Littérature scientifique sur le sujet « Women household employees – France – History »

<p>The Added Worker Effect (AWE) refers to an increase in the labor supply of secondary earners in a household in response to a decrease in the income of the primary earner. Most empirical research on the AWE has focused on increases in the labor force participation of married women when their husbands experience unemployment spells, but recent government-mandated decreases in standard hours in several European countries provide an alternative source of exogenous decreases in the work hours of married men. Empirical research in evaluating the effectiveness of such policy, mostly investigated the impact on the workers who were directly affected by the policy. A model of household decision making suggests that work hour restrictions without full wage compensation should have spillover effects on the labor supply of other household members, but little is known about this possible spillover effect. This is the first attempt which empirically investigates the existence of AWE using mandatory reduction in standard working hours in France (<em>Aubry’s Law 1998</em>) as a natural experiment. The results show that the exogenous reduction in standard work hours for husbands does not lead to any unemployment to employment transition of wives but increases the number of hours worked by wives who are already in the market and are not affected by the law themselves. It is also found that in terms of hours worked, AWE is more prominent in low income families and for families with more members as family size is positively correlated with the degree of credit constraint.</p>

Demographic, social, and empowerment factors associated with attitudes toward intimate partner violence (IPV) were investigated in a random sample of women (n = 5,029) aged 15–49 years in Zambia. Data was retrieved from the Zambia Demographic and Health Survey 2001–2002 (2003). The findings indicated demographic, social, and structural differences in attitudes toward IPV. Married/previously married and less educated women, employees in the agricultural sector, and women with a history of IPV were more likely to tolerate IPV. In addition, structurally disempowered women (i.e., women lacking access to information and autonomy in household decisions) were more likely to justify IPV than more-empowered peers. Most variables remained significant even when possible confounding was adjusted for using a logistic regression. The findings are discussed and implications for prevention as well as methodological issues considered.

The article discusses the book Forgotten Personnel. Female labor on the railways of the Russian Empire, written by V. A. Serdiuk. This book belongs to the popular scholarly trend of “gender history,” but it is not only a work on the history of women on the railways and an analysis of their work experience. The book is equally a study of the history of Russian railways in general: the author, using new data, presents a fresh look at the development of Russian railways from 1838 to 1917. The strength of the work is the presence in each of chapter of a separate paragraph on the development of the same “gender” processes on foreign railroads, especially in the USA, Great Britain, France, and Germany. This allows us to better understand Russian problems. The monograph shows that “in terms of the number of female employees and the degree of their involvement in railway activities”, Russia was second only to France. At the same time, the article presents some comments. First of all, there is insufficient analysis of the period of Nicholas II, especially the First World War. Although general trends are shown, such as the increase in the number of women employed in the railways, nevertheless, a number of aspects require further and more detailed study. This is especially important for the railways located in the theater of military operations. However, the monograph by V. A. Serdiuk is largely a pioneering work that significantly expands our understanding of the problem.

Atlantic sugar production and European sugar consumption rose dramatically in the late eighteenth century. Despite this increase, there were two separate calls to refrain from consuming sugar in both Britain and France at the end of the eighteenth century. Demands for abstinence were directed toward women to stop household consumption of sugar. In Britain, abolitionists urged women to stop buying West Indian sugar because it was a slave good, produced on plantations where enslaved Africans were subject to cruelty and where mortality rates were high. In France, the call to forego sugar came during the early years of the Revolution of 1789, in response to rising sugar prices. The women of Paris were asked to refrain from buying sugar at high prices that were assumed to be a result of market manipulation by speculators and hoarders engaging in anti-revolutionary behavior. The increase in Parisian sugar prices was not driven primarily by profiteering, but by a global shortage caused by the slave revolt in the French colony of Saint-Domingue, now Haiti. Comparing these two sugar boycotts, one in Britain, the other in France, provides an opportunity outside of national historical narratives to consider how both events employed the same technique for very different aims. The call to renounce sugar in both cases used economic pressure to create political change. An exploration of these movements for abstinence will provide a better understanding of how they critiqued consumption, and translated discourses, both abolitionist and revolutionary, into practice.

