Articles de revues : « X-ray semiconductor detectors »

1

Sareen, Rob. « Semiconductor X-Ray Detectors ». Microscopy Today 6, n^o 6 (août 1998) : 8–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1551929500068152.

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Detection of characteristic x-rays is a fascinating and challenging subject. From its early beginnings with gas proportional counters it has evolved, like many branches of technology, into the use of a variety of semiconductors.The lithium compensated silicon detector [Si(Li)] has been the predominant measuring tool over the last two decades, in the last five years, increasing numbers of high purity germanium detectors (HPG) have appeared and more recently a plethora of new materials and concepts are seeing a successful introduction. Among these newer materials are compound semiconductors like mercuric iodide, cadmium telluride, cadmium zinc telluride, gallium arsenide, lead iodide, indium phosphide and diamond. Among the new concepts are Bolometers, Transition Edge Detectors, Drift Detectors, PIN Diodes, CCD arrays and PN CCD arrays.

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Lund, Mark W. « More than One Ever Wanted to Know about X-Ray Detectors Part VI : Alternate Semiconductors for Detectors ». Microscopy Today 3, n^o 5 (juin 1995) : 12–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1551929500066116.

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X-ray spectrometers give the capability to determine chemical element composition in electron microscopes. The semiconductor with the most experience as an x-ray detector is silicon. Silicon is the most highly developed material on earth, and has a lot of good things going for it, but for some applications we crave something with other good properties. For example, for room temperature detectors it would be best to have a semiconductor with a wider band gap. For higher resolution it would be better to have a semiconductor with a smaller band gap. For these reasons a number of other semiconductors have been developed as x-ray detectors. In this article I will talk about narrow band gap semiconductors. Next time I will discuss large band gap semiconductors.

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Kohagura, J., T. Cho, M. Hirata, T. Okamura, T. Tamano, K. Yatsu, S. Miyoshi, K. Hirano et H. Maezawa. « New methods for semiconductor charge-diffusion-length measurements using synchrotron radiation ». Journal of Synchrotron Radiation 5, n^o 3 (1 mai 1998) : 874–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/s0909049597017524.

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The extension of a new theory on the X-ray energy response of semiconductor detectors is carried out to characterize the X-ray response of a multichannel semiconductor detector fabricated on one silicon wafer. Recently, these multichannel detectors have been widely utilized for position-sensitive observations in various research fields, including synchrotron radiation research and fusion-plasma investigations. This article represents the verification of the physics essentials of a proposed theory on the X-ray response of semiconductor detectors. The three-dimensional charge-diffusion effects on the adjoining detector-channel signals are experimentally demonstrated at the Photon Factory for two types of multichannel detectors. These findings are conveniently applicable for measuring diffusion lengths for industrial requirements.

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Cho, T., M. Hirata, J. Kohagura, Y. Sakamoto, T. Okamura, T. Numakura, R. Minami et al. « Characterization and interpretation of the quantum efficiencies of multilayer semiconductor detectors using a new theory ». Journal of Synchrotron Radiation 5, n^o 3 (1 mai 1998) : 877–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/s0909049598000016.

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On the basis of a new theory of semiconductor X-ray detector response, a new type of multilayer semiconductor detector was designed and developed for convenient energy analyses of intense incident X-ray flux in a cumulative-current mode. Another anticipated useful property of the developed detector is a drastic improvement in high-energy X-ray response ranging over several hundred eV. The formula for the quantum efficiency of multilayer semiconductor detectors and its physical interpretations are proposed and have been successfully verified by synchrotron radiation experiments at the Photon Factory. These detectors are useful for data analyses under strong radiation-field conditions, including fusion-plasma-emitting X-rays and energetic heavy-particle beams, without the use of high-bias applications.

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Pennicard, David, Benoît Pirard, Oleg Tolbanov et Krzysztof Iniewski. « Semiconductor materials for x-ray detectors ». MRS Bulletin 42, n^o 06 (juin 2017) : 445–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1557/mrs.2017.95.

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Choi, Chi Won, Ji Koon Park, Sang Sik Kang, Sung Ho Cho, Kyung Jin Kim, Sung Kwang Park, Heung Kook Choi, Jae Hyung Kim et Sang Hee Nam. « Comparison of Semiconductor Radiation Detectors for Large Area X-Ray Imaging ». Solid State Phenomena 124-126 (juin 2007) : 123–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/ssp.124-126.123.

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We have developed a large area, flat panel detector for general applications to digital radiology. This paper presents the x-ray detection characteristics with various semiconductor radiation detectors (HgI2, PbI2, PbO, CdTe) derived by a novel wet coating process for large area deposition. The wet coating process could easily be made from large area films with printing paste mixed with semiconductor and binder material at room temperature. X-ray performance data such as dark current, sensitivity and signal to noise ratio (SNR) were evaluated. The HgI2 semiconductor was shown in much lower dark current than the others, and also has the best sensitivity. In this paper, reactivity and combination characters of semiconductor and binder material that affect electrical and x-ray detection properties would be verified through our experimental results.

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Ponpon, J. P. « Semiconductor detectors for 2D X-ray imaging ». Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A : Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment 551, n^o 1 (octobre 2005) : 15–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nima.2005.07.038.

