Tesi sul tema "Australian Defence Force"

This thesis seeks to understand and critically discuss gender inequalities in the Australian Defence Force (ADF) as a barrier to full integration. This is achieved through an exploration of current literature, policy and legal documents, and from the point of view of a sample of ADF women. The purpose of this thesis is to determine whether constructions of gender devalue, exclude and therefore oppress women in the ADF and to determine whether constructions of gender legitimise the subordinate position of female personnel within the ADF. The study locates the ‘voices’, the experiences, and opinions of a group of female ADF personnel in order to hear from the ‘central’ players. The thesis contributes to current debates by: providing a platform for female members of the ADF to relate their experiences and opinions, thereby, giving a voluntary voice to women who are often not heard from in the debates; providing a feminist perspective -which in the Australian context is scant, as Australian feminisms have been reluctant to approach this controversial area; providing a critical perspective that is complementary to in-house research, through conducting the research from a position outside the ADF. The aims of the research are to explore the culture of the ADF, with the purpose of illustrating the underlying causes of barriers to full integration. It aims to understand where unequal treatment arises from, how inequity manifests, how this impacts on women, and how ADF resources are ultimately misused by the excluding of women from certain employments. Coming from a pacifist position I originally wanted to know why women would want to join the ADF, this question was easily answered through the beginning phases of the research. Through the research fieldwork I was led in the direction of focusing on the gendered nature of Defence culture. Government and ADF policy on combat exclusions I found to be a barrier to integration that impact upon career progression in the ADF. The research further revealed a disturbing realisation that Australian women continue to be denied full citizenship rights and responsibilities due to the inequities of restrictions on military service. The research led to the finding that women are excluded from roles in the ADF based on the mythology that women’s service is inferior to that of males. Issues presented in the arguments for cohesion, physical strength, and protectionism are military myths that seek to continue to exclude from positions of leadership, prestige and power in the ADF. Women’s current and potential roles in combat and peacekeeping are presented in the thesis as ultimate case studies revealing how women are denied equal employment rights in the ADF
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

This thesis seeks to understand and critically discuss gender inequalities in the Australian Defence Force (ADF) as a barrier to full integration. This is achieved through an exploration of current literature, policy and legal documents, and from the point of view of a sample of ADF women. The purpose of this thesis is to determine whether constructions of gender devalue, exclude and therefore oppress women in the ADF and to determine whether constructions of gender legitimise the subordinate position of female personnel within the ADF. The study locates the ‘voices’, the experiences, and opinions of a group of female ADF personnel in order to hear from the ‘central’ players. The thesis contributes to current debates by: providing a platform for female members of the ADF to relate their experiences and opinions, thereby, giving a voluntary voice to women who are often not heard from in the debates; providing a feminist perspective -which in the Australian context is scant, as Australian feminisms have been reluctant to approach this controversial area; providing a critical perspective that is complementary to in-house research, through conducting the research from a position outside the ADF. The aims of the research are to explore the culture of the ADF, with the purpose of illustrating the underlying causes of barriers to full integration. It aims to understand where unequal treatment arises from, how inequity manifests, how this impacts on women, and how ADF resources are ultimately misused by the excluding of women from certain employments. Coming from a pacifist position I originally wanted to know why women would want to join the ADF, this question was easily answered through the beginning phases of the research. Through the research fieldwork I was led in the direction of focusing on the gendered nature of Defence culture. Government and ADF policy on combat exclusions I found to be a barrier to integration that impact upon career progression in the ADF. The research further revealed a disturbing realisation that Australian women continue to be denied full citizenship rights and responsibilities due to the inequities of restrictions on military service. The research led to the finding that women are excluded from roles in the ADF based on the mythology that women’s service is inferior to that of males. Issues presented in the arguments for cohesion, physical strength, and protectionism are military myths that seek to continue to exclude from positions of leadership, prestige and power in the ADF. Women’s current and potential roles in combat and peacekeeping are presented in the thesis as ultimate case studies revealing how women are denied equal employment rights in the ADF

Australia has faced the growing problem of overweight and obesity along with other developed countries and almost two thirds of Australians are considered to be overweight or obese (Sturgiss, van Weel, Ball, Jansen, & Douglas, 2017). The surrounding environment encouraging excessive food intake and discouraging physical activity is the main cause for the current overweight and obesity epidemic (Velema, Vyth, & Steenhuis, 2017). Studies show that Australian Military personnel are no exception, even though considered as physically fit, they possess poor dietary habits (Booth & Coad, 2001; Forbes-Ewan, Probert, Booth, & Coad, 2008; Skiller, Booth, Coad, & Forbes-Ewan, 2005) and the occurrence of obesity is similar when compared to the general Australian population (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2010). There is a pressing need for effective programs that can accomplish positive behaviour change to decrease the incidence of overweight and obesity in the Australian Defence Force. Social marketing is a discipline that applies commercial marketing techniques and concepts to improve the welfare of individuals and/or society by centring program design on individuals and an understanding of the environment in which they are located (Gordon, 2011). At its core the planning, analysis, execution and evaluation of social marketing programs is designed to influence the behaviour of target audiences (Andreasen, 2003; Lefebvre, 2013; Rundle-Thiele, 2015). In recent years social marketing has been used to increase healthful eating behaviour, mainly among children and adolescents (Keihner et al., 2011; Rosi et al., 2016; Young, Anderson, Beckstrom, Bellows, & Johnson, 2004), with relatively few interventions focusing on targeting young adults (Carins & Rundle-Thiele, 2014b). Andreasen’s (2002) social marketing benchmark criteria offers a useful guide to specify the extent that social marketing is employed within a change intervention and it includes six benchmarks namely behavioural change, formative research, segmentation, the use of marketing mix, exchange and competition. The National Social Marketing Centre (NSMC) extended the benchmark criteria by including eight elements, namely behaviour change, audience orientation, insight, segmentation, exchange, marketing mix, theory and competition (French & Blair- Stevens, 2006). This research includes consumer orientation, insight and healthful eating behaviour and is focussed on segmentation and theory. Segmentation is a process that groups target audiences into somewhat homogenous subgroups, or segments, and handles each segment separately based on the wants, needs and behaviours of the segments (Moss, Kirby, & Donodeo, 2009). Research shows that social marketing is more effective when more of the social marketing benchmarks are used (Carins & Rundle-Thiele, 2014b) and that segmentation is one of the least applied benchmarks (Kubacki, Rundle-Thiele, Lahtinen, & Parkinson, 2015). Segmentation discovers patterns of needs, wants and behaviours among groups within one target population and according to segmentation theory, different strategies should be tailored to each group to extend uptake (Donovan & Henley, 2010). Researchers have found that a better outcome may be produced when a program includes different strategies designed for different segments providing solutions that are more closely aligned to segment needs and wants (Dietrich, Rundle‐Thiele, Leo, & Connor, 2015). Theory offers a structured framework that can guide researchers and practitioners in the development and implementation of social marketing programs. Researchers have found that theory use is essential to accomplish successful programs (Eagle et al., 2013; Lefebvre, 2000). However, research shows that theory use in social marketing is rare (Luca & Suggs, 2013; Truong, 2014; Truong & Dang, 2017) and when theory use is reported its application is mainly weak (Pang, Kubacki, & Rundle-Thiele, 2017; Willmott, Pang, Rundle-Thiele, & Badejo, 2019). This thesis aims to test the replicability of theory-driven segments for healthful eating in young adult samples. This thesis begins by understanding the previously used segmentation bases and how (if at all) theory has been applied in social marketing healthful eating studies. Additionally, this thesis empirically tests the Motivation, Opportunity and Ability (MOA) framework in two young adult healthful eating contexts. More specifically, the aim of this research is to test if theory-driven healthful eating segments emerge from two young adult samples and to understand how each segment identified can be engaged to participate in a healthful eating program. To accomplish the aims of this research, two studies were conducted. Study 1 examined whether unique theory-driven segments emerged from a young adult sample. This study aimed to investigate which segmentation bases have previously been used to inform segment solutions; and apply the MOA framework (Rothschild, 1999) to determine if segments are evident in a young adult population. Post-hoc segmentation was used to establish the number and characteristics of segments with two-step cluster analysis. The findings from Study 1 indicate that the MOA framework can be used to explain healthful eating behaviour and two distinct segments were revealed with education, motivation to eat healthily and the Turconi eating behaviour score being the most important variables in segment formation. This study provides evidence of the value of including behavioural theory in segment formation. Study 2 was an empirical replication study that aimed to investigate to what extent similar healthful eating segments can be derived in two young adult populations. In line with replication principles Study 2 followed procedures applied in Study 1. The same segmentation variables were used to establish the number and characteristics of the segments. The findings from Study 2 indicate that the MOA framework once again explains eating behaviour in the second young adult sample and similar to Study 1 education was the most important variable. While the segment structure is similar to Study 1, differences were clear. Notably, the number of segments increased from two to three. The key outcome of this study is that care should be taken for segment identification given the number of segments differs in two different young adult populations. This research contributes to literature in four ways. First, this thesis identified segmentation bases that have previously been used by social marketers to derive segments and it identifies theories that have previously been used to inform segment solutions. Second, this thesis delivers a clear case study demonstrating that theory-informed segments exist within target populations. Application of a theoretically derived segmentation process can identify groups that have demonstrably different needs, wants and behaviours delivering actionable insights to inform program planning. Third, this thesis demonstrates the importance of generating a segmentation based profile in new young adult target populations given that differences emerge. Finally, this thesis delivers a practical contribution establishing how the segmentation process can be used to understand how each segment can be engaged to participate in a healthful eating program. Limitations and futures research directions are outlined.
Thesis (PhD Doctorate)
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
Dept of Marketing
Griffith Business School
Full Text

The conceptual understanding of security and the practicalities of national defence are interdependent. In many countries both are undergoing significant change. This work provides an international context but focuses on Australian defence, arguing that a transition is underway from old security thinking to new, and that this is evidenced by changes in policies and practical activities. The aim of this work is to demonstrate the interdependence between the current reconceptualisation of security and the practicalities of national defence. Old security thinking concerns military power relationships between states, in contrast with new security thinking, which uses a broader conceptual framework. These are described, providing benchmarks for the subsequent analysis. While it is acknowledged that change has occurred in security thinking throughout history, those developments observed since the end of the Cold War and the rise of globalisation signify a fundamental shift. To explore this shift, recent developments in the defence policies and military activities of four relevant nations are examined, providing an international context for the consideration of the primary case study of Australian defence. This case study draws on historical descriptions and empirical data to analyse developments in four spheres - Australian defence policy, current Australian Defence Force activities, recent military developments and contemporary Australian public debate. The weight of evidence supports the thesis of a transition in both security thinking, described as transitional security thinking, and ADF activities. Tensions are observed between the requirements of defending a nation against attack, and contributing to the expanding requirements of the broadened security agenda. Despite these tensions, the expansion in both security thinking and the associated activities of armed forces, is likely to continue. This expansion has important implications for Australia???s defence capabilities which are increasingly required to meet the demands of refocused national security. These demands contribute to the pressing challenges of convergence and overstretch. A strategy of integration is recommended to address these challenges and it follows the principles of whole-of-government security and sustainable partnerships. The application of these principles will require the ADF to emphasise capabilities with versatility and adaptability.

