemvist för Svenska Akademien. Lidingö: Bokförlaget Langenskiöld, 2021.
Cerca il testo completoCapitoli di libri sul tema "Buildings stock"
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Woodforde, John. "A Use for Old Rolling Stock". In Farm Buildings, 44–48. London: Routledge, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781003416050-8.
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Haase, Matthias, e Thaleia Konstantinou. "Current Business Model Practices in Energy Master Planning for Regions, Cities and Districts". In Smart and Sustainable Planning for Cities and Regions, 1–14. Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-39206-1_1.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
AbstractRoughly 97% of the European Union (EU) building stock is not considered energy efficient, and 75–85% of it will still be in use in 2050 (Artola et al., Boosting building renovation: What potential and value for Europe? 2016). Residential buildings account for around two thirds of final energy consumption in European buildings. The rate at which new buildings either replace the old stock or expand the total stock is about 1% per year. Similarly, the current renovation rate of existing buildings in the EU is about 1–2% of the building stock renovated each year. Renovation strategies on building levels need to be derived from a combination of energy efficiency upgrades to buildings and the use of renewable energy to decarbonize the energy supply, on a district or city scale. IEA EBC Annex 75 subtask D2 focuses on promoting cost-effective building renovation at district level combining energy efficiency and renewable energy systems, by focusing on the business models that can make implementation possible. This paper intends to provide an overview of the business model archetypes that can support the development of district demand and/or supply of energy-efficient building renovations and/or renewable energy solutions by targeting various types of stakeholders. It builds upon existing literature to gain insights into the current distributed energy business model landscape. Further, implementation strategies are identified that focus on a holistic evaluation of the expected energy and CO2 performance of the site and optimized infrastructure investment pathways.
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Koukaras, Paraskevas, Stelios Krinidis, Dimosthenis Ioannidis, Christos Tjortjis e Dimitrios Tzovaras. "Big Data and Analytics in the Deep Renovation Life Cycle". In Disrupting Buildings, 69–81. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-32309-6_5.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
AbstractThe rising volume of heterogeneous data accessible at various phases of the construction process has had a significant impact on the construction industry. The availability of data is especially advantageous in the context of deep renovation, where it may significantly accelerate the decision-making process for building stock retrofit. This chapter covers Big Data and analytics in the context of deep renovation and shows how Machine Learning and Artificial Intelligence have affected the various phases of the deep renovation life cycle. It presents a review of the literature on Big Data and deep renovation and discusses a series of use cases, applications, advantages, and benefits as well as challenges and barriers. Finally, Big Data and deep renovation prospects are discussed, including future potential developments and guidelines.
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Stefanoudakis, Dimitrios, e Eftychia Apostolidi. "Strengthening and Modernization of a Characteristic Masonry Building in Vienna, Austria". In Case Studies on Conservation and Seismic Strengthening/Retrofitting of Existing Structures, 173–92. Zurich, Switzerland: International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering (IABSE), 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.2749/cs002.173.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
Historical buildings from the period of Promoterism constructed between 1850 and 1910, called “Gründezeitgebäude,” represent a main part of the building stock in Vienna. A typical building from this period is presented, along with the pathology of such buildings. A step-by-step strengthening and modernization strategy is described, including structural analysis data and design of sections data before and after interventions, along with detailing according to the respective codes.
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Marvuglia, Antonino, e Mohamed Laib. "Exploratory Analysis of Building Stock: A Case Study for the City of Esch-sur-Alzette (Luxembourg)". In Computational Science and Its Applications – ICCSA 2023 Workshops, 374–91. Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-37105-9_25.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
AbstractOne of the main steps in developing urban building energy models (UBEM) is the classification of the building stock according to building archetypes. Different approaches have been proposed to accomplish this task, some based on the application of clustering techniques, or a combination of expert knowledge, deterministic classification, and data driven approaches. This paper proposes the utilization of a hybrid approach where exploratory data analysis is combined with feature extraction and feature selection to support clustering. The proposed methodology was applied to the building stock of the city of Esch-sur-Alzette (Grand Duchy of Luxembourg). The used data set includes buildings’ geometrical and physical characteristics, preassigned occupancy estimates, and final energy use simulated with a quasi-steady-state model. According to the variables’ combination and deterministic building stock fragmentation schemes used, the number of archetypes identified varied between 12 and 89. The paper shows the potential of clustering techniques for the development of archetypes, even though this must be combined with other (deterministic) fragmentation methods because clustering alone does not allow for the differentiation of building use typologies and construction periods, both of which must be considered to characterize buildings properly.