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Manolopoulos, S., R. Bates, G. Bushnell-Wye, M. Campbell, G. Derbyshire, R. Farrow, E. Heijne, V. O'Shea, C. Raine et K. M. Smith. « X-ray powder diffraction with hybrid semiconductor pixel detectors ». Journal of Synchrotron Radiation 6, n^o 2 (1 mars 1999) : 112–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/s0909049599001107.

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Semiconductor hybrid pixel detectors, originally developed for particle physics experiments, have been used for an X-ray diffraction experiment on a synchrotron radiation source. The spatial resolution of the intensity peaks in the diffraction patterns of silicon and potassium niobate powder samples was found to be better than that of a scintillator-based system, typically used at present. The two-dimensional position information of the pixel detector enabled multi-peak diffraction patterns to be acquired and clearly resolved without the need for an angle scan with a diffractometer. This trial experiment shows the potential of this technology for high-resolution high-rate diffraction systems.

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Samedov, Victor V. « Induced Charge Fluctuations in Semiconductor Detectors with a Cylindrical Geometry ». EPJ Web of Conferences 170 (2018) : 01014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/epjconf/201817001014.

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Now, compound semiconductors are very appealing for hard X-ray room-temperature detectors for medical and astrophysical applications. Despite the attractive properties of compound semiconductors, such as high atomic number, high density, wide band gap, low chemical reactivity and long-term stability, poor hole and electron mobility-lifetime products degrade the energy resolution of these detectors. The main objective of the present study is in development of a mathematical model of the process of the charge induction in a cylindrical geometry with accounting for the charge carrier trapping. The formulae for the moments of the distribution function of the induced charge and the formulae for the mean amplitude and the variance of the signal at the output of the semiconductor detector with a cylindrical geometry were derived. It was shown that the power series expansions of the detector amplitude and the variance in terms of the inverse bias voltage allow determining the Fano factor, electron mobility lifetime product, and the nonuniformity level of the trap density of the semiconductor material.

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Olschner, F., K. S. Shah, J. C. Lund, J. Zhang, K. Daley, S. Medrick et M. R. Squillante. « Thallium bromide semiconductor X-ray and γ-ray detectors ». Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A : Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment 322, n^o 3 (novembre 1992) : 504–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0168-9002(92)91222-u.

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Bertuccio, Giuseppe, S. Caccia, Filippo Nava, Gaetano Foti, Donatella Puglisi, Claudio Lanzieri, S. Lavanga, Giuseppe Abbondanza, Danilo Crippa et F. Preti. « Ultra Low Noise Epitaxial 4H-SiC X-Ray Detectors ». Materials Science Forum 615-617 (mars 2009) : 845–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/msf.615-617.845.

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The design and the experimental results of some prototypes of SiC X-ray detectors are presented. The devices have been manufactured on a 2’’ 4H-SiC wafer with 115 m thick undoped high purity epitaxial layer, which constitutes the detection’s active volume. Pad and pixel detectors based on Ni-Schottky junctions have been tested. The residual doping of the epi-layer was found to be extremely low, 3.7 x 1013 cm-3, allowing to achieve the highest detection efficiency and the lower specific capacitance of the detectors. At +22°C and in operating bias condition, the reverse current densities of the detector’s Schottky junctions have been measured to be between J=0.3 pA/cm2 and J=4 pA/cm2; these values are more than two orders of magnitude lower than those of state of the art silicon detectors. With such low leakage currents, the equivalent electronic noise of SiC pixel detectors is as low as 0.5 electrons r.m.s at room temperature, which represents a new state of the art in the scenario of semiconductor radiation detectors.

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Puglisi, Donatella, et Giuseppe Bertuccio. « Silicon Carbide Microstrip Radiation Detectors ». Micromachines 10, n^o 12 (30 novembre 2019) : 835. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/mi10120835.

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Compared with the most commonly used silicon and germanium, which need to work at cryogenic or low temperatures to decrease their noise levels, wide-bandgap compound semiconductors such as silicon carbide allow the operation of radiation detectors at room temperature, with high performance, and without the use of any bulky and expensive cooling equipment. In this work, we investigated the electrical and spectroscopic performance of an innovative position-sensitive semiconductor radiation detector in epitaxial 4H-SiC. The full depletion of the epitaxial layer (124 µm, 5.2 × 1013 cm−3) was reached by biasing the detector up to 600 V. For comparison, two different microstrip detectors were fully characterized from −20 °C to +107 °C. The obtained results show that our prototype detector is suitable for high resolution X-ray spectroscopy with imaging capability in a wide range of operating temperatures.

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Frank, M., C. A. Mears, S. E. Labov, L. J. Hiller, J. B. le Grand, M. A. Lindeman, H. Netel, D. Chow et A. T. Barfknecht. « Cryogenic high-resolution X-ray spectrometers for SR-XRF and microanalysis ». Journal of Synchrotron Radiation 5, n^o 3 (1 mai 1998) : 515–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/s0909049597014465.

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Experimental results are presented obtained with a cryogenically cooled high-resolution X-ray spectrometer based on a 141 × 141 µm Nb-Al-Al2O3-Al-Nb superconducting tunnel junction (STJ) detector in an SR-XRF demonstration experiment. STJ detectors can operate at count rates approaching those of semiconductor detectors while still providing a significantly better energy resolution for soft X-rays. By measuring fluorescence X-rays from samples containing transition metals and low-Z elements, an FWHM energy resolution of 6–15 eV for X-rays in the energy range 180–1100 eV has been obtained. The results show that, in the near future, STJ detectors may prove very useful in XRF and microanalysis applications.