This thesis traces the stages which led to the establishment of the Australian Defence Force Academy. The origins of the Academy are to be found in the 1950s. The perceived need for highly qualified technical officers to handle the technological demands of the future was complemented by a perception that officers with degree-level education would be better equipped to make decisions and provide strategic advice to government than their less educated counterparts. The emergence of the tri-Service Academy concept is discussed in some detail to highlight the constantly increasing involvement in the proposal by people and organisations from outside the defence community. The struggle between the three Services, eager to retain control over their officers' education, and the Department of Defence with its ambition to rationalise common defence functions, is described. The heated debate over the proposal to establish an armed forces university resulted in the rejection of the proposal by the Parliament Standing Committee on Public Works. The response from the Government and the Department of Defence was a modified proposal, acceptable to most of Casey University's critics, but flawed in its basic structure. Some aspects of the Academy's performance are described and compared to the performance and experiences of the Australian single-Service colleges which preceded it and some comparable overseas institutions. The paper concludes by revisiting some of the proposals presented as alternative models for the Academy during the Public Works Committee hearings in 1978/9. These may well provide a sound basis for the future development of the Australian Defence Force Academy.

Thesis (M.S. in Management)--Naval Postgraduate School, September 2006.
Thesis Advisor(s): George Thomas. "September 2006." Includes bibliographical references (p.159-162). Also available in print.

This thesis makes an assessment of the factors influencing the involvement of the Australian Defence Organisation (ADO) in homeland security roles since 11 September 2001 (9/11). This is approached on a largely empirical basis, using document analysis and case studies supported with interviews with key individuals and experts. The thesis commences with an Introduction that provides brief context for the thesis and specifies its central question as ???what factors have shaped the role of the ADO in Australia's response to the homeland security environment that has emerged since 11 September 2001.??? Chapter One provides an historical and theoretical context for the key concepts of homeland security and the challenges confronting Western governments in the homeland security arena. Chapter Two explores the implications of those challenges for Australia, before outlining the research method and providing a literature review. Chapter Three is an historical exposition of homeland security in Australia from British settlement in 1788 until 2001. The Chapter examines events in increasing detail in the 30 years immediately prior to 2001, including a detailed case study of ADO support to the Sydney 2000 Olympic and Paralympic Games, before drawing some broad conclusions on the Australian experience of the involvement of its Defence Organisation in homeland security pre-9/11. Chapter Four establishes the pre-9/11 status quo in relation to the ADO???s involvement in homeland security role before analysing the general pattern of those roles. Chapter Five analyses and draws conclusions about the reasons for the ADO???s pre-9/11 involvement in homeland security roles, introducing an hypothetical construct to explain causal factors. Chapter Six examines the ADO???s involvement in homeland security roles post-9/11, including cases studies of ADO support to the conduct of the 2002 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting and the Melbourne 2006 Commonwealth Games. Chapter Seven analyses and identifies the factors led to the ADO???s pattern of involvement in homeland security post-9/11, further developing the hypothetical construct introduced in Chapter 5. Chapter Seven also contains supporting case studies on the ADO???s contribution to Australia???s national chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear response capability and on the state of New South Wales??? homeland security capabilities. Chapter Eight draws overall conclusions, including recommendations for Australian policy development and areas for further research. The essential conclusion reached is that the ADO???s involvement in homeland security roles, both before and since 9/11, has been shaped mostly by pragmatic political and managerial considerations of governments. Developments have normally occurred in an episodic and incremental fashion in response to ???trigger events,??? although 9/11 altered this pattern somewhat by acting as a ???threshold??? event that re-calibrated demands and expectations for ADO involvement. Supporting Appendices provide detail on the Australian Government???s strategic guidance on ADO involvement in homeland security since 1973; on Australia???s policy for Defence Assistance to the Civilian Community and Defence Force Aid to the Civil Authorities; and on the involvement of former Department of Defence employees in non-Defence homeland-security related roles. A Bibliography provides details of sources used.

The maintenance or quick recovery of a collective’s functioning in response to adverse or stressful events resembles the construct resilience. In response to the growing academic and applied attention of collective resilience, there is a need to consolidate current understanding and extend the conceptual knowledge that surrounds team resilience. The overarching purpose of this thesis was to advance conceptual and empirical knowledge of resilience within team and multi-team systems.

This thesis analyzes the influence of advertising expenditure for ADF recruitment using data covering the period from June 2008 to December 2011. Econometric analysis was used to analyze the effect of media advertising on ADF enquiries, applications and enlistments. These models were developed to predict the impact of changing advertising expenditure on the generation of enquiries, applications and enlistments. The econometric recruiting models included independent variables for total monthly ADF media expenditure, monthly enlistments targets, national monthly youth unemployment rates and quarterly propensity to enlist in the ADF. Advertising expenditure was found to be positively related to various measures of recruitment. Increasing advertising expenditure was found to generate enquires and applications. For example, a 10% increase in monthly advertising expenditure was found to increase enquiries by 1.6%. Similarly, a 10% increase in monthly advertising expenditure would increase applications by 1.3%. Youth national unemployment and enlistment targets were positively related to enlistments, while advertising expenditure was found to have no effect on enlistments.

Development of a Knowledge-Based Decision Support System to predict ancestry of the remains of missing World War Two soldiers in South-East Asia. By utilizing biological and historical information provided by the user, ancestry is assigned based on complex statistical analyses searching for distinctive patterns in the DNA that distinguish between the Australian and Japanese populations. Important features taken into consideration are the detection of a rare event, the effect of sample size and the impact of natural variation.

Social marketing is constantly growing and developing in response to ongoing health, social and environmental challenges (Andreasen, 2002; Dibb, 2014). The current environment is characterised by complexity, uncertainty, and interconnectedness (Urry, 2005) and many of the issues social marketers seek to address are characterised by situations where the boundaries are unclear, the overall complexity of issues appears overwhelming, and solutions are not readily available in circumstances of prevailing change and uncertainty (Head & Alford, 2015). An unhealthy diet is a leading global risk to health as it contributes to all forms of malnutrition and is associated with noncommunicable diseases including diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, some cancers and other conditions linked to obesity (WHO, 2020). The quality of eating behaviours is particularly significant for personnel of the Australian Defence Force (ADF) for which sound nutrition and physical fitness are essential for job performance, as well as long-term health. The ADF has policies and guidelines for the provision of nutritionally appropriate food/drink on base and in the field, however, many military personnel have poor dietary habits and these habits are evident early in their career (Booth et al., 2006; Forbes-Ewan et al., 2008; Kitunen et al., 2020). Eating behaviours are complex involving several inter-related acts occurring in response to internal and external factors, stimuli and cues (Bisogni et al., 2007; Michie & Johnston, 2012; Parkinson et al., 2017; Sobal et al., 2014). The complexity of changing eating behaviours therefore presents a challenge for design, implementation, and evaluation of behaviour change interventions (Michie & Johnston, 2012; Michie et al., 2015; Parkinson et al., 2017; Parkinson et al., 2016). Systematic reviews of social marketing interventions to improve eating behaviours (Aceves-Martins et al., 2016; Carins & Rundle-Thiele, 2014a; Truong, 2014; Truong & Dang, 2017) found that effectiveness could be enhanced through interventions that were more systematic in identifying factors for change, and more systemic in the inclusion of social and environmental influences on eating behaviours. Similar findings have been made in reviews of interventions to improve eating behaviours in military populations (Murray et al., 2017; Sanderson et al., 2011). Systems thinking has gained momentum as a powerful approach for understanding problems that are multi-causal and multi-level (macro/meso/micro), and which would best be addressed through interventions at upstream, midstream and downstream levels (Domegan et al., 2016; Truong et al., 2019). However, the integration of systems thinking in the development and delivery of change interventions presents several conceptual and practical dilemmas for establishing the relevant system, and for deciding where and how to act in the system. Systems thinking is not a unitary field; on the contrary, it includes multiple theories, specialised areas of interest, and hundreds of methods (Rousseau, 2015). Furthermore, social marketers most often act within the boundaries imposed by contractual and funding requirements, ambiguous mandates, and power discrepancies that influence problem formulations and methodologies, including the identification and/or access to all system components, actors and stakeholders (McHugh et al., 2018; Truong et al., 2019). Against this background, this PhD sought to contribute conceptual and practical insights on systems-thinking as an approach in social marketing to address complex issues. These insights were developed through research informed by systems thinking into the issue of unhealthy eating behaviours in ADF personnel. Therefore, this PhD included a procedural component in which a systems thinking methodology was applied in the ideation, design, execution, and analysis of studies in ADF personnel eating behaviours; and, a learning component in which awareness and reflection on the research process came to bear in forming insights on the value of systems thinking in social marketing. The research methodology was a systemic co-inquiry (Ison, 2017) in partnership with the Australian Defence Organisation (ADO). Two qualitative studies with participatory methods addressed the following research questions: RQ1: What is the system of interest in which unhealthy eating behaviours may be best situated for exploration, with a view to designing social marketing interventions? A) What components (e.g., ideas, objects, attributes, activities) are perceived to be relevant for eating behaviours in military personnel? B) Do interrelationships and interconnections among components suggest how unhealthy eating behaviours may emerge? RQ2: Are there viable leverage points that present opportunities for changing unhealthy eating behaviours through social marketing initiatives? Together the results of the studies suggested multiple systems for situating personnel eating behaviours in the ADF context and several leverage points for change action were identified. The opportunities and barriers for action were analysed and the implications for social marketing intervention discussed. Conceptual and practical insights formed in reflecting upon the process and outputs of the studies are included in the general discussion chapter of this thesis.
Thesis (PhD Doctorate)
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
Dept of Marketing
Griffith Business School
Full Text

This thesis uses qualitative content analysis methods and aims to identify the dominant cultural and political themes elites seek to arouse when they defend Australia’s Gendered Combat Policy in the public domain. Male Defence personnel and Federal Government Ministers lead these discussions. No prior study explores how or why male elites and other men who benefit from hegemonic masculinity in state institutions actively defend the bio-political regime the Executive enforces over the gendered combat body. In recent decades, debates have shifted from away from criteria of gender to criteria of biology as public support for gender equality grows. Elites argue that the biophysical performance limitations of the female combat body justify the state enforcing this regime. Excluding women from combat duties is not just another case of discrimination against women that occurs in Australia’s work sector. The social problems that transpire from this policy extend beyond women’s diminished citizenship status. Excluding women from frontline military roles replicates the patriarchal makeup of key institutions of state power, locally and globally. The military is a formidable entity that defends Australia’s sovereignty and protects key institutions that uphold the state as a patriarchal construct. Excluding women from frontline military duties denies them the opportunity to accrue the experience required to lead Australia’s military institution locally and on the world stage. The absence of women in these senior roles is a dominant factor that upholds hegemonic masculinity within Australia’s civil–military relations and the realm of global warfare and international security. The exclusion of women from combat roles for over a century explains why Australia’s martial narratives and war images do not celebrate a feminised warrior archetype. This absence is a factor that replicates the way women are naturalised in passive roles that are subordinate to men in their nation’s collective consciousness.