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Jiménez-Pulido, Cristina, Ana Jiménez-Rivero e Justo García-Navarro. "Strategies to Promote Deep Renovation in Existing Buildings". In Future City, 377–94. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-71819-0_21.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
AbstractExisting buildings play a central role in achieving EU climate and energy targets. Consequently, the building sector faces the complex challenge of finding effective solutions to manage both the conservation and renovation of this stock. Given that building energy renovation has the potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and achieve EU targets, the European Commission has developed frameworks and regulatory instruments to foster a deep renovation approach. However, progress in achieving the necessary transformation has been slow. The objective of this chapter is to identify strategies and actions that can accelerate the sustainable transformation of the building stock. We focus on the first renovation stage in which it is critical for accurate data to be collected and processed on the state of buildings to improve decision-making processes. By overviewing current policies and instruments, and new technologies and tools applicable to existing buildings, we explore open challenges and room for improvement to fulfil their potential. In this study, we have identified upgraded instruments and tools and new benchmarks, resulting in innovative strategies and actions as drivers for a sustainable transformation. From this perspective, we introduce how more ambitious approaches can lead stakeholders to develop strategies and apply actions towards a regenerative built environment.
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Leindecker, Gerald. "The Effect of Standardization on the Future of Sustainable Refurbishment of Existing Buildings". In Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering, 605–14. Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland, 2024. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-57800-7_56.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
AbstractThere is a vast building stock of existing buildings and the exchange rate is low (up to 0.2% per year). Therefore, there is a very strong need to deal with the existing building stock in respect to circularity. The effect of (new) regulations and standards on this volume for refurbishment and recycling of building materials is therefore crucial to meet the targets of CO2 reduction by increasing aspects of circularity overall to support environmental sustainability. The influence of standards towards the harmonization of technical requirements for refurbishment of existing buildings is therefore essential for wider implementation and acceptance in the market. There is, however, a gap identified between existing relevant standardization efforts and research in the field of refurbishment in the context of circularity. The effect of newly released standards and regulation will be analysed and identified barriers are discussed such as the generation and dissemination process of these standards.
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Ferrante, Annarita. "Technologies and Socio-economic Strategies to nZEB in the Building Stock of the Mediterranean Area". In Energy Performance of Buildings, 123–63. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-20831-2_8.
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Ciardiello, Adriana, Jacopo Dell’Olmo, Federica Rosso, Lorenzo Mario Pastore, Marco Ferrero e Ferdinando Salata. "An Innovative Multi-objective Optimization Digital Workflow for Social Housing Deep Energy Renovation Design Process". In The Urban Book Series, 111–21. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-29515-7_11.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
AbstractNowadays, the energy retrofit of the building sector is identified as a major instrument toward a climate-neutral Europe by 2050. In accordance with the European Renovation Wave program, deep energy renovations are needed, starting from public and less efficient buildings. Furthermore, the renovation of the social housing building stock is also an important response to energy poverty, as it could contribute safeguarding health and well-being of vulnerable citizens. In particular, buildings from the 1960–1980, which constitute a large portion of cities, often have high energy demand and low indoor comfort because most of them have been built before energy-efficiency regulations. In this context, the paper aims to propose a multi-objective approach toward energy renovation of the social housing building stock, by means of an innovative digital workflow. The objective functions are minimizing energy consumption, CO2 emissions, investment, and operational costs. Toward these contrasting objectives, numerous passive strategies are taken into account, which are compatible with the considered architecture. The optimal solutions are found by means of a genetic algorithm coupled with energy performance simulation software. The methodology is applied and verified on a significant and relevant case study, pertaining to the social housing building stock of Rome, Italy (Mediterranean climate). The outputs of the workflow are a set of optimal solutions among which to choose the fittest one depending on the need of the different stakeholders. The proposed multi-objective approach allows reducing the energy consumption for heating by 31% and for cooling by 17% and the CO2 emissions up to 27.4%. The proposed methodology supports designers and policymakers toward an effective building stock renovation, which can answer the urgent energy and environmental targets for the coming decades.