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Kim, Jinwoo, Jesse Tanguay, Ian A. Cunningham et Ho Kyung Kim. « X-ray interaction characteristic functions in semiconductor detectors ». Journal of Instrumentation 15, n^o 03 (17 mars 2020) : C03029. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/15/03/c03029.

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Hansen, P. G. « Gamma- and X-ray spectrometry with semiconductor detectors ». Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B : Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms 44, n^o 2 (décembre 1989) : 246–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0168-583x(89)90436-9.

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Szeles, Csaba, Stephen A. Soldner, Steve Vydrin, Jesse Graves et Derek S. Bale. « CdZnTe Semiconductor Detectors for Spectroscopic X-ray Imaging ». IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science 55, n^o 1 (2008) : 572–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/tns.2007.914034.

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Mazon, D., D. Colette, E. Soudet, P. Malard, M. Walsh, M. Moreau et A. Jardin. « Using low voltage ionization chamber (LVIC) in current mode for energy spectrum reconstruction : Experiments and validation ». Review of Scientific Instruments 93, n^o 11 (1 novembre 2022) : 113544. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/5.0105345.

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Due to the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) radiative environment, in particular during high D–T power phase, classic x-ray detectors, such as semiconductor diodes, might be too fragile and are thus not viable. Instead, robust detectors, such as gas-filled detectors, are nowadays considered. The Low Voltage Ionization Chamber (LVIC) is one of the most promising candidates for x-ray measurement during the ITER nuclear phase. A complete model of the detector, recently developed at IRFM (Intitute for Research on Magnetic Fusion), now requires experimental validation. Experimental testing at the IRFM laboratory of an ITER industrial LVIC prototype and comparison with modeling are presented. In particular, an original approach to extract information on the x-ray spectrum from current-mode LVIC measurement is validated experimentally.

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Garratt-Reed, Anthony J. « EDXS in the electron microscope : The hardware ». Proceedings, annual meeting, Electron Microscopy Society of America 52 (1994) : 374–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0424820100169602.

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The hardware employed for microanalysis by energy-dispersive x-ray analysis in the electron microscope consists, logically enough, of two principal parts, i.e. the electron microscope and the x-ray detector/analyzer combination. There are a number of excellent sources which discuss in depth how these work and interact to allow an analysis to be performed, and how to obtain the best possible results.The basic principle of operation of an energy-dispersive x-ray detector is as follows: a small piece of single-crystal intrinsic semiconductor (typically silicon doped with lithium for compensation, although high-purity germanium detectors are for some applications an attractive alternative) about 10-30 mm2 in area by 2-3 mm thick is subject to a moderate electric field, generated by applying a bias of about 500V between electrodes plated on the two opposite faces of the crystal. When an x-ray enters the crystal, it ionizes one of the atoms of semiconductor, generating a photoelectron of well-defined energy (i.e. the energy of the incoming x-ray less the ionization energy of the excited energy level). The photoelectron travels through the crystal, ionizing further atoms as it goes, each ionization requiring on average 3.86 eV (in the case of silicon detectors).

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Cernik, R. J., K. H. Khor et C. Hansson. « X-ray colour imaging ». Journal of The Royal Society Interface 5, n^o 21 (27 novembre 2007) : 477–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2007.1249.

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A prototype X-ray colour imaging system has been assembled using the principle of tomographic energy-dispersive diffraction imaging (TEDDI). The new system has been tested using samples of nylon-6, aluminium powder and deer antler bone. Non-destructive three-dimensional images of the test objects have been reconstructed on a 300 μm scale with an associated diffraction pattern at each voxel. In addition, the lattice parameters of the polycrystalline material present in the sampled voxels have been determined using full pattern refinement methods. The use of multiple diffracted parallel colour X-ray beams has allowed simultaneous spatially resolved data collection across a plane of the sample. This has simplified the sample scan motion and has improved data collection times by a factor scaling with the number of detector pixels. The TEDDI method is currently limited to thin samples (approx. 1–2 mm) with light atoms owing to the very low detection efficiency of the silicon detector at X-ray energies above 25 keV. We describe how these difficulties can be removed by using semiconductor detectors made from heavier atomic material.

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Ma, Wuying, Linyue Liu, Haoming Qin, Runlong Gao, Baoping He, Shilong Gou, Yihui He et Xiaoping Ouyang. « The Total Ionizing Dose Effects on Perovskite CsPbBr3 Semiconductor Detector ». Sensors 23, n^o 4 (10 février 2023) : 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s23042017.

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Perovskite CsPbBr3 semiconductors exhibit unusually high defect tolerance leading to outstanding and unique optoelectronic properties, demonstrating strong potential for γ-radiation and X-ray detection at room temperature. However, the total dose effects of the perovskite CsPbBr3 must be considered when working in a long-term radiation environment. In this work, the Schottky type of perovskite CsPbBr3 detector was fabricated. Their electrical characteristics and γ-ray response were investigated before and after 60Co γ ray irradiation with 100 and 200 krad (Si) doses. The γ-ray response of the Schottky-type planar CsPbBr3 detector degrades significantly with the increase in total dose. At the total dose of 200 krad(Si), the spectral resolving ability to γ-ray response of the CsPbBr3 detector has disappeared. However, with annealing at room temperature for one week, the device’s performance was partially recovered. Therefore, these results indicate that the total dose effects strongly influence the detector performance of the perovskite CsPbBr3 semiconductor. Notably, it is concluded that the radiation-induced defects are not permanent, which could be mitigated even at room temperature. We believe this work could guide the development of perovskite detectors, especially under harsh radiation conditions.