The public sector in Australia, as in other western countries, has been accused in recent times of being too costly, too rigid, inefficient and ineffective. What is apparently needed is a public sector that is smaller, less costly, more efficient and more effective. The search for alternative and better ways to organise and undertake work to meet these reform objectives is at the heart of the rapid expansion of Competitive Tendering and Contracting (CTC) within the public sector in the last two decades. But increased reliance on government contracting does not always lead to outsourcing. Some government agencies allow, indeed encourage, their current employees to also bid for the work on offer by including an In-House Option (IHO) within their CTC processes. In a number of cases these IHOs have been selected ahead of their commercial competitors. IHOs are effectively internal tenders that, if selected, must be implemented by work areas within the confines of the policies and practices of their parent organisation. The reasons commonly expressed in support of IHOs are to do with addressing the potentially problematic aspects of organisational review and possible outsourcing, and to assist the parent organisation achieve its reform intentions in the most effective and least disruptive manner possible. This research examined the achievements of six IHOs within the Australian Defence Organisation. It also asked what can be learned from their experiences? The findings show that IHOs can contribute to reform and enhance the effectiveness of CTC processes but that these achievements come at a price�borne primarily by the staff who work within selected IHOs. IHOs add to the competition of CTC exercises. They also act as an insurance policy against being caught with no reasonable bids and offer a benchmark against which to assess unknown bids. But competition can also focus bidders on doing what is necessary to win rather than what is best for an organisation or its staff. Having IHOs increases the uncertainty for staff about their future employment while at the same times raising expectations that if they can be successful they will be able to make changes and improve their work areas. This research has shown that this does not always occur and staff can find the whole experience frustrating and demoralising. Organisations that include IHOs within their CTC methodologies need to assist them if they are to have the best opportunity to propose new and innovative ways of working. And they must be prepared for the possibility that their IHOs could win. Selected IHOs need support to successfully implement changes, and as the IHOs examined here have shown, they can make significant improvements in work practices and more efficient use of resources if given the chance.

Performance appraisal has been well established as an important management tool for improving individual and organisational performance, and has attracted considerable research interest over the past fifty years. Many previous studies of performance appraisal have been conducted either in laboratory settings, or have tended to focus narrowly on raters and/or the appraisal process, or of necessity have excluded from consideration the group dynamics prevalent in large organisations. Additionally, although it has long been recognised that the purpose of performance appraisal can affect ratings, little appears to have been done in situ on performance appraisal as a part of a complex personnel management system. One consequence of this approach has been a degree of uncertainty on the utility of laboratory and other findings to working appraisal systems. Moreover, previous examinations have focused on civilian organisations even though military organisations have an equally long history of using performance appraisal for a range of purposes. Using a sample (N = 577) of senior air force officers from three adjacent rank levels, this study examined the relationships between performance appraisal rating leniency, the perceived causes of leniency, and two personnel selection processes based on appraisal data. Rating leniency was perceived to be widespread, and was found to be associated with a lack of confidence (or mistrust) in several aspects of the performance appraisal system and related officer selection processes. While officer groups did not show any practically significant differences in perception of the prototype of the ideal commander (the leader), raters used a range of prototypes for estimating officers' promotion potential and suitability for command. Officers from one employment specialisation tended to stand apart in their view of the appraisal system and personnel selection processes, and the lower ranking officers surveyed tended to be more critical of the performance appraisal system and selection processes than were the higher ranking officers. In terms of selection process outcomes, 21.7% of officers were not satisfied with the management and leadership style of their commander, and officers at the lower organisational levels were found to be significantly (p<.005) more satisfied with their commander that those at the highest level. Satisfaction was found to be predicted by a multiple regression equation (R2=.72, p<.001), with the elements of the equation reinforcing the importance of a human-relations orientation for effective leaders. This study suggests that the behaviour of a working performance appraisal system can be predicted by established theory and that a model of system effectiveness may be possible, embracing rating errors, rating format, reliability factors (such as dyadic quality and period of observation), criterion validity of the appraisal instrument, and rater trust in the system. Additionally, this study suggests that upwards appraisal may be a useful input to the process for selecting leaders, if only to indicate which appraisal dimensions are perceived by subordinates to be important.

This thesis is a case study of educational process in the leadership development program of the Australian Defence Force Academy. The intention is to determine the relative emphasis in educational process on the conventional command and managerial compliance (Type A) style and the emergent contingent and creative (Type B) style of leadership. The Type A style is theorised as emphasizing hierarchy and control, whereas the emphasis in a Type B style is on adaptive and entrepreneurial behaviour. This study looks at the learning process in a cultural and structural context rather than focus on curriculum and instructional design. Research in this wider context is intended to enable development processes to successfully bridge a gap between theory and practice, implicit in studies that identify theories 'in-operation' as different from the theories 'espoused' (Argyris 1992, Savage 1996). In terms of espoused and in-use theory, the study seeks to produce a valid and reliable result to the question: what is the relative emphasis on the two leadership styles in the operation of the three educational mechanisms of curriculum, pedagogy (teaching practice) and assessment? The quantitative analysis of results (n = 114) draws attention to both leadership styles in terms of two and three-way relationships of style, cadet or work group and service type. The data shows that both Type A and Type B leadership styles are evident in the general conversation of the organisation. This trend is present as espoused theory in the curriculum of the Defence Academy. However, the data also confirm a clear and strong emphasis towards command and managerial compliance as theory-in-use, particularly by cadets. This emphasis is noticeably evident in the teaching and assessment practice of the Defence Academy. Other research outcomes include the observation that: Contextually, while studies show it is difficult to isolate skills from their cultural and biographical context (Watkins, 1991:15), this study suggests that it is equally difficult to isolate skills development from this context. There is a strong task or instrumental link identified by cadet responses in terms of content and development process at the Defence Academy, in contrast to the wider developmental emphasis in general literature and senior officer interviews. There is a lack of awareness of teaching strategies and development activity consistent with espoused Type B leadership theory and curriculum content. This gap is compounded by the use in the Defence Academy of personnel without teaching expertise or suitable developmental experience. The socialisation of cadets into the military workplace is the primary purpose of training. This purpose appears taken for granted by all concerned - staff, cadets and senior officers. Defence Academy development processes appear to be faced with a dilemma. Arguably, training and learning from experience are limited approaches to development. Training, which involves learning by replication, and learning from experience, which is largely imitative, are both of little use when people are faced with novel and ambiguous situations. This study suggests that in order to support the development of capabilities that go beyond training based competence a learning and development approach is needed. This more expansive approach requires educational planners to consider the cultural and social context that can inadvertently promote the status quo in practice over espoused outcomes.

This thesis aims to examine two issues related to the defence of self-defence in criminal law. Firstly, it is an investigation into the theory of excessive force in selfdefence. The essence of the theory is to have a person who excessively applies force in his defence to be convicted of manslaughter. The arguments in favour of the theory are compelling; however, in practice, the issue of excessive defence has always been a brain-teaser for judges. This thesis elaborates the controversies surrounding the application of the theory in the courts. The reason for its demise and arguments for its revival are discussed. Secondly, this work analyses the incorporation of the doctrine of the "battered woman syndrome" into the defence of self-defence. This doctrine has recently been introduced where, upon its acceptance by the court, an accused will be successful in pleading self-defence despite the fact that the traditional requirement of imminence has not been satisfied. There is discussion whether the doctrine has always been necessary for battered woman in claiming self-defence. This thesis focuses, in the main, on decided cases and, wherever necessary, a comparison is made of the two theories mentioned above in the law of self-defence in England, Australia and Canada.

The thesis provides an understanding of the ignored need for a modern air defence system for the Australian air force to meet the growing threat from Japan in the 1930s and early 1940s. The quality of advice provided to, and accepted by, Australian politicians was misleading and eliminated the need for fighters and interceptors despite glaring evidence to the contrary. Based on primary source material, including official documents, Allied and Axis pilot memoirs, popular aviation literature and newspaper and magazine articles and interviews, the thesis highlights the inability of Australian politicians to face the reality of the international situation.

This thesis examines the fluctuations in stature and BMI over the past century of Australian Military personnel. The influence of changes to the biological standard of living, being born in rural versus urban towns and occupation to personnel's stature and BMI was examined. Findings highlighted the non-linear increase in stature, its strong links to occupation and fluctuations that corresponded with environmental influences. This research has provided Australian stature standards for personnel from the Boer War to WWII and may be useful in assessing the biological profile of remains.

The air campaign conducted by the RAAF in the North-Western Area during the Second World War has been largely ignored by historians yet it contributed significantly to the outcome of the Pacific war. This thesis sets out to discuss the campaign by considering various factors that impacted on the RAAF in the lead up to and during the course of the Pacific war and their relevance to the campaign. It looks at the way air operations were conducted in the North-Western Area between 1942 and 1945 and describes the role played by the flying squadrons based in the area. Using primary sources such as operational record books, documents and files at archives and libraries and interviews with veterans and experts the thesis found that the campaign was conducted in several phases. It started with the defence of Darwin. In keeping with overall allied strategy the RAAF then went on an offensive into what was then the Netherlands East Indies (NEI) using medium and heavy bombers and mine laying sea planes flying from bases in Australia???s north west. The NEI was vital to the Japanese war effort as a source of essential raw materials such as oil, timber, and rubber. To defend this part of their new empire the Japanese had amassed large military garrisons on the islands. The vessels used to transport troops and materials became the most important targets for the RAAF???s bomber squadrons. As General MacArthur???s forces advanced along the north coast of New Guinea the North-Western Area based units conducted raids into the NEI to deceive the Japanese into thinking an invasion would be launched from Darwin. As the New Guinea campaign gained momentum the RAAF???s task was to protect its western flank, to prevent the Japanese from moving troops and aircraft east to the Philippines. The thesis concludes the campaign was successful because Darwin was defended, it denied the Japanese vital materials for the conduct of the war and it kept hundreds of aircraft and tens of thousands of troops away from the allied advance.