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Wang, Qian, e Ivo Martinac. "The Application of LCCA toward Industrialized Building Retrofitting − Case Studies of Swedish Residential Building Stock". In Sustainability in Energy and Buildings, 931–46. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-36645-1_82.
Testo completoAtti di convegni sul tema "Buildings stock"
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Kamal, Athar, Sami G. Al-Ghamdi e Muammer Koc. "Building Stock Inertia and Impacts on Energy Consumption and CO2 Emissions in Qatar". In ASME 2019 13th International Conference on Energy Sustainability collocated with the ASME 2019 Heat Transfer Summer Conference. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/es2019-3854.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
Abstract Greenhouse gas emission reduction and the consequent decrease in the environmental impacts of fossil fuel can be achieved by cutting back on energy consumption in the building sector that consumes around 30% of total final energy around the globe. The building sector is a complex component of the modern economy and life and includes diverse types of structures, uses, and energy patterns. Such variability is a result of the way that buildings are designed, built, and used in addition to the variations of their materials, equipment, and users. From the start of the construction phase until their demolition, buildings involve energy consumption. A single building’s energy consumption pattern can be called its energy inertia, that is the way it consumes energy throughout its lifetime. Energy consumption also varies according to the age of the buildings. As a building gets older, its structure and equipment start losing their efficiency and often lead to increasing energy consumption over time. At any given time, the building sector is composed of structures of various ages. Some are under construction, others are recently built, some have lived to be mature and some quite old enough to be demolished. This complexity in the building sector creates a momentum against implementation of policies that reduce energy consumption. In this study, a system dynamic model is developed to perceive the temporal evolution of energy consumption and efficiency measures for the villa-type building stock in Qatar. This model tests energy efficiency policy measures such as renovation rates of 15 and 30 years, for buildings that are considered old, and also examines implementation of technology and building codes for new buildings. Results reveal savings of between 157 GWh and 1,275 GWh of electricity and reduction in CO2 emissions ranging from 77,000 tonnes to 602,000 tonnes.
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Brzev, Svetlana, Jovana Borozan, Marko Marinković, Marijana Hadzima-Nyarko, Nikola Blagojević, Milica Petrović, Veljko Koković, Borko Bulajić e Božidar Stojadinović. "CLASSIFICATION OF RESIDENTIAL BUILDING STOCK IN SERBIA". In 2nd Croatian Conference on Earthquake Engineering. University of Zagreb Faculty of Civil Engineering, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.5592/co/2crocee.2023.100.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
Developing a classification system (taxonomy) for buildings is a critical step for seismic risk assessment studies. Such a system can be used to characterize a building portfolio within urban/rural settlements or building stock for the entire country. Serbia is located in a region characterized by a moderate seismic hazard. In the last century, 10 earthquakes of magnitude 5.0 and higher occurred in Serbia, the strongest (M 6.0) in 1922. The strongest earthquake in the 21st century (Mw 5.5), with an epicenter close to Kraljevo, occurred in November 2010 and caused significant damage to residential buildings. In 2019, members of the Serbian Association for Earthquake Engineering (SUZI-SAEE) contributed to the SERA project and its goal to develop a seismic risk model for Europe. A taxonomy of residential buildings in Serbia was developed based on previous national and regional building stock studies. The proposed taxonomy includes the Lateral Load-Resisting System (LLRS) (e.g., wall, frame, dual wall-frame system) and material of the LLRS (e.g., masonry, concrete, wood) as the main attributes. The type of floor diaphragm (rigid or flexible) has been specified only for masonry typologies with unreinforced masonry walls, while building height and date of construction have been implicitly considered. According to the proposed taxonomy, there are 9 residential building typologies in Serbia; out of those, 5 typologies are related to masonry structures, 3 are related to RC structures, and one is related to wood structures. This paper describes the proposed taxonomy and outlines the characteristic features of different building typologies and their relevance for estimating seismic vulnerability and risk. A comparison of the proposed taxonomy for Serbia and published taxonomies for Croatia is also presented.