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Höhne, Jens, Matthias Bühler, Theo Hertrich et Uwe Hess. « Cryodetectors for High Resolution X-Ray Spectroscopy ». Microscopy and Microanalysis 6, S2 (août 2000) : 740–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1431927600036199.

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Based on excellent energy resolution and single quantum detection sensitivity, cryodetectors are offering a variety of new, analytical solutions for the analysis of elementary surface compositions, especially for the analysis of light elements and very small sized structures. Cryodetectors operate typically at temperatures between 30 and 200mK and require vibration free and fully automated cooling systems in order to qualify for industrial applications. Cryodetectors are low temperature superconductors where the two most prominent types are based on microcalorimeter and tunnel diode principles. Cryodetectors are mainly employed for surface analysis applications as energy dispersive X-ray spectrometers with energy resolutions of less than 15eV, but may also be used as highly sensitive UV, VIS or even mass spectrometers in the future.Conventional EDX detectors are semiconductors. An impinging X-ray quantum creates a number of electronhole pairs dependent on the energy of the triggering event thus allowing energy dispersive measurements. The performance limit of semiconductor detectors has almost been reached and is determined by the excitation energy necessary to create electron-hole pairs.

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Wang, S. G., P. J. Sellin, Q. Zhang, Fan Xiu Lu, Wei Zhong Tang et A. Lohstroh. « The Fabrication and Performance of CVD Diamond-Based X-Ray Detectors ». Materials Science Forum 475-479 (janvier 2005) : 3605–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/msf.475-479.3605.

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In this study, X-ray detectors with coplanar metal-semiconductor-metal structure, were fabricated employing high quality chemical vapour deposited (CVD) diamond film grown by a direct current arc jet plasma system. In which the electrical contacts with dimension of 25 µm in width with a 25 µm inter-electrode spacing, were patterned on the growth side of the diamond film using lift-off technology. The performance of the fabricated detectors was evaluated by steady-state X-ray illumination. The photoconductivity of the diamond detectors was found to linearly increase with increase in the X-ray photon flux. This demonstrates that high quality CVD diamond can be used for X-ray detectors.

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Дикаев, Ю. М., et А. А. Кудряшов. « Рентгеновский детектор на основе CdZnTe в режиме поперечной и продольной фотопроводимости ». Журнал технической физики 92, n^o 1 (2022) : 152. http://dx.doi.org/10.21883/jtf.2022.01.51865.46-21.

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The work considers "transverse" and "longitudinal" photoconductivity modes, regarding the direction of radiation, photoconductivity in semiconductor detectors of CdZnTe. Mathematical calculations were made from the representation of the internal area of the detector in the form of radiation absorption sites. The results of the calculations are compared with experimentally measured photocurrent of the detector with a cross section of 2x2 mm CdZnTe from the direction of its radiation by X-ray. From the ratio of photocurrents in the range of X-ray radiation energies 35-72 keV for these two cases, a linear coefficient of X-ray absorption by the CdZnTe detector is determined.

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Friedrich, S., C. A. Mears, B. Nideröst, L. J. Hiller, M. Frank, S. E. Labov, A. T. Barfknecht et S. P. Cramer. « Superconducting Tunnel Junction Array Development for High-Resolution Energy-Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy ». Microscopy and Microanalysis 4, n^o 6 (décembre 1998) : 616–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s143192769898059x.

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Cryogenic energy-dispersive X-ray detectors are being developed because of their superior energy resolution (10 eV FWHM for keV X-rays) compared to that achieved in semiconductor energy-dispersive spectrometry (EDS) systems. So far, their range of application is limited because of their comparably small size and low count rate. We present data on the development of superconducting tunnel junction (STJ) detector arrays to address both of these issues. A single STJ detector has a resolution of around 10 eV below 1 keV and can be operated at count rates of the order 10,000 counts/sec. We show that the simultaneous operation of several STJ detectors does not dimish their energy resolution significantly, and it increases the detector area and the maximum count rate by a factor given by the total number of independent channels.

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Wollman, D. A., Dale E. Newbury, S. W. Nam, G. C. Hilton, K. D. Irwin, D. A. Rudman, S. Deiker, N. F. Bergren et John M. Martinis. « Microcalorimeter EDS : Benefits and Drawbacks ». Microscopy and Microanalysis 6, S2 (août 2000) : 738–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1431927600036187.

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The commercial introduction of high-count-rate, near-room-temperature silicon drift detectors (presently available) and high-energy-resolution cryogenic microcalorimeters (forthcoming) is an exciting development in x-ray microanalysis, in which detector choices and capabilities have been essentially stable for many years. Both of these new energy-dispersive detectors promise improved capabilities for specific applications, e.g., faster EDS mapping (silicon drift detectors) and nanoscale particle analysis (microcalorimeters). In this paper, we briefly examine some of the important benefits and drawbacks of microcalorimeter EDS (μcal EDS) for x-ray microanalysis.The primary benefit of μcal EDS over conventional semiconductor EDS is the factor of ∼ 20 improvement in energy resolution (∼ 4 eV, real-time analog signal processing), as shown in Figure 1.