Army in the 21st Century and Restructuring the Army: A Retrospective Appraisal of Australian Military Change Management in the 1990s Abstract: Army in the 21st Century (A21) and Restructuring the Army (RTA) were two related force structure initiatives undertaken by the Australian Army in the 1990s. A21 radically proposed to abolish traditional divisional/corps structures, fielding instead independent task forces with embedded combat arms. The RTA trials tested A21 concepts over several years; yet A21/RTA was abandoned in 1999. What happened, why, and what lessons does A21/RTA offer? This retrospective appraisal of A21/RTA is a case study of attempted transformational change in the Australian Army. The sub-thesis’ methodology features interviews with over thirty senior military, public service, academic and political leaders of this era; and applies organisational theory to interpret internal/external dynamics. A21/RTA faced formidable strategy, resourcing and cultural challenges. However A21/RTA failed to achieve critical elements of successful change management, including: a clear, shared, credible vision; achieving early successes; providing enablers (e.g. time and resources) and supporting efforts for change; senior leadership buy-in; and political sponsorship. A21/RTA failed in technical feasibility and cultural sensitivity terms. However, A21/RTA successfully developed an evidence-based approach, an enduring legacy supporting Army’s capability resourcing in Defence’s contested budget environment. Lessons for future restructures focus leadership attention to elements critical for successful organisational change, emphasising culture.

The aim of this thesis is to examine the relationship between the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) and the Royal Australian Navy (RAN) regarding the operation of aircraft from ships of the RAN and from RAAF shore bases. The effects of the separate intellectual development of maritime doctrine in the RAAF and RAN, and the efforts of the two Australian services to transfer theory into practice will be considered in the pre- (and post) World War II period, with due consideration of the experience of the services in both wars. The thesis will also discuss the problems that were faced by the RAAF and RAN to develop mutually acceptable operational procedures to enable the efficient use of aircraft in a maritime setting. The influence and effect on RAAF and RAN doctrine and equipment procurement, as a result of the special relationships that developed between the Air Force and Navy of Australia and Britain will be critically examined. A similar approach to the post war US/Australian relationship, and its effect on the Australian services, will also be critically examined. The thesis being propounded is that the development of a unique Australian maritime policy was retarded due to a combination of the relationship with Britain and the United States, lack of suitable equipment, lack of clear operational concepts in both the RAAF and RAN and the parochial attitude of the most senior commanders of both Services. The study has been based on Department of Navy, Department of Air and Department of Defence documents held in the National Archives of Australia in Canberra and Melbourne. In addition, relevant documents from the Admiralty and Air Ministry related to the development of naval aviation on RAN vessels during World War I, the attitude of the RAF toward the deployment of RAAF units to Singapore, and the negotiations that resulted in the procurement of HMA Ships Sydney and Melbourne, have been perused. Wartime operational records of the RAAF have been examined to obtain data to enable a critical study to be made of the RAAF anti-submarine campaign, torpedo bomber operations and the maritime campaign undertaken from bases in North Western Area during World War II. The influence of the commander of the United States 5th Air Force has also been incorporated in the discussion. The research uncovered procedural and operational variations between the two Services, the diversion of key elements from Australian command and the priority given to the American line of advance that resulted in Australian operations being given a secondary, supportive, status. A conclusion reached as a result of this research has been that the development of a unique Australian maritime aerial capability was restricted by the requirement of Britain to deploy flying units to Singapore in 1940. Similarly, the pressure exerted on the RAN by the Admiralty to purchase the Light Fleet Carriers in the late 1940s was more in the interests of the RN and British foreign policy than that of the RAN. Overall, the relationship with the Britain and the United States masked the real weakness in Australia???s maritime operations and retarded its development.

This thesis examines the Citizen Military Forces (CMF) from 1947 until it ceased to exist under that name with the release of the report of the Millar Inquiry in 1974. This thesis examines three broad areas: the organizational changes that the CMF adopted or had imposed upon it; the political decision-making surrounding the CMF; and a social analysis of the CMF which questions the viability and validity of a number of the CMF???s long held precepts. The thesis will show that the majority of circumstances and decisions surrounding the CMF were beyond its control. For example, the CMF could not change the prevailing military thought of the post-war period which emphasized increasingly the role of smaller, professional, readily-available armies. The first three chapters recount the CMF???s ???heyday??? in which the Army, assisted by National Service after 1950, was based around it and its influence at the highest levels was strongest. The next two chapters chronicle the background to Australia???s adoption of the ???Pentropic??? organization and the repercussions this had on the CMF. Chapters Six and Seven examine the consequences of the introduction of a second compulsory service scheme and the concomitant result which precluded the CMF from operational service in Vietnam. Chapters Eight and Nine deal with the Millar Inquiry, which offered the CMF a new hope, but in some regards, brought forth little beneficial gains for the CMF. The final chapters analyze some of the characteristics unique to the CMF, such as territorial affiliation, high turnover rates amongst the rank and file and the concept of the ???brilliant amateur???. This thesis concludes that, despite the mixed performance of the CMF, there is still a place for the citizen soldier in contemporary warfare, but far more consideration at the highest political and military levels must be given to the peculiar and difficult, but by no means insurmountable, problems citizen soldiering encounters in Australia.

In 1976, the publication of A History of Australian Defence and Foreign Policy, 1901-1923: Volume 1 — The Search for Security in the Pacific, 1901—1914 by Dr Meaney focussed attention on the advice given by professional naval and military staffs to Australian Prime Ministers and defence ministers in the formulation of an Australian defence and foreign policy from 1901 to 1914.

This program of research was aimed at investigating a novel application of computer aided text analysis (CATA). To date, CATA has been used in a wide variety of disciplines, including Psychology, but never in the area of personnel selection. Traditional personnel selection techniques have met with limited success in the prediction of costly training failures for some occupational groups such as pilot and air traffic controller. Accordingly, the overall purpose of this thesis was to assess the validity of linguistic style to select personnel. Several studies were used to examine the structure of language in a personnel selection setting; the relationship between linguistic style and the individual differences dimensions of ability, personality and vocational interests; the validity of linguistic style as a personnel selection tool and the differences in linguistic style across occupational groups. The participants for the studies contained in this thesis consisted of a group of 810 Royal Australian Air Force Pilot, Air Traffic Control and Air Defence Officer trainees. The results partially supported two of the eight hypotheses; the other six hypotheses were supported. The structure of the linguistic style measure was found to be different in this study compared with the structure found in previous research. Linguistic style was found to be unrelated to ability or vocational interests, although some overlap was found between linguistic style and the measure of personality. In terms of personnel selection validity, linguistic style was found to relate to the outcome of training for the occupations of Pilot, Air Traffic Control and Air Defence Officer. Linguistic style also demonstrated incremental validity beyond traditional ability and selection interview measures. The findings are discussed in light of the Five Factor Theory of Personality, and motivational theory and a modified spreading activation network model of semantic memory and knowledge. A general conclusion is drawn that the analysis of linguistic style is a promising new tool in the area of personnel selection.

This program of research was aimed at investigating a novel application of computer aided text analysis (CATA). To date, CATA has been used in a wide variety of disciplines, including Psychology, but never in the area of personnel selection. Traditional personnel selection techniques have met with limited success in the prediction of costly training failures for some occupational groups such as pilot and air traffic controller. Accordingly, the overall purpose of this thesis was to assess the validity of linguistic style to select personnel. Several studies were used to examine the structure of language in a personnel selection setting; the relationship between linguistic style and the individual differences dimensions of ability, personality and vocational interests; the validity of linguistic style as a personnel selection tool and the differences in linguistic style across occupational groups. The participants for the studies contained in this thesis consisted of a group of 810 Royal Australian Air Force Pilot, Air Traffic Control and Air Defence Officer trainees. The results partially supported two of the eight hypotheses; the other six hypotheses were supported. The structure of the linguistic style measure was found to be different in this study compared with the structure found in previous research. Linguistic style was found to be unrelated to ability or vocational interests, although some overlap was found between linguistic style and the measure of personality. In terms of personnel selection validity, linguistic style was found to relate to the outcome of training for the occupations of Pilot, Air Traffic Control and Air Defence Officer. Linguistic style also demonstrated incremental validity beyond traditional ability and selection interview measures. The findings are discussed in light of the Five Factor Theory of Personality, and motivational theory and a modified spreading activation network model of semantic memory and knowledge. A general conclusion is drawn that the analysis of linguistic style is a promising new tool in the area of personnel selection.
Thesis (PhD Doctorate)
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
School of Applied Psychology (Health)
Full Text

During the nineteenth century, defence was a major issue in Victoria and Australia, as indeed it was in other British colonies and the United Kingdom. Considerable pressure was brought to bear by London on the self-governing colonies to help provide for their own defence against internal unrest and also possible invasions or incursions by nations such as France, Russia and the United States.
From 1851 until defence was handed over to the new Australian Commonwealth at Federation in 1901, the Victorian colonial government spent considerable energy and money fortifying parts of Port Phillip Bay and the western coastline as well as developing the first colonial navy within the British Empire. Citizens were invited to form volunteer corps in their local areas as a second tier of defence behind the Imperial troops stationed in Victoria. When the garrison of Imperial troops was withdrawn in 1870, these units of amateur citizen soldiers formed the basis of the colony’s defence force. Following years of indecision, ineptitude and ad hoc defence planning that had left the colony virtually defenceless, in 1883 Victoria finally adopted a professional approach to defending the colony. The new scheme of defence allowed for a complete re-organisation of not only the colony’s existing naval and military forces, but also the command structure and supporting services. For the first time an integrated defence scheme was established that co-ordinated the fixed defences (forts, batteries minefields) with the land and naval forces. Other original and unique aspects of the scheme included the appointment of the first Minister of Defence in the Australian colonies and the first colonial Council of Defence to oversee the joint defence program. All of this was achieved under the guidance of Imperial advisors who sought to integrate the colony’s defences into the wider Imperial context.
This thesis seeks to analyse Victoria’s colonial defence scheme on a number of levels – firstly, the nature of the final defence scheme that was finally adopted in 1883 after years of vacillation, secondly, the effectiveness of the scheme in defending Victoria, thirdly, how the scheme linked to the greater Australasian and Imperial defence, and finally the political, economic, social and technological factors that shaped defence in Victoria during the second half of the nineteenth century.