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Bernardo, Vasco, Alfredo C. Costa, Paulo Candeias, Aníbal Costa e Paulo B. Lourenço. "ANALYTICAL SEISMIC FRAGILITY CURVES FOR ANCIENT MASONRY BUILDINGS IN PORTUGAL". In 2nd Croatian Conference on Earthquake Engineering. University of Zagreb Faculty of Civil Engineering, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.5592/co/2crocee.2023.127.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
The seismic performance of buildings has received special attention due to the interest in the built heritage conservation and protection of human life. The historic urban centers are dominated by old unreinforced masonry (URM) buildings, which techniques and construction materials have evolved during centuries. Given the presence of these buildings in areas of significant seismicity, extensive research is needed to assess the seismic risk and define mitigation policies. This kind of studies is often supported by empirical methods and based on expert judgment due to the high variability of the building stock and lack of information. The main purpose of this work is to provide analytical fragility curves for representative masonry buildings in Portugal, built before the introduction of the first design code for building safety against earthquakes (RSSCS) in 1958. Thus, the fragility curves derived can characterize the capacity of the Portuguese building stock considering the randomness in the material properties and the variability in the geometry.
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Stefanov, Dimitar, Dimcho Solakov e Jordan Milkov. "CONSEQUENCES ON PEOPLE AND THE BUILDING STOCK OF A STRONG EARTHQUAKE FOR THE CITY OF VARNA". In 23rd SGEM International Multidisciplinary Scientific GeoConference 2023. STEF92 Technology, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.5593/sgem2023/1.1/s05.65.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
The purpose of this study is to shed light on the question of what the possible consequences will be on people and the building stock of a strong earthquake for the city of Varna. A seismic risk assessment methodology is used, which was approved by the Ministry of Regional Development and Public Works of the Republic of Bulgaria. The seismic impact is determined based on a detailed deterministic study of the seismic hazard. Initially, an assessment of the seismic vulnerability of the building stock is made based on the detailed information for each building from the cadastre. The building stock is divided into three main groups, taking into account the specificity of the building and the available information on the function and occupancy of the buildings. The assessment of the consequences of strong earthquakes is based on procedures for integration of seismic hazard and seismic vulnerability of the bearing structures of the building stock. Based on the collected information for the building stock and the analysis carried out, the assessment of direct damages and destruction is obtained. The distribution of the buildings, respectively by number and by total floor area, at the different damage levels is presented in graphical form. Economic losses are calculated based on the results obtained for damages and destruction in the three main groups of buildings. Social losses expressed as number of dead, number of injured (slightly and moderately injured people) and severely injured requiring hospital treatment are calculated.
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Kretzschmar, Daniel. "Stock dynamics of non-residential buildings in Germany". In 28th Annual European Real Estate Society Conference. European Real Estate Society, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.15396/eres2022_52.