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Lutz, Gerhard. « Novel semiconductor detectors for X-ray astronomy and spectroscopy ». Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A : Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment 501, n^o 1 (mars 2003) : 288–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0168-9002(02)02048-x.

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Bavdaz, M., A. Peacock et A. Owens. « Future space applications of compound semiconductor X-ray detectors ». Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A : Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment 458, n^o 1-2 (février 2001) : 123–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0168-9002(00)01033-0.

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Lépy, M. C., J. L. Campbell, J. M. Laborie, J. Plagnard, P. Stemmler et W. J. Teesdale. « Experimental characterization of low-energy X-ray semiconductor detectors ». Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A : Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment 422, n^o 1-3 (février 1999) : 428–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0168-9002(98)01111-5.

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Castoldi, A., et M. Sampietro. « Semiconductor drift detectors for high resolution X-ray spectroscopy ». Sensors and Actuators A : Physical 31, n^o 1-3 (mars 1992) : 245–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0924-4247(92)80112-g.

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Krumrey, M., E. Tegeler, R. Thornagel et G. Ulm. « Calibration of semiconductor photodiodes as soft x‐ray detectors ». Review of Scientific Instruments 60, n^o 7 (juillet 1989) : 2291–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1140796.

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Sokolov, A., A. Loupilov et V. Gostilo. « Semiconductor Peltier-cooled detectors for x-ray fluorescence analysis ». X-Ray Spectrometry 33, n^o 6 (2004) : 462–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/xrs.744.

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Nogami, M., K. Hitomi, A. Terakawa et K. Ishii. « First in-beam application of thallium bromide semiconductor detectors to particle-induced X-ray emission ». International Journal of PIXE 29, n^o 01n02 (janvier 2019) : 53–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0129083519500153.

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For the first time, particle-induced X-ray emission (PIXE) spectra were obtained using TlBr detectors. The TlBr detector was fabricated from a crystal grown with material purified by the zone purification. Its active volume was 1.5 mm × 1.5 mm × 3.1 mm, and it exhibited an energy resolution of a 6.2 keV full-width at half-maximum (FWHM) for 59.5 keV at room temperature. The detector was installed into a PIXE system at Aomori Prefecture Quantum Science Center. A Pb plate target in the PIXE chamber was irradiated with a 20 MeV proton beam, and X-ray peaks for Pb K[Formula: see text] and K[Formula: see text] were successfully detected by the TlBr detector at room temperature.

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FITRIO, DAVID, SUHARDI TJOA, ANAND MOHAN, RONNY VELJANOVSKI, ANDREW BERRY et GORAN PANJKOVIC. « A CMOS ANALOG INTEGRATED CIRCUIT FOR PIXEL X-RAY DETECTOR ». Journal of Circuits, Systems and Computers 20, n^o 01 (février 2011) : 71–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0218126611007086.

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A front-end read-out application specific integrated circuit (ASIC) for a multichannel pixel X-Ray detector system has been fabricated and tested. The chip provides signal amplification for pixelated compound semiconductors such as Cadmium Telluride ( CdTe ) and Cadmium Zinc Telluride ( CZT ) with either 1 mm or 200 μm pitch. Both the detector (compound semiconductor) and ASIC are combined to target future research applicable to spectroscopic imaging in high intensity X-Ray biomedical detector systems. The ASIC was fabricated in a 0.35 μm process by Austria Microsystems and consists of 32 channels, where each channel contains a charge-sensitive amplifier, a pulse shaper and two further stages of amplification providing an overall gain of 1 mV per kilo electron volt (keV) for photons within the energy range of 30–120 keV. The preamplifier and shaper circuits are designed for both positive and negative charge collection (electrons and holes) produced by the CdTe or CZT detectors. The ASIC's shaper has been designed with a time constant of 100 ns to allow operation at photon rate events above 1 Million photons per pixel per second. The design and characterization of the readout chip will be discussed in this paper presenting results from both the simulated and the fabricated chip.

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Komarskiy, Alexander Alexandrovich, Sergey Romanovich Korzhenevskiy, Andrey Viktorovich Ponomarev et Nikita Alexandrovich Komarov. « Pulsed X-ray source with the pulse duration of 50 ns and the peak power of 70 MW for capturing moving objects ». Journal of X-Ray Science and Technology 29, n^o 4 (27 juillet 2021) : 567–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.3233/xst-210873.