International Telemetering Conference Proceedings / October 23-26, 2000 / Town & Country Hotel and Conference Center, San Diego, California
The Royal Australian Navy (RAN) Sonar and Ranges Group (S&RG) office has a requirement to provide a dual weapon capable Mobile Missile Telemetry Range (MMTR) and data analysis system to upgrade their Jervis Bay Range telemetry ground station for supporting at-sea testing of air and surface launched guided weapon, decoy, and target systems. This paper describes the design and development of the MMTR and data analysis system used to support the Jervis Bay Range and the acquisition strategy used to procure the system. Unique design features of the MMTR system include a dual use packaging scheme which permits the system to be transported to any suitable land based location or deployed as two independent shipboard telemetry receiving systems. In addition, the paper describes antenna, receiver, recording, matrix switching, processing, display, and communication subsystem components used within the MMTR system.

Thesis (M.S. in Management)--Naval Postgraduate School, June 1990.
Thesis Advisor(s): Sovereign, Michael G. ; Hart, Neil E. "June 1990." Description based on signature page as viewed on October 19, 2009. DTIC Identifier(s): Life cycle costs, cost analysis, military forces (foreign), accounting, direct costs, theses. Author(s) subject terms: Life cycle cost, operating and support cost, life support cost, Australian Defense Forces, total cost of ownership. Includes bibliographical references (p. 102-105). Also available online.

Between 1870 and 1901, seventeen officers from the British army were appointed by the governments of the Australian colonies and New Zealand as commanders of their colonial military forces. There has been considerable speculation about the roles of these officers as imperial agents, developing colonial forces as a wartime reserve to imperial forces, but little in depth research. This thesis examines the role of the imperial commandants with an embryonic system of imperial defence and their contribution to the development of the colonial military forces. It is therefore a topic in British imperial history as much as Australian and New Zealand military history. British officers were appointed by colonial governments to overcome a shortfall in professional military expertise but increasingly came to be viewed by successive British administrations as a means of fulfilling an imperial defence agenda. The commandants as ???men-on-the-spot???, however, viewed themselves as independent reformers and got offside with both the imperial and colonial governments. This fact reveals that the commandants occupied a difficult position between the aspirations of London and the reality of the colonies. They certainly brought an imperial perspective to their commands and looked forward to the colonies playing a role on the imperial stage but generally did so in terms of a personal agenda rather than one set by London. This assessment is best demonstrated in the commandants??? independent stance at the outset of the South African War. The practice of appointing British commandants in Australasia was fraught with problems because of an inherent conflict in the goals of the commandants and their colonial governments. It resembles the Canadian experience of the British officers which reveals that the system of imperials military appointments as a whole was flawed. The problem remained that until a sufficient number of colonial officers had the prerequisite professional expertise for high command there was no alternative. The commandants were therefore the beginning rather than the end of a traditional reliance upon British military expertise. The lasting legacy of the commandants for the military forces of Australia and New Zealand was the development of colonial officers, transference of British military traditions, and the encouragement of a colonial military identity premised on the expectation of future participation in defence of the empire. The study provides a major revision to the existing historiography of imperial officers in the colonies, one which concludes that far from being ???imperial agents??? they were largely marching to their own drum.

Low Intensity Conflict (LIC) is a significant feature of the contemporary world and it is a particular challenge to the armed forces of many states which are involved is such conflict, or are likely to become so. This thesis is not concerned with how such difficult conflict situations arise. Rather it is concerned with how, from the point of view of the state, they may be contained and ultimately brought to a satisfactory resolution. The work is thus concerned with the practicalities of ending LIC. More specifically, the purpose of this research is to establish a framework of doctrinal and military principles applicable to the prevention and resolution of LIC. The principles of this thesis are based in numerous historical examples of LIC and six in depth case studies. These distilled principles are analysed in two central chapters, and are then applied in two latter defence force chapters so as to ensure there practicality and resilience. Numerous defence academics and military practitioners have been consulted in the production of this thesis; their contribution has further reinforced the functionality of the principles examined in this research. The research illustrates the criticality of a holistic approach to LIC. The function of this approach is to guarantee the stability of the sovereign state, by unifying civil, police, intelligence and military services. The effectiveness of the military elements must also be ensured, as military force is central to the suppression of LIC. Consequently, the research makes strategic and operational prescriptions, so as to improve the capability of defence forces that are concerned with preventing or resolving LIC.

This thesis presents the projects conducted and experience acquired to fulfil the competencies for the Master of Philosophy in Applied Epidemiology (MAE), Australian National University. From February 2019 to December 2020 I undertook an MAE field placement with the Directorate of Defence Health Policy, Joint Health Command, within the Australian Defence Force (ADF). Joint Health Command supports health capability through the provision of health care to ADF members and technical oversight of health support delivered by the Navy, Army and Air Force. The projects included in this thesis comprise of: describing the investigation of an acute respiratory illness outbreak in an ADF training establishment and estimation of vaccine effectiveness using a test-negative design; an evaluation of the ADF notifiable diseases surveillance system; estimating the prevalence of cardiovascular disease risk factors in the ADF population using data from Periodic Health Examinations and comparison with Australian general population data; and a study on the epidemiology of knee cruciate ligament reconstructions in the ADF 2012-2019 and predictors of outcome using Bayesian networks and scenario analysis. This thesis also includes a description of teaching activities on effective communication of scientific findings and COVID-19 contact tracing in different contexts, and other public health experiences completed during my placement that have contributed towards building skills and knowledge in field epidemiology. The work published in this thesis aims to demonstrate the role of applied epidemiology within the ADF by directing resources, assessing interventions, guiding policy, managing outbreaks and monitoring health and disease within the ADF population.

This thesis seeks to establish the limits to the exercise of executive power by the Australian Defence Force (ADF). It will argue that there are identifiable limits, although they cannot be precise limits because executive power is meant to deal with the unpredictable and the external. Within Australia, these limits turn on two key concepts, the written Constitution and necessity, as informed by legal history and theory. It is not possible to effect an enduring change to the Constitution through executive power, nor can executive power exceed the limits of Commonwealth legislative power. Executive power should also not operate where parliament has enabled the ADF to act through statutory power, which means that a resort to executive power is unnecessary. The history and theory of executive power recognise that it is designed to respond to contingencies, the unpredictable, or Fortuna. It is not possible to have a case authority for every possible eventuality and, given the lack of litigation on some of these questions, there is little authority at all. Instead, the exercise of such powers is limited primarily by necessity. The circumstances of the case dictate the limits of the power, which can temporarily displace the written law, as with martial law, or provide a standing exception to it, as with war. This is a concept of necessity which operates upon those powers which only the Crown can exercise and which in this thesis are the identified prerogative powers with respect to martial law, internal emergencies, war and external affairs as well as nationhood power to some extent in respect of internal security. Beyond the realm, the exercise of executive power by the ADF is much less constrained because it does not interfere with the federal structure or the separation of powers. The limits are only those statutes which apply extra-territorially, although they should be interpreted to allow prerogative power to operate where it has not been expressly curtailed or extinguished. Act of State doctrine should also operate to cover any action by the ADF sufficiently connected to the purpose of its mission.

The current enlistment methods of the Australian Defence Force allow individuals with tertiary qualifications to enlist into most specialist and technical vocations as Officers. One exception to this rule is the enlistment of musicians, who obtain only junior positions within Defence Force bands regardless of previous training. Any change in the current enlistment methods would impact greatly on the structure of the military band system and the career paths of current serving personnel, therefore this issue is significant to all service musicians. In the present study, attitudes of service musicians toward the enlistment of Undergraduate Entry Band Officers were determined by means of an attitudinal survey. This consisted of eleven questions and was distributed to all full time service musicians throughout Australia. Results were then examined with regard to current recruiting policies.

"Australian Defence Force (ADF) staff members experience a job relocation every 3 to 5 years. This research explores the perceptions of a group of ADF staff regarding job relocation. Grounded Theory methodology was used to examine the respondents’ perceptions of moving and settling into a new job. A schema called MOVING WORK was developed as a way to illustrate the respondents’ experience and to provide an insight into the widespread workplace practice of job relocation in the ADF. The results revealed that a characteristic of the ADF military context is for ADF staff to support each other at the workplace. As such, it was established that ADF staff function as a ‘community of practice’. Also, definitions of legitimacy and peripherality were established with reference to how the respondents act. From the analysis of the data it was demonstrated that the respondents’ actions could be examined and explained using the theoretical framework of Situated Learning. The outcomes of this research can be used by researchers and ADF senior staff as a means to examine, or manage, the ADF workplace practice of job relocation"--Abstract.