Testo completo
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Kim, Dongsu, Heejin Cho e Rogelio Luck. "Potential Impacts of Net-Zero Energy Buildings With Distributed Photovoltaic (PV) Power Generation on the Electrical Grid". In ASME 2018 Power Conference collocated with the ASME 2018 12th International Conference on Energy Sustainability and the ASME 2018 Nuclear Forum. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/power2018-7319.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
This study evaluates potential aggregate effects of net-zero energy building (NZEB) implementations on the electrical grid in simulation-based analysis. Many studies have been conducted on how effective NZEB designs can be achieved, however the potential impact of NZEBs have not been explored sufficiently. As significant penetration of NZEBs occurs, the aggregated electricity demand profile of the buildings on the electrical grid would experience dramatic changes. To estimate the impact of NZEBs on the electrical grid, a simulation-based study of an office building with a grid-tied PV power generation system is conducted. This study assumes that net-metering is available for NZEBs such that the excess on-site PV generation can be fed to the electrical grid. The impact of electrical energy storage (EES) within NZEBs on the electrical grid is also considered in this study. Finally, construction weighting factors of the office building type in U.S. climate zones are used to estimate the number of national office buildings. In order to consider the adoption of NZEBs in the future, this study examines scenarios with 20%, 50%, and 100% of the U.S. office building stock are composed of NZEBs. Results show that annual electricity consumption of simulated office buildings in U.S. climate locations includes the range of around 85 kWh/m2-year to 118 kWh/m2-year. Each simulated office building employs around 242 kWp to 387 kWp of maximum power outputs in the installation of on-site PV power systems to enable NZEB balances. On a national scale, the daily on-site PV power generation within NZEBs can cover around 50% to 110% of total daily electricity used in office buildings depending on weather conditions. The peak difference of U.S. electricity demand typically occurs when solar radiation is at its highest. The peak differences from the actual U.S. electricity demand on the representative summer day show 9.8%, 4.9%, and 2.0% at 12 p.m. for 100%, 50%, and 20% of the U.S. NZEB stocks, respectively. Using EES within NZEBs, the peak differences are reduced and shifted from noon to the beginning of the day, including 7.7%, 3.9%, and 1.5% for each percentage U.S. NZEB stock. NZEBs tend to create the significant curtailment of the U.S. electricity demand profile, typically during the middle of the winter day. The percentage differences at a peak point (12 p.m.) are 8.3%, 4.2%, and 1.7% for 100%, 50%, and 20% of the U.S. NZEB stocks, respectively. However, using EES on the representative winter day can flatten curtailed electricity demand curves by shifting the peak difference point to the beginning and the late afternoon of the day. The shifted peak differences show 7.4%, 3.7%, and 1.5% at 9 a.m. for three U.S. NZEB stock scenarios, respectively.
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Balaras, Constantinos A., Elena G. Dascalaki, Athina G. Gaglia, Kaliopi Droutsa e Simon Kontoyiannidis. "Energy Performance of European Buildings". In ASME 2007 Energy Sustainability Conference. ASMEDC, 2007. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/es2007-36005.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
The existing buildings stock in European countries accounts for over 40% of final energy consumption in the European Union (EU) member states. Consequently, an increase of building energy performance can constitute an important instrument in the efforts to alleviate the EU energy import dependency and comply with the Kyoto Protocol to reduce carbon dioxide emissions. This is also in accordance to the European Directive on the Energy Performance of Buildings (EPBD), which is currently under implementation in all EU member states. This paper presents an overview of EPBD and ongoing national activities, and focus on building energy performance assessment methodologies, in line with the EPBD. These methods and software can be used to perform building energy audits and assess buildings in a uniform way, perform demand and savings calculations, provide owners with specific advice for measures that can improve energy performance, and issue an Energy Performance Certificate (EPC) for existing buildings. Another ongoing European project is developing a common database structure and an evaluation scheme, which is being used to collect, process and evaluate data from 12 European countries. The results will constitute a good basis for the implementation of harmonized monitoring systems in the building sector on regional and national level.