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BACKGROUND: Traditionally, X-ray systems for capturing moving objects consist of a continuous X-ray source and a detector that operates at a predetermined frame rate. OBJECTIVE: This study investigates the possibility of using pulsed X-ray source with an inductive energy storage device and a semiconductor opening switch for shooting moving objects. METHODS: The study uses a high-voltage pulse generator that has the following parameters namely, the pulse voltage amplitude up to 320 kV, the pulse current up to 240 A, the current pulse duration of about 50 ns, and the pulse repetition rate up to 2 kHz. The duration and intensity of glow for standard CsI:Tl and Gd2O2S:Tb X-ray phosphors after their irradiation with X-ray flashes of about 50 ns duration are investigated. After X-ray radiation is converted into light, the signal is recorded using semiconductor detectors. We acquired several images of an object moving at a speed of about 20 m/s. A semiconductor detector with phosphor, which operates in the mode of continuous signal accumulation, is used. RESULTS: When using the pulsed X-ray source and phosphors with a short afterglow, the individual frames can be obtained at the pulse repetition rate of several kilohertz, and the detector does not contain the residual luminescence from the previous frame by the arrival of the next frame. CONCLUSIONS: The X-ray source shows good pulse-to-pulse reproducibility of X-rays, and can be used to capture objects in motion at a frame rate of several kHz.

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Mantler, Michael. « The electronic age : energy-dispersive X-ray analysis and other modern techniques to the present and beyond ». Powder Diffraction 29, n^o 2 (15 mai 2014) : 127–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0885715614000219.

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This paper summarizes an oral presentation of the same title presented at the occasion of recognizing the “The 100th Anniversary of X-ray Spectroscopy” at DXC 2013. It gives an overview of the development in electronics with focus on (mainly) energy-dispersive X-ray detectors and related data processing. Naturally this has its origin in the early transistors and the first semiconductor junction detectors of the late 1940s. It was followed by refinement of semiconductor detector technology in general and particularly by the invention of Li-drifting and employment of low-noise field effect transistors until such devices matured sufficiently to be marketed by the late 1960s. Further improvement followed in resolution, speed, operability at room temperature, and development of junction arrays with imaging capabilities. An important aspect is the development of related software requiring affordable laboratory computers, programming languages, and databases of fundamental parameters. Today x-ray fluorescence analysis (and not only the energy-dispersive variant) is widely employed as an analytical tool for the traditional technical and industrial applications but notably also, at an expanding rate as well as variety, in other fields including environmental, medical, archaeological, space, arts, and many more.

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Cantor, Robin, et Hideo Naito. « Practical X-ray Spectrometry with Second-Generation Microcalorimeter Detectors ». Microscopy Today 20, n^o 4 (juillet 2012) : 38–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1551929512000429.

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X-ray spectroscopy is a widely used and extremely sensitive analytical technique for qualitative as well as quantitative elemental analysis. Typically, high-energy-resolution X-ray spectrometers are integrated with a high-spatial-resolution scanning electron microscope (SEM) or transmission electron microscope (TEM) for X-ray microanalysis applications. The focused electron beam of the SEM or TEM excites characteristic X rays that are emitted by the sample. The integrated X-ray spectrometer can then be used to identify and quantify the elemental composition of the sample on a sub-micron length scale. This combination of energy resolution and spatial resolution makes X-ray microanalysis of great importance to the semiconductor industry.

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Martinis, John M., K. D. Irwin, D. A. Wollman, G. C. Hilton, L. L. Dulcie et N. F. Bergren. « The Next Generation of EDS : Microcalorimeter Eds With 3 eV Energy Resolution ». Microscopy and Microanalysis 4, S2 (juillet 1998) : 172–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1431927600020985.

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Semiconductor energy dispersive spectrometers (EDS), the most commonly used detectors for x-ray microanalysis, have matured to the point that significant improvement in energy resolution is not expected in the future. We believe a revolutionary advance in x-ray microanalysis will occur in the next few years due to the development of new x-ray spectrometers based on microcalorimeters. Energy resolution comparable with wavelength dispersive spectrometers, 3 eV to 10 eV, has already been achieved; future detectors may reach a fundamental limit as low as 0.5 eV to 1 eV.In a microcalorimeter, the energy of an x-ray is converted into heat, and a measurement of the temperature rise of the detector gives the deposited photon energy. Our microcalorimeter detector consists of a superconducting transition edge thermometer cooled to an operating temperature of 100 mK by a compact adiabatic demagnetization refrigerator, a read-out SQUID (Superconducting Quantum Interference Device) preamplifier followed by pulse-shaping amplifier and pile-up rejection circuitry, and a multi-channel analyzer with real-time computer interface.

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Smolniakov, V. I., et I. A. Koltun. « Decomposition Spectrometric Data of Energy Dispersive X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis (EDXRF) ». Advances in X-ray Analysis 35, B (1991) : 743–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1154/s0376030800012933.

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AbstractIt is well-known that in EDXRF, using high-resolution semiconductor detectors, evaluation of x-ray fluorescence radiation line intensities from multiplex spectrometric information represents definite difficulties, especially in automation of measurement-calculation procedures.A common spectrum decomposition problem is to get the following parameters: a number of spectral lines and their centroids, intensities from measured experimental data and their errors.We have developed special software for solving this problem using personal computers and high-level programming language C. It uses profiles of real-form lines of pure chemical elements produced by semiconductor detector spectrometers and these techniques: digital filters with parameters for suppression of background, multiplex structure analysis, and stable linear least-squares fit to get peak intensities. Also it established special criteria for reliability of the results.We compared our investigation with software “EDXRF” (ver.1.32) arid spectrum decomposition with Gaussian peaks.

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Shams, H., H. Abou Gabal, M. Soliman, S. Ebrahim et S. Agamy. « Development of CdS/CdTe Diode for X-Ray Sensor ». WSEAS TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS 19 (14 janvier 2021) : 268–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.37394/23201.2020.19.29.