The Australian Defence Force has a long history of exposure to malaria and frequently deploys into the immediate area of the Pacific Rim where drug resistance has been noted to be problematic. In the late 1990s failures of established malaria prophylaxis regimens were beginning to become more prevalent within the ADF and a search was commenced to identify alternative or promising emerging prophylaxis and treatment regimens. In this context the work presented within this thesis was undertaken with a new 8-aminoquinolone antimalarial, initially formulated by the United States Army's Walter Reed Army Institute of Research (WRAIR) and identified as investigative compound WR 238605. The thesis investigates its utility as both prophylaxis and treatment for malaria infection. The compound was subsequently identified in a joint development arrangement between the US Army and GlaxoSmithKline as etaquine, before a final naming of the compound as tafenoquine. The thesis presents three distinct challenges in the development of this promising antimalarial drug and describes the early human use of tafenoquine in the following settings: • Prophylaxis against malaria infection during deployment to a malarious area; • Post exposure prophylaxis of malaria on return from a malarious area; and • Treatment of recurrences of malaria infection. Methods: The thesis is developed through the description of three distinct human clinical trials. Each of these will be developed as individual chapters within the thesis although the reality is that there was some overlap between the activities with developments observed in early activity being used to define both later stages of long term trials and inform the development of the newer activities, some of which are now ongoing in other countries and research institutions. The first double blind comparative study investigates the use of tafenoquine and mefloquine for the longer term (6 months) prophylaxis of malaria in Australian Defence personnel on deployment to Timor Leste. The second, an open label comparative study of the use of tafenoquine and primaquine in the post exposure prophylaxis of vivax malaria in a defence population in Bougainville, Papua New Guinea and in Timor Leste, and the third looks at the treatment of recurring vivax malaria with tafenoquine in an open label study in a non randomised population of defence personnel. Results: Prophylaxis against malaria infection during deployment to a malarious area: Tafenoquine at a weekly dose of 200mg and mefloquine at a dose of 250mg were well tolerated amongst subjects in a military deployment. No malaria occurred in either the tafenoquine and mefloquine arms during the prophylactic phase of this Phase III study. During the relapse follow-up phase, <1% of subjects in either treatment group developed Plasmodium vivax malaria. The incidence and nature of adverse events was similar between the two treatment groups. The most common adverse events were gastroenteritis and unrelated injury. Tafenoquine was associated with the development of vortex keratopathy (secondary to phospholipidosis) in 69/74 (93.2%) subjects tested (compared to no mefloquine subjects). This effect was benign and reversible, with resolution in >90% subjects at 6 months and complete resolution in all subjects by 1 year post-treatment. No significant changes were seen in most laboratory indices during the study. Increases in methaemoglobin in the tafenoquine group were small. Renal follow-up confirmed a lack of long-term renal effects of tafenoquine. Post exposure prophylaxis of malaria on return from a malarious area: A 3-day dosing regimen of tafenoquine (400 mg od, 200 mg bd or 200 mg od) was effective as a post-exposure prophylaxis agent in this study, demonstrating similar efficacy to 14-day primaquine. Tafenoquine, with a shorter dosing regimen (3 days compared to 14 days primaquine), could be used as a more convenient, yet effective, post-exposure prophylaxis agent. Tafenoquine was well tolerated, with no subjects being withdrawn due to adverse events. The most common adverse events were gastrointestinal events. Treatment of recurrences of malaria infection: This small scale study showed that tafenoquine is safe and effective (following chloroquine treatment) in prevention of relapse of multi-relapsing vivax malaria. The management of relapsing vivax malaria with chloroquine/tafenoquine may be more effective and convenient in preventing further relapses than the standard chloroquine/primaquine treatment regimen. Larger studies are required to address the effectiveness and tolerability of chloroquine/tafenoquine for the treatment of vivax malaria. There is also a requirement to more extensively address tafenoquine used on its own for the treatment of recurring vivax malaria. There remains a need to investigate this regimen in other ethnic populations, including special risk groups such as children and pregnant women. Conclusions: Tafenoquine displays the properties required of a promising antimalarial compound. It has, in two phase III clinical trials, established prophylaxis properties; a demonstrated advantage over the classical 14 days of primaquine treatment for post exposure prophylaxis against P. vivax in its reduced treatment time of 3 days; and has a suggested role in the management of recurrences of vivax malaria, although further research will be required to firmly establish this role. It has an acceptable adverse event profile in the limited treatments undertaken to date, when compared to other available antimalarial compounds. Additionally, it has the advantage of once weekly dosing and shorter post exposure prophylaxis regimens when compared to other available treatments.

Trauma Teams in Action is a portfolio of research and is comprised of three studies: systematic review, cross sectional survey and phenomenological study. Study one examines 25 years of relevant literature up to December 2006 that focused on the education and professional development of civilian trauma team members and the teamwork practices employed in civilian trauma teams. Only 12 studies were included in the results of the review highlighting the lack of quality studies into the topic. It did however provide a basis of knowledge to inform the development of a cross sectional survey. Of the 12 included studies, five related to trauma team training. In particular, information pertaining to course content and delivery methods used, for example the use of simulation. The remaining seven studies provided details of teamwork management practices. Results highlighted details regarding the use of a formed team as opposed to ad-hoc team formation, and the use of a tiering system to provide optimal care to all trauma patients by the most appropriate sized and manned trauma team. Knowledge relating to optimally sized teams, and the use of a horizontal team approach was also identified. Finally, this component of the review identified knowledge relating to the role of the leader and fact that trauma teams with a dedicated team leader were more successful than those teams who did not have an identified team leader. A cross sectional survey (Study Two), examined the current education and professional development of health personnel in the Australian Defence Force (ADF) for the development of trauma/resuscitation team skills. Details related to deployment history and teamwork practices (team composition, scope of practice and team management style utilised) of the participants. The study involved 128 respondents from the Royal Australian Navy and the Royal Australian Air Force Health Services Branch completing an online survey. The study was limited due to difficulties in having Army personnel not being able to participate, but useful information about the education and deployment of Australian Defence Force trauma teams was provided. The study highlights that the majority of respondents who reported that they had completed trauma training and deployed as a member of a trauma team had served in the ADF for longer than 10 years. The study also provided details of the large variety of courses completed by both permanent and reserve personnel, and highlighted the fact that this may reflect inconsistencies in the training provided. Of the 80 respondents who had completed formal trauma training only 38 respondents subsequently provided details of the deployments they had been involved in as a trauma team member. As the study identified issues relating to the number and variety of courses completed, consideration of strategies to ensure consistency of training should be further examined. The outcome of the study identified that respondents feel that they were well prepared to work as members of a military trauma team in a conflict/humanitarian situation. However, the study also indicated there should be more emphasis on multi-disciplinary training and more focus on teamwork skills. A hermeneutic phenomenological study (Study Three), examined the lived experiences of six Australian Defence Force Nursing Officers working as members of trauma teams. The interviews provided a unique opportunity to share participants’ stories and experiences. Six major themes were identified from the interviews. These included; Telling their stories; The role – Who we are and what we do; The environment – Is it so different?; Training- Will it ever fully prepare you?; Working in teams – There’s no ‘i’ in team; and Leadership – Will the real leader please stand up. The participants provided details of their stories and their want for their stories to be told. Information of the role(s) that the participants held with details regarding the uniqueness of being a military nurse and the need to feel a valued member of the team was reported on. The participants also provided details of the environment in which they work. This included details of both the physical environment in regards to the need to work with less and the fact that in the environments in which they are required to work, the need to have a place for everything and the challengers relating to the areas in which they work. The psychosocial environment they had encountered and which included details of the horrors of the environment and the ways in which they cope when place in these situations was also provided. Details of the training undertaken by the participants, in particular the need to prepare them for uncontrollable environments was spoken of, as too, the training conducted in the field. The theme regarding working in teams provided information about the team and who made up these teams and the need to get to know the team members was spoken of. Finally, details relating to the issue of leadership was identified with information pertaining to the role of the leader in the team discussed by the participants. This study has provided a unique opportunity to gain a deeper understanding of a usually closed section of the nursing profession, that of the military nurse.
Thesis (D.Nurs.) -- University of Adelaide, School of Nursing, 2013

Those who love and marry serving members are impacted by their military service. Partners experience the effects of deployment and relocation differently to serving members, but still profoundly, with impacts on their emotional, physical and mental well-being. Partners, in their support of the member, play a critical role in military capability. Partners directly impact the availability of the member for deployment and partners who are resilient and cope well with the significant demands of military life are more capable of supporting the member’s ongoing enlistment. Studies which focus on the needs of Australian Defence Force (ADF) partners are limited, despite previous research indicating the importance of partners to Defence capability. Studies of ADF partners conducted since 2009 by the Department of Defence and Defence Families of Australia indicate a shift in support-seeking and interaction; away from ADF-associated support organisations like the Defence Community Organisation (DCO) to informal support sources, including groups on social media sites. These Facebook groups, created by ADF partners and designed to connect the ADF family community, appeared to be offering partners access to information and support. This thesis is the first to investigate the communication, information and community needs of ADF partners, with a focus on social media use. This study collected qualitative data about ADF partners, providing insight into this highly influential yet under-studied group. This study investigated four research questions, all of which sought to understand the role online support communities perform in the life of ADF partners. This study used a digital (social media) ethnographic and sociological framework, collecting the insights and experiences of 35 partners through semi-structured interviews and focus groups. 34 of the participants were female, with one male participant. Transcripts of the interviews and focus groups were thematically analysed to generate five main findings, each which focuses on one aspect of ADF partner use of social media; community, networks, trust, identity and security. These five themes are explored individually in dedicated chapters. Also, this study uniquely contributes an insider researcher approach to understanding the issue. Through the application of Anthony Giddens’ theory of late-modernity, this thesis found ADF partners, who operate in this late-modernity society, do not have their social and informational needs met by the modernist ADF organisation. This is evident through the interactions with virtual communities, as well by partners having reduced trust in the ADF. This study demonstrates ADF partners use social media as a network for navigating their inherently risky lives. Social media and informal support networks fill gaps in ADF-affiliated services in a way that best aligns with their ideology. This study argues the ADF is an abstract organisation and military-provided supports operate as access points to that system. Partners’ interactions on social media provide evidence of their interaction within that system. The study offers recommendations to the ADF and affiliated support organisations. These recommendations include aligning ADF support systems with partner values through changes to the DCO model and online security training. These findings are critical for those who work with and support ADF families to perform their essential role alongside serving military members.