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Köhserli, Mehmet, e Péter L. Várkonyi. "Vibration of structurally connected high-rise buildings under wind force". In IABSE Congress, Ghent 2021: Structural Engineering for Future Societal Needs. Zurich, Switzerland: International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering (IABSE), 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.2749/ghent.2021.1598.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
<p>Cities are organized around various underlying networks but building structures do not follow this trend. The isolation of structural systems causes difficulties in the case of tall structures. We investigate the possibility of improving structural behaviour by organizing buildings into urban-scale structural networks, with focus on vortex-induced vibration. We review our recent work, in which randomly generated collections of high-rise buildings were examined by numerical simulation using a conceptual model of the network composed of springs and point masses. Here we examine the behaviour of a realistic collection of buildings, generated by considering the existing building stock and urban fabric of Midtown Manhattan. The new simulation results suggest that connections among the buildings would enable the application of significantly softer bracing systems. This finding suggests that urban-scale structural networks is a promising direction of urban development.</p>
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Köhserli, Mehmet, e Péter L. Várkonyi. "Vibration of structurally connected high-rise buildings under wind force". In IABSE Congress, Ghent 2021: Structural Engineering for Future Societal Needs. Zurich, Switzerland: International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering (IABSE), 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.2749/ghent.2021.1598.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
<p>Cities are organized around various underlying networks but building structures do not follow this trend. The isolation of structural systems causes difficulties in the case of tall structures. We investigate the possibility of improving structural behaviour by organizing buildings into urban-scale structural networks, with focus on vortex-induced vibration. We review our recent work, in which randomly generated collections of high-rise buildings were examined by numerical simulation using a conceptual model of the network composed of springs and point masses. Here we examine the behaviour of a realistic collection of buildings, generated by considering the existing building stock and urban fabric of Midtown Manhattan. The new simulation results suggest that connections among the buildings would enable the application of significantly softer bracing systems. This finding suggests that urban-scale structural networks is a promising direction of urban development.</p>
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Batig, A., M. Kuzin, A. Kuzyshyn, A. Milyanych e P. Hrytsyshyn. "Introducing a new criterion of the stability of rolling stock against derailment". In RELIABILITY AND DURABILITY OF RAILWAY TRANSPORT ENGINEERING STRUCTURE AND BUILDINGS. AIP Publishing, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/5.0121640.
Testo completoRapporti di organizzazioni sul tema "Buildings stock"
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Reyna, Janet, Eric Wilson, Aven Satre-Meloy, Amy Egerter, Carlo Bianchi, Marlena Praprost, Andrew Speake et al. U.S. Building Stock Characterization Study: A National Typology for Decarbonizing U.S. Buildings. Part 1: Residential Buildings. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), dicembre 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/1836659.
Testo completo
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Reyna, Janet, Eric Wilson, Andrew Parker, Aven Satre-Meloy, Amy Egerter, Carlo Bianchi, Marlena Praprost et al. U.S. Building Stock Characterization Study: A National Typology for Decarbonizing U.S. Buildings. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), luglio 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/1877069.
Testo completo
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Aldubyan, Mohammad, Moncef Krarti e Eric Williams. Evaluating Energy Demand and Energy Efficiency Programs in Saudi Residential Buildings. King Abdullah Petroleum Studies and Research Center, febbraio 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.30573/ks--2020-mp05.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
This paper describes the development of the Residential Energy Model (REEM) for Saudi Arabia using an engineering bottom-up approach. The model can assess energy demand for the current residential building stock and the impact of energy efficiency and demand-side management programs. It accounts for the makeup and features of the Kingdom’s existing housing stock using 54 prototypes of residential buildings defined by three building types, three vintages, and six locations representing different climatic zones.
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Nguyen, Mary. Green Buildings, Corporate Social Responsibility, and Stock Market Performance. Portland State University Library, gennaio 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.15760/honors.29.
Testo completo
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Schalcher, Hans-Rudolf. Thematic synthesis “Buildings and Settlements” of the NRP “Energy”. Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF), ottobre 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.46446/publication_nrp70_nrp71.2019.3.en.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
Around 40 percent of the energy consumed in Switzerland can be attributed to the construction and running of the country’s building stock. Buildings and settlements will thus play a prominent role in the transformation of our energy system. Numerous steps for the future have already been initiated – but there still remains a great deal to do.