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Many methods are used to detect x-ray are incapable of accounting for the high x-ray flux generated by modern x-ray Instruments. The major technology for measurement of x-ray dose rate in real time is the ionizing chambers detectors, but it has some disadvantages like complexity. Also it has large size due to the importance of gas volume and pressure, high voltages, signal cables, and other specialized parts needed for its operation. Advances in the technology of CdTe semiconductor in solar cells industries allow the development of an inexpensive and compact solid-state X-ray sensor. As X-ray photons pass through the diode, the photoelectric effect produces a photocurrent. The X-ray flux can be determined from this current. Four stacked diodes were connected in series to measure the device performance. It was observed that amplitude of the pulse formed due to exposed FTO/CdS/CdTe/Mo detector to X-ray of 33 keV and 1mA intensity is 1.03 V

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Chee Hing Tan, R. B. Gomes, J. P. R. David, A. M. Barnett, D. J. Bassford, J. E. Lees et Jo Shien Ng. « Avalanche Gain and Energy Resolution of Semiconductor X-ray Detectors ». IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices 58, n^o 6 (juin 2011) : 1696–701. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/ted.2011.2121915.

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Ross, S., G. Zentai, K. S. Shah, R. W. Alkire, I. Naday et E. M. Westbrook. « Amorphous silicon, semiconductor X-ray converter detectors for protein crystallography ». Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A : Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment 399, n^o 1 (novembre 1997) : 38–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0168-9002(97)00793-6.

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Manolopoulos, S., R. Bates, M. Campbell, W. Snoeys, E. Heijne, E. Pernigotti, C. Raine et al. « X-ray imaging with photon counting hybrid semiconductor pixel detectors ». Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A : Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment 434, n^o 1 (septembre 1999) : 38–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0168-9002(99)00430-1.

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Fedotov, M. G., E. A. Kuper, V. E. Panchenko et S. A. Tiunov. « Spatial distortions in solid-state semiconductor X-ray imaging detectors ». Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A : Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment 308, n^o 1-2 (octobre 1991) : 427–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0168-9002(91)90686-k.

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Smith, Paul, John Gannon et Frank Eggert. « New Technologies for Microanalysis and Element Imaging in THJ Scanning Electron Microscope ». Microscopy and Microanalysis 7, S2 (août 2001) : 884–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s143192760003049x.

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RÖNTEC’s UHV Dewar detectors have established new standards for high resolution, lowmaintenance, low operating cost, and reliability in Si(Li) X-ray detectors. Now, the recently introduced XFlash® series X-ray detectors are enabling new methodologies for microanalysis and element imaging in the SEM. These detectors are compact, liquid-nitrogen-free semiconductor Xray detectors that are based on Silicon Drift Diode (SDD) technology. XFlash detectors produce extraordinarily high count rates with excellent energy resolution and have introduced ultra-fast microanalysis and element mapping to the SEM world. The addition of color to SEM images enables easy visualization of element distributions and allows the microstructural features and compositional variations of different materials to be more readily identified. Persons unfamiliar with electron microscopy can more readily interpret color images than black and white or gray scale images. This new technology has great potential to revolutionize electron microscopy.RÖNTEC’s UHV Dewar Detector offers the highest long-term stability and best energy resolution ever specified for a commercial Si(Li) detector (less than 129 eV). The UHV design leads to small size and weight (for reduced column loading) along with extremely low nitrogen consumption and low susceptibility to microphonics. The UHV detector never ices up and thus never requires defrosting or warm-ups. It is available with a variety of entrance windows for light element analysis.

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Boiko, Michael E., et Andrei M. Boiko. « Advantages in the Small-Angle Scattering of X-Ray for Studying Optoelectronic Devices within the Frames of ISTC Projects ». Key Engineering Materials 437 (mai 2010) : 641–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/kem.437.641.

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The project ISTC “SPECTROMETRIC POSITION SENSITIVE DETECTOR WITH BASE ENERGY SHIFT” is interesting for creation new area semiconductor detector device for EXAFS spectroscopy, for traditional X-ray diffractometry (XRD), as well as Small-Angle X-ray Scattering diffractometry (SASX). Diffractometry methods allow creating original features of position sensitive detector. Crystallography quality of silicon multi layer detector with original photo mask was examined by XRD and SAXS with ordinary scintillation detectors. Grazed incidence SAXS (GISAXS) provides information both about lateral and normal ordering of multilayers at a surface or inside a thin epitaxial film [1]. Using high-energy X-ray source (rotating anode or synchrotron radiation in future) and high adjustment monochromator SAXS rocking curves in transition and reflection mode had been received. It allows obtaining the information of 3D size lamellar or column-like domains. Results of an experimental investigation of the size layer structure are presented.

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Desjardins, Kewin, Kadda Medjoubi, Maurizio Sacchi, Horia Popescu, Roland Gaudemer, Rachid Belkhou, Stefan Stanescu et al. « Backside-illuminated scientific CMOS detector for soft X-ray resonant scattering and ptychography ». Journal of Synchrotron Radiation 27, n^o 6 (26 octobre 2020) : 1577–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/s160057752001262x.