Professional Doctorate - Doctor of Business Administration (DBA)
This exploratory study investigates the research problem (RP) ‘How may DST improve its product innovation process?’ The Department of Defence, Defence Science and Technology (DST) is recognised as a national leader in safeguarding Australia, through the delivery of scientific advice and innovative technology solutions for the Australian Defence Force (ADF) and the wider defence industry community. With an annual budget of over $400 million, DST is Australia’s second largest publicly funded research and development (R&D) organisation. The environment for DST product innovation is characterised by high complexity, large expenditures, product innovations frequently abandoned or failed, and significant resource and operational constraints. Against this background, it could be argued that a detailed study of the DST product innovation process could contribute to both a better theoretical understanding of defence industry product innovation and a practical guide for DST product innovation process and hence improvement. A review of the literature indicates scant research to help defence industry academics and practitioners understand important aspects of defence industry innovation, including inspirations and objectives for defence innovation, stages in the defence industry innovation process, key individuals and groups involved (as well as their roles), key success factors (KSFs) and constraints associated with product innovation processes, as well as criteria to measure defence innovation outcome success. A greater understanding of these defence industry innovation factors may contribute to improved defence innovation outcomes. This study therefore seeks to address the lack of defence industry research in these areas, to develop a better understanding of those factors, which, in turn, may contribute to improving product innovation process and outcomes in DST. The RP for this study, ‘How may DST improve its product innovation process?’, has been developed into the following five research questions (RQs): RQ1: ‘What are the inspirations and objectives for DST product innovation involvement?’ RQ2: ‘What are the stages in the DST product innovation process?’ RQ3: ‘Who are the key individuals and groups involved in the DST product innovation process?’ RQ4: ‘What are the KSFs and constraints that affect the DST product innovation process?’ RQ5: ‘Can a set of criteria to measure a successful DST product innovation be specified?’ This research adopted a qualitative, multi-case study approach to develop inductive, theory-building insights into each of the five RQs and hence RP. Against a background that most DST innovations are failures, informed by literal replication logic, 30 successful DST cases were selected and analysed. The aim was to look for patterns in the data that appear consistently across the 30 successful cases, and hence, may indicate factors identified in the five RQs associated with DST product innovation process and outcome success. The interviews were guided by a semi-structured interview instrument, designed to gather data on each of the five RQs from each of the 30 successful DST cases. In addition, a large number of non-classified DST documents was accessed to provide background secondary data. Cross-case and within-case analyses were utilised to identify patterns and explanations to facilitate theory-building about what represented success for the factors identified in each RQ. Thirteen specific inspirations, including the importance of prior experience, being approached by a military partner, previous similar product shortcomings and operational need, were found consistently across the 30 successful cases, suggesting the presence of one or more of these 13 inspirations may provide important motivation for DST to pursue an innovation and hence may be associated with DST product innovation success. Six specific objectives DST wished to pursue by taking on an innovation, especially a desire to satisfy the customer, were found consistently across the 30 successful cases, suggesting pursuit of one or more of these objectives may support DST product innovation process success. These conclusions add to literature on defence industry product innovation process success. The pursuit of a systematic, eight-stage product innovation process, with an average cycle time of 6.5 years, was found consistently across the 30 successful cases, suggesting a systematic, eight-stage product innovation process, over a longer rather than shorter time, may be associated with DST product innovation process success. These conclusions support literature on defence industry product innovation process success. Both individuals and groups, external and internal to DST, undertaking a number of key roles and functions and involving a greater utilisation of informal, temporary part-time teams and networks, were found consistently across the 30 successful DST product innovation cases, suggesting a mix of external and internal individuals and groups may be associated with DST product innovation process success. These conclusions add to literature on defence industry product innovation process success. Twenty specific KSFs, especially need for management support, the right skills, expertise, strong teamwork, motivation and shared vision, and 15 constraints, notably lack of staff resources, business processes, risk-aversion and problems of competing priorities, were found consistently across the 30 successful cases, suggesting a strong focus on addressing these 20 KSFs and carefully managing the 15 constraints may help promote DST product innovation process success. These conclusions add to literature on defence industry product innovation process success. Finally, 12 specific criteria identified with innovation outcome success, especially customer satisfaction, increased capability and transition into service, were found consistently among the 30 successful case studies, suggesting a focus by DST on these 12 success criteria may be associated with successful DST product innovation outcomes. This conclusion adds to literature on defence industry innovation success. Taken together, the conclusions on the five RQs suggest how DST may improve its product innovation process. In particular, by ensuring all future product innovation activities specifically address the conclusions on the five RQs in this research, DST should, over time, experience improved product innovation processes and hence outcomes. The conclusions on the five RQs and RP have been developed into a DST Product Innovation Process Model, to guide future DST innovation. This study offers a number of theoretical contributions to the literature on the relatively poorly researched area of defence industry innovation. These contributions include identification of inspirations and objectives that may be associated with DST and hence defence industry product innovation process success, as well as identification of the typical number of innovation process stages, cycle times, composition of key personnel, KSFs and constraints that appear to play significant roles in DST and hence defence industry innovation process success. A further contribution to the defence literature is identifying specific measures of defence innovation outcome success. A final contribution to defence industry literature is a proposed DST Product Innovation Process Model, which highlights key innovation factors that DST, in particular, and potentially the Australian defence industry, in general, may focus on to improve defence product innovation processes and outcome success. This study also offers practical contributions to assist DST, other defence industry practitioners and policymakers improve defence industry product innovation processes and outcomes success. First, conducting 30 interviews among DST staff revealed a great deal of customer knowledge, insight and experience is available within DST. The chances of achieving a successful DST product innovation process outcome are potentially improved by drawing on this employee knowledge. Second, the discovery that typically successful DST product innovation processes involve eight stages, with an average cycle time of 6.5 years, with a mix of both internal and external personnel including customer and defence industry involvement, may have significant implications for DST and defence industry planning of funding, resources and timeframes needed to improve chances of defence innovation success. Further, identification of specific KSFs and constraints that appear to be associated with DST product innovation process success should be specifically accommodated in DST planning and execution of product innovation processes. The conclusions of this research also have policy-making implications for all Australian government levels. This research has pinpointed certain inspirations, objectives, process stages, involved individuals and groups, KSFs, constraints and success criteria that appear to be associated with DST and hence potentially defence industry innovation processes and outcomes success. This study may therefore help defence industry policy makers improve funding, resource and timeframe support programs that ensure these specific success factors are accommodated in the innovation processes of DST and other defence industry organisations. For instance, at the Australian Federal Government level, policy reviews of innovation programs, such as Defence White Papers, may be better informed by the findings and conclusions of this study on specific requirements that may improve DST and hence defence industry product innovation process success. This research examined only successful DST cases, giving rise to certain research limitations. The 30 successful cases selected may not be statistically representative of all successful DST product innovation projects, as the latter figure is unavailable. Further, a focus on successful DST product innovation cases means theory developed in this study focuses purely on innovation factors that may contribute to DST product innovation success; the theory (or reverse thereof) does not necessarily explain product innovation failure. Other factors not considered in this study may contribute to product innovation failure. Another limitation of this study flows from examination of each DST case at one point in time. Changes and differences over time, which could have a significant impact on DST product innovation process and outcome success, are therefore not captured by this research, limiting the generalisability of the theory developed in this study. Moreover, use of in-depth, retrospective interviews to gather data opens potential for self-serving responses, memory biases and inaccuracies to compromise the data and hence findings. A final limitation flows from all cases being selected within DST in Australia, which limits the degree to which the results may be generalised to defence industry organisations internationally. Certain directions for future research emerge from this study. First, the conclusions could be further validated by extending the research to other defence industry organisations around the world, using a similar qualitative methodology to that adopted in this study. Second, this study focused on DST product innovation process and outcome successes. DST product innovation process failures could also be studied, to alert DST, defence industry policy makers and practitioners to issues that need to be addressed to minimise failure. Third, further research could utilise a longitudinal approach to carefully and systemically track progress of the DST product innovation processes and outcomes, for success and failure factors that may only emerge over time. Finally, a different methodological approach and paradigm could be adopted by future research, such as the utilisation of a quantitative, large-sample, positivistic approach to test the theory developed in this study.

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The transition from military to civilian life can be challenging for many service members as they learn to cope with changes in their vocational and personal identity, relationships and differences in civilian workplace expectations. Compared with their civilian peers, veterans are more likely to exhibit greater mental health symptomology. The presence of mental health conditions has been found to exacerbate adjustment difficulties, impacting on civilian reintegration and employment outcomes. Further exploration of the facilitators and barriers impacting transition success is needed to better support our veterans.
Thesis (M.Psych(Organisational & Human Factors)) -- University of Adelaide, School of Psychology, 2019

Bullying is arguably one of the most pervasive of workplace stressors. The prevalence and duration of workplace bullying, and the wide-reaching consequences add to its debilitating force. This dissertation applied the Job Demands-Control (Karasek, 1979) and Job Demands-Control-Support (Johnson & Hall, 1988) models as theoretical frameworks to test the associations of workplace bullying with psychological distress, affective commitment, and job satisfaction. Two well-known job stressors of role overload and low job control were assessed alongside workplace bullying to determine the relative impact of different job demands on mental health and wellbeing. Negative associations of workplace bullying with affective commitment and job satisfaction, and a positive association with psychological distress, were demonstrated in two samples (Australian Army and Australian Defence Force), with minimal variation across gender, work status (permanent/reserve), Service, and rank. Even after adjusting for other job demands, workplace bullying explained significant variance in each outcome. These associations were also supported at the group (unit) level, with very strong correlations of workplace bullying with all three outcomes across units (r = |.7 to .9|). Multilevel modelling showed these significant associations whether working in high-bullying climates, or being the sole target working in low-bullying climates. The climate of workplace bullying explained significant variance in psychological distress, affective commitment, and job satisfaction between units. Consistent findings at the individual and group level provide a more comprehensive explanation of the relationships of bullying with each outcome. There is little doubt that workplace bullying is linked to reduced workforce capability. Organisation support, supervisor support, and job control all had significant positive associations with affective commitment and job satisfaction, and negative associations with psychological distress. Support for the hypothesised buffering effects from these measures was not found, possibly due to the lack of matching between the potential moderators and workplace bullying. When workplace bullying occurred, it was likely to occur from more than one source. As the number of sources increased there was poorer mental health and wellbeing. In this study, superiors and coworkers were the most prevalent sources. However, over three times the proportion of employees reported seeking medical and/or mental health care when experiencing bullying from superiors than from coworkers or subordinates. This thesis provides the ADF with the first empirical research into workplace bullying. The findings demonstrate the importance of addressing occupational stressors in garrison. Workplace bullying can, and should, be treated as a job demand. Workplace design, planning, and strategies need to consider workplace bullying alongside other occupational stressors. The implementation of interpersonal skills training will empower bystanders, equip supervisors, and reduce the escalation of negative interactions. Organisational-level interventions, endorsed by senior management and designed to address high-bullying climates, will be linked with better mental health and wellbeing of employees. Other primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention strategies are offered for the ADF, and more broadly for all organisations. This thesis discusses a number of directions for future research, including ‘deep dives’ into workplaces that report high or low bullying climates, and exploring other sources and types of this negative behaviour. Workplace interventions successful in preventing or minimising workplace bullying are still scarce, yet present another critical area for future research.

One in five Australian Defence Force (ADF) members are estimated to experience a mental disorder every 12 months, and one in two will experience a 12-month disorder in the first five years after leaving full-time service. Yet, half of those with a mental disorder will not receive professional care. The Australian Government is looking towards innovative solutions to address this hidden unmet need. Technology-based mental health resources, e-mental health, are assumed to improve access to mental health care, but there is limited empirical evidence of the impact of these services from a population health perspective. The aims of this thesis were to identify barriers to mental health help-seeking in the ADF community and examine the role of e-mental health resources in help-seeking and self-managed mental health. Data for this thesis were drawn from a cross-sectional survey investigating the mental, social and physical health of 11,587 full-time serving and recently transitioned ADF members. Andersen's Behavioural Model of Health Service Use (Andersen, Davidson, & Baumeister, 2014) was used to examine predisposing, need and enabling factors associated with 12-month mental health service use. Reach of e-mental health resources was assessed across multiple technology modalities (information websites, telephone helplines, social media, internet interventions and smartphone apps) and then examined in relation to concurrent professional service use. Lastly, self-reliance and self-management strategies were examined in a sub-sample of participants who had a mental health concern but received no assistance (n=1,539). Gaps in mental health service use were found for males in the ADF, individuals who had transitioned out of the ADF, and Army and Navy service members. A lack of perceived need, self-stigma, negative attitudes to care and resilience were identified as important barriers to mental health help-seeking. These barriers persisted for more conventional e-mental health modalities such as websites and telephone helplines. Use of websites, helplines and smartphone apps were significantly associated with seeking professional help, but social media and internet intervention use were not. Preferential use of online resources over professional care was more common among those with moderate symptoms and was associated with lower perceived need, higher self-stigma and resilience. Similarly, high self-reliance was associated with lower depressive symptoms, greater perceived functioning (regardless of reported disability), greater resilience and higher self-stigma. Whilst e-mental health has been suggested to lessen gaps in mental health services, this thesis demonstrates that the impact of current e-mental health resources provided by Australian Defence and veteran agencies may be modest. Resources with the strongest evidence base are least used, and technologies in which Defence and DVA have minimal engagement are being used by groups at greater risk of mental ill-health in this community. The study highlights the importance of addressing self-stigma and perceived conflict between resilient identity and help-seeking behaviour. Future work needs to identify opportunities for increasing personal agency in military mental health services, to engage individuals across the spectrum of mental health need. Diversification of e-mental health resources will be critical for reaching at-risk groups and is a key consideration for future implementation activities and research.