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Moncef, Krati, e Mohammad Aldubyan. Cost-Effectiveness of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Technologies for Reducing Peak Demand. King Abdullah Petroleum Studies and Research Center, dicembre 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.30573/ks--2021-dp20.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
This paper describes an optimization-based approach to evaluate measures providing peak electricity demand reduction cost benefits for Saudi residential buildings. These measures can be categorized as energy efficiency (EE) and renewable energy (RE) measures. Specifically, this paper models the existing Saudi building stock using 56 housing prototypes based on types, vintages and locations.
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Shpinev, Iu S. ACTUAL PROBLEMS OF THE IMPLEMENTATION OF REGIONAL PROGRAMS FOR THE REPAIR OF APARTMENT BUILDINGS. DOI CODE, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.18411/1311-1972-2020-00023.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
In this article, the author analyzes the implementation of regional programs for major repairs of the common property of apartment buildings, taking into account the need to solve the problems of modernization of the housing stock, including improving its energy efficiency.
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Pfluger, Rainer, Alexander Rieser e Daniel Herrera, a cura di. Conservation compatible energy retrofit technologies: Part I: Introduction to the integrated approach for the identification of conservation compatible retrofit materials and solutions in historic buildings. IEA SHC Task 59, ottobre 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.18777/ieashc-task59-2021-0004.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
According to the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), existing European buildings consume about 40% of the total energy consumption in Europe. For this reason, in the last decades, several energy policies have been directed to deep renovation of the existing stock (as last 2018/844). Considering that more than one quarter of all European buildings were constructed before the 1950s, we can assume that many of them are of cultural, architectural, social and heritage values, hence in need of special attention for conservation purposes.
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Aldubyan, Mohammad, e Moncef Krarti. Impact of Stay-home Orders on the Electricity Demand of Residential Buildings: Case Study of Saudi Arabia. King Abdullah Petroleum Studies and Research Center, aprile 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.30573/ks--2022-dp02.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
The analysis presented in this paper evaluates the impact of the COVID-19 stay-home order (or lockdown) on electricity consumption among Saudi residential building stock. Our analysis is based on an assessment of monitored data obtained for a sample of housing units as well as the results from a residential energy model (REEM). Specifically, we estimate the impact of the stay-home order imposed due to COVID-19 in most Saudi regions between March 15 and June 15, 2020, on residential electricity consumption.
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Veloso, Rita Carvalho, Catarina Dias, Andrea Resende Souza, Joana Maia, Nuno M. M. Ramos e João Ventura. Improving the optical properties of finishing coatings for façade systems. Department of the Built Environment, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.54337/aau541592743.
Testo completoAbstract (sommario):
The need to improve energy efficiency of the building stock has led to a continuous increase in the implementation of exterior thermal insulation systems, such as ETICS. Progressively, these systems are being applied with darker colours, increasing the concern for hygrothermal behaviour and durability. Despite the significant developed studies, very few reports regarding their optical properties are available. The optical and catalytic capacity turns nanomaterials into excellent candidates for use in finishing coatings with high solar reflectance with dark colours without affecting the aesthetic characteristics, thus improving the durability of such coatings. Our study targeted the development of innovative envelope systems by increasing their solar reflectance through new finishing coatings formulations with the inclusion of nanoparticles. For that, it is necessary to develop and optimize nanoparticles formulations to achieve a high near-infrared reflectance. Here, we studied how the incorporation of reflective nanomaterials influence the optical behaviour of a black colourant for a finishing coating, varying the concentration in the coating from 0 to 20%. Such optical performance was experimentally evaluated through spectral reflectance calculations using a modular spectrophotometer, which allowed an understanding of the relation between these properties and the morphological and structural characteristics of the nanoparticles. The results from such studies can help formulate new finishing coatings with increased near-infrared reflectance of buildings façades, using, for instance, more than one type of nanoparticle.