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The impressive progress in the performance of synchrotron radiation sources is nowadays driven by the so-called `ultimate storage ring' projects which promise an unprecedented improvement in brightness. Progress on the detector side has not always been at the same pace, especially as far as soft X-ray 2D detectors are concerned. While the most commonly used detectors are still based on microchannel plates or CCD technology, recent developments of CMOS (complementary metal oxide semiconductor)-type detectors will play an ever more important role as 2D detectors in the soft X-ray range. This paper describes the capabilities and performance of a camera equipped with a newly commercialized backside-illuminated scientific CMOS (sCMOS-BSI) sensor, integrated in a vacuum environment, for soft X-ray experiments at synchrotron sources. The 4 Mpixel sensor reaches a frame rate of up to 48 frames s−1 while matching the requirements for X-ray experiments in terms of high-intensity linearity (>98%), good spatial homogeneity (<1%), high charge capacity (up to 80 ke−), and low readout noise (down to 2 e− r.m.s.) and dark current (3 e− per second per pixel). Performance evaluations in the soft X-ray range have been carried out at the METROLOGIE beamline of the SOLEIL synchrotron. The quantum efficiency, spatial resolution (24 line-pairs mm−1), energy resolution (<100 eV) and radiation damage versus the X-ray dose (<600 Gy) have been measured in the energy range from 40 to 2000 eV. In order to illustrate the capabilities of this new sCMOS-BSI sensor, several experiments have been performed at the SEXTANTS and HERMES soft X-ray beamlines of the SOLEIL synchrotron: acquisition of a coherent diffraction pattern from a pinhole at 186 eV, a scattering experiment from a nanostructured Co/Cu multilayer at 767 eV and ptychographic imaging in transmission at 706 eV.

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Xie, Honglan, Hongxin Luo, Guohao Du, Chengqiang Zhao, Wendong Xu, Guangzhao Zhou, Rongchang Chen et Tiqiao Xiao. « High-efficiency fast X-ray imaging detector development at SSRF ». Journal of Synchrotron Radiation 26, n^o 5 (23 août 2019) : 1631–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/s1600577519010075.

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Indirect X-ray imaging detectors consisting of scintillator screens, long-working-distance microscope lenses and scientific high-speed complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) cameras are usually used to realize fast X-ray imaging with white-beam synchrotron radiation. However, the detector efficiency is limited by the coupling efficiency of the long-working-distance microscope lenses, which is only about 5%. A long-working-distance microscope lenses system with a large numerical aperture (NA) is designed to increase the coupling efficiency. It offers an NA of 0.5 at 8× magnification. The Mitutoyo long-working-distance microscope lenses system offers an NA of 0.21 at 7.5× magnification. Compared with the Mitutoyo system, the developed long-working-distance microscope lenses system offers about twice the NA and four times the coupling efficiency. In the indirect X-ray imaging detector, a 50 µm-thick LuAG:Ce scintillator matching with the NA, and a high-speed visible-light CMOS FastCAM SAZ Photron camera are used. Test results show that the detector realized fast X-ray imaging with a frame rate of 100000 frames s−1 and fast X-ray microtomography with a temporal sampling rate up to 25 Hz (25 tomograms s−1).

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Abbene, L., G. Gerardi et F. Principato. « Real time digital pulse processing for X-ray and gamma ray semiconductor detectors ». Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A : Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment 730 (décembre 2013) : 124–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nima.2013.04.053.

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Adams, Bernhard W., Anil U. Mane, Jeffrey W. Elam, Razib Obaid, Matthew Wetstein et Matthieu Chollet. « Towards a microchannel-based X-ray detector with two-dimensional spatial and time resolution and high dynamic range ». Journal of Synchrotron Radiation 22, n^o 5 (15 juillet 2015) : 1202–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/s1600577515010322.

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X-ray detectors that combine two-dimensional spatial resolution with a high time resolution are needed in numerous applications of synchrotron radiation. Most detectors with this combination of capabilities are based on semiconductor technology and are therefore limited in size. Furthermore, the time resolution is often realised through rapid time-gating of the acquisition, followed by a slower readout. Here, a detector technology is realised based on relatively inexpensive microchannel plates that uses GHz waveform sampling for a millimeter-scale spatial resolution and better than 100 ps time resolution. The technology is capable of continuous streaming of time- and location-tagged events at rates greater than 107events per cm2. Time-gating can be used for improved dynamic range.

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Czub, Joanna, Janusz Braziewicz, Marcin Brodecki, Wojciech Gieszczyk, Mariusz Kłosowski, Adam Wasilewski, Paweł Wołowiec, Andrzej Wójcik et Anna Wysocka-Rabin. « CALIBRATION OF LOW ENERGY X-RAY EXPERIMENTAL SETUP WITH STRONGLY FILTERED BEAM USING DATA FROM A SEMICONDUCTOR AND A THERMOLUMINESCENT DETECTORS ». Radiation Protection Dosimetry 185, n^o 2 (9 janvier 2019) : 266–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/rpd/ncy291.

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Abstract The calibration of low energy X-ray experimental setup with strongly filtered beam dedicated to radiobiological research was performed using the absorbed dose calculated from the data collected by two types detectors. For this purpose a semiconductor (Amptek, USA) and a thermoluminescent (Institute of Nuclear Physics, Krakow, Poland) detectors were applied. The absorbed dose in water values estimated by both detectors are in good agreement.

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