There is an increase in the prevalence of physical symptoms in military veterans who have deployed to combat zones compared to those who have not been deployed. These symptoms can be distressing, disabling, and negatively impact quality of life. Current paradigms regarding the effects of traumatic deployment exposures on military personnel tend to consider non-specific physical symptoms (that are not due to injury) as simply a comorbidity of psychological disorder following trauma, rather than independent sequelae. For example, the diagnostic criteria for a condition specifically caused by traumatic exposures, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), do not include physical symptoms. Uncertainty surrounding the aetiology of physical symptoms has led to some fierce controversies, such as the existence of Gulf War Syndrome. The aim of this thesis was to examine how physical and psychological symptoms occur independently as well as co-occur in veterans post-deployment, and to examine the strength of associations between traumatic deployment exposures (TDEs) and these profiles of physical and psychological symptom presentation. A further aim was to explore how well a checklist of physical symptoms could identify concurrent PTSD. The final aim was to examine whether inflammation mediated associations between TDEs and physical symptoms. Data used in this thesis were from several related studies of Australian Defence Force (ADF) members who deployed to the Middle East Area of Operations (MEAO) from 2001 to 2012. These studies were commissioned by the Australian Government’s Department of Defence to explore the impact of increased operational tempo on the health of military personnel. These large-scale correlational studies surveyed tens of thousands of personnel using self-reported questionnaires which included gold-standard measures of psychological distress and PTSD, as well as checklists of trauma exposure and physical symptoms. This thesis substantiated prior findings of high rates of comorbidity between PTSD and physical symptoms in veterans. While results confirmed that physical and psychological symptoms can co-occur, analyses identified a subgroup of veterans who exhibited physical symptoms without psychological distress; this ‘physical only’ presentation was as common as the ‘psychological only’ and comorbid symptom presentations. Moreover, this presentation was associated with lower quality of life, and as such is worthy of clinical attention. Importantly, TDEs showed similar associations with both ‘physical only’ and ‘psychological only’ symptom presentations. As with First Gulf War research, there did not appear to be a particular post-deployment physical ‘syndrome’; while symptoms often co-occurred, it was symptom number and intensity rather than type that identified affected veterans. A list of 10 physical symptoms demonstrated good diagnostic utility for predicting cases of concurrent PTSD. The findings also suggest that sub-types of PTSD exist, differentiated by the level of somatic symptoms. While a relationship was found between some individual physical symptoms and inflammation, the hypothesis that inflammation mediates the relationship between trauma and physical symptoms was not supported. These findings validate physical symptoms as a discrete symptom outcome following deployment, and this presentation had a similar prevalence to co-occurring physical and psychological symptoms. Therefore, physical symptoms should not be regarded simply as a comorbidity of an underlying psychological disorder for all veterans. As physical symptoms are just as likely to occur as psychological symptoms following TDEs and they impact quality of life, they should be assessed during post-deployment screening and considered in civilian treatment of veterans. Furthermore, the inclusion of physical symptoms in PTSD screening checklists may improve PTSD identification rates and better describe the patient experience.
Thesis (Ph.D.) -- University of Adelaide, Adelaide Medical School, 2019

Static line parachuting is an insertion method used by the Australian Defence Force to deploy combat troops. The Australian Army simulates the workplace environment during the delivery of Static Line Parachute training to meet safety requirements. Whilst training within the Army Registered Training Organisation (RTO) is delivered within the Army’s safety management framework, static line parachuting is still an inherently dangerous activity that can result in serious injuries to trainees. During 2009, the simulated environment used within the Army RTO to train basic static line paratroopers was analysed with a view to implement risk management strategies that would reduce if not eliminate injuries sustained by learners. These strategies were introduced during the 2009 training year, whereby 360 paratroopers completed the Basic Parachute Course in a modified environment. Training within the modified environment has continued, and the reduction in injury rates among learners has significantly decreased over 2009 and 2010 in comparison to 2008. Whilst injury rates have significantly decreased, there is a perception that the training outcomes detailed in the units of competency have not been achieved and that learners have not reached ‘job ready’ standard. The aim of this research was to analyse the workplace requirement of a static line paratrooper and the knowledge and skills obtained by trainees during the Basic Parachute Course. This analysis will help determine if a gap exists between the workplace requirements of a static line paratrooper and learning outcome of the parachute course. Literature related to the relationship between the learning environment and the workplace in the Vocational Education and Training (VET) context is limited, and whilst literature implies this relationship is a cornerstone of effective VET, literature also illustrates anomalies between the two. Furthermore, research focusing on the role of risk management within the VET learning environment for safety dependent vocations is also very limited. This study will provide valuable knowledge, leading to a better understanding of the relationship between a learning environment and the workplace, from a VET perspective, incorporating links to risk management strategies in a safety dependent learning environment.

Contemporary peacekeeping missions are complex, demanding, and potentially hazardous. There is general agreement that psychological factors are crucial to effective individual and collective performance of the military personnel deployed in support of these missions. This research has examined the human dimensions associated with capability, functioning, and health across the deployment cycle. The aim of this research was to increase understanding of the psychological issues associated with peace support operations at the individual, group, and organisational levels. The study applied precepts of the transactional model of stress (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984) to the context of military deployment on peace support operations. The overarching Human Dimensions of Operations model for this research incorporated stressor, buffer, and outcome components within the multi-level structure of the military organisation and across the stages (pre, peri, post) of deployment. Participants were Canadian and Australian military personnel deployed on Peace Support Operations. The dissertation comprised seven chapters. Chapter One provided an introduction to the psychological challenges posed by peace support operations and the research opportunities these missions afford. The second chapter detailed the methodology and psychometric evaluation of several measurement scales that were developed as part of this research in order to address the unique characteristics of peace support operations. Each of the six scales examined proved to have a meaningful component structure and adequate subscale reliabilities. The third chapter was devoted to an examination of the psychometric properties of a measure of psychological climate factors, the Unit Climate Profile (UCP), which was the cornerstone instrument of this research. The UCP demonstrated a robust, multi-dimensional structure that was conceptually concordant with its theoretical development and design. In addition, the component structure of the UCP changed in meaningful ways according to its level of analysis - individual or group. The next three chapters examined human dimension constructs at different stages of deployment, notably psychological readiness for operations, psychological resilience during deployment, and readjustment following return from deployment. In Chapter Four, the most compelling structural model that examined collective psychological readiness demonstrated that perceptions of readiness at the group level, along with effective senior leadership, could significantly impact morale. The results in Chapter Five revealed that leadership both buffered the immediate impact of stressors, and also fostered meaning and morale, thereby reducing strain. Positive aspects of deployment and the personal meaning assumed to be derived from these experiences were also found to bolster morale significantly during deployment. In Chapter Six, the stressors specific to the postdeployment transition phase, rather than stressors encountered during deployment, had the strongest impact on postdeployment adjustment. Social support and a positive psychological climate in the unit (particularly evidenced by cohesiveness and caring behaviour by proximal leaders) moderated the impact of homecoming stressors. A concluding chapter summarised the dissertation and discussed its practical significance and avenues for the dissemination of its findings. Broadly, the outcomes demonstrated that an understanding of the human factors in military units within the context of the stressors-strain relationship can provide potentially useful information to commanders who want to enhance the well-being, performance, and commitment of Service members deployed on peace support operations.
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Thesis (Ph.D.) -- School of Psychology, 2008

Since 1945 Australians have served as peacekeepers across the world in Africa, Europe, Asia, the Middle East, and the Pacific. They have contributed to one of the most startling attempts at worldwide collective security in human history. That sweeping story has been well explored, but the experiences of peacekeepers themselves have remained rather elusive. And yet peacekeeping outcomes largely depend on what happens at the ground level between people. The central aim of this thesis is to pull these stories from obscurity and demonstrate that peacekeepers’ recollections, descriptions and perspectives are a central and necessary part of peacekeeping histories. That story is explored here by examining Australian peacekeepers’ oral histories of serving in Bougainville, Solomon Islands and East Timor between 1997 and approximately 2006. These are valuable case studies because all three peace operations overlapped in the same decade, all occurred under the same Prime Minister and Foreign Minister and all were elided together in strategic and political discourse. More significantly, each was also bound, in Australian imaginations, to a nebulous region called ‘the Pacific’. This unique intersection of the three operations creates opportunities to explore broader questions about Australia’s relationship with the Pacific. Though not exclusively used, peacekeepers’ narratives are central to this history. Over sixty Australians from across the country shared their stories for this work. The peacekeepers’ came from three different organisations – the Australian Defence Force, the Australian Public Service and the Australian Federal Police. Exploring what peacekeeping meant to people across these three organisations means this history tells a more varied story than would be possible by focusing solely on one group. That variety also makes it possible to further dissect the nuances and connectedness of peacekeepers’ representations of national, regional and Pacific identities. Ultimately, this is a history of peacekeeping is centred by peacekeepers’ own experiences. All History is, of course, people centred in its own way, but it does not inevitably follow that people are always the centre of the narrative. They often exist in and amongst events swirling around them, actors for sure, but not necessarily the stars. That has certainly been the case for peacekeeping histories so far. We need those stories, but we need the ones in this thesis too. Peacekeeping in the Pacific has very much been about relationships, about very human attempts to understand what it means to build peace in varied and complex contexts; and doing so while labouring under various historical and cultural inheritances that complicated and made specific peacekeepers’ struggles and experiences. This is a story that meets peacekeepers in that space while also showing that those experiences say much about being Australian, being a peacekeeper and being in the Pacific at the turn of the century.