There has long been speculation about Anna of Denmark's faith. How and when the consort of King James VI and I came first to use the Catholic liturgy and then to convert from Lutheranism is explained here in detail. Powerful women within the queen's household were crucial to this change of faith, which gave hope to Catholics that Anna might convert her children and persuade the king to be more tolerant towards them in his multiple kingdoms. Even though these hopes were unrealised, the possibility is explored that she sought to found a monastery in France. That she had remained Catholic during such a turbulent era in British religious history is remarkable.

AbstractUsing data from Understanding Society and the British Household Panel Survey, this article explores the relationship between working part-time and progression out of low pay for male and female employees using a discrete-time event history model. The results show that working part-time relative to full-time decreases the likelihood of progression out of low pay, defined as earning below two-thirds of the median hourly wage. However, part-time workers who transition to full-time employment experience similar rates of progression to full-time workers. This casts doubt on the idea that part-time workers have lower progression rates because they have lower abilities or work motivation and reinforces the need to address the quality of part-time jobs in the UK labour market. The negative effect of working part-time is greater for men than for women, although women are more at risk of becoming trapped in low pay in the sense that they tend to work part-time for longer periods of time, particularly if they have children. Factors such as childcare policy and Universal Credit (UC) incentivise part-time employment for certain groups, although in the right labour market conditions UC may encourage some part-time workers to increase their working hours.

Women as amanuenses have played an important role in early British geology. Among their varied tasks often was the sketching and drawing of fossils, landscape and outcrops. Such drawings served several purposes. They were used to give an idea of landscape and outcrops in publications or to figure new species in palaeontological papers, but they also served as proxies for individual fossils in dialogues conducted by means of letters. Mary Anning used them to advertise new finds to potential buyers, while Mary Buckland painted huge displays to be used in her husband's lectures. Drawing was part of the education of ‘accomplished’ British women in the early nineteenth century. Like music, embroidery and dancing, drawing was often taught in special schools or academies, sometimes by quite competent artists. Other women, however, such as Mrs Mantell, were self-taught or had to familiarise themselves with new techniques, learning to do line engravings and how to make lithographs in order to illustrate her husband's books more cheaply. In Germany or France, by comparison, the ability to draw was less central to girls' education, who in Germany at least were expected instead to excel in cooking, knitting and other household duties. But even there, an amateur palaeontologist might fall back on the assistance of his daughter, when he needed someone to illustrate his letters with drawings of specimens.

The agricultural sector is a strategic economic component that has importance at micro level in the sense of meeting basic food needs and being the main supplier of other sectors and at macro level in the sense of creating employment and increasing national income. In this context, the agricultural sector can directly shape the labor market with its employment dimension and be affected by the dynamics of the labor market. This study was conducted to determine the structural and characteristic features of the agricultural sector in the labor market in Turkey. Within the scope of the study, micro dataset of the 2019 Household Labor Force Survey of Turkish Statistical Institute was used. The findings indicated that 18.2% of those employed in Turkey were active in the agricultural sector and women were working in agriculture more than other sectors. A significant portion of those employed in the agricultural sector work in small-scale enterprises (the rate of enterprises with less than ten employees: 96.4%). In the study, it was also determined that the unpaid family worker (46.1%), unregistered (86.6%), part-time (24%), and temporary work (71.1%) status of those working in the agricultural sector were significantly higher compared to general employment. Agricultural production is made mostly in Black Sea Region and at least in Istanbul. Average income of agricultural laborers is quite low compared to general employment. The average incomes of male and female workers also differ significantly. This difference is more evident against women working in the agricultural sector. Keywords: Agricultural Sector, Employment, Labor market

The Knitting Factory “Jarlan” in Jarosław was established in 1972, when the country’s economy was centrally controlled. Initially, “Jarlan” comprised of four smaller plants, but in the process of shifting to market economy some of them were closed as they proved unprofitable. In 1992, the Factory was turned into a sole shareholder company of the Treasury. Subsequently, together with other companies in the clothing – knitting field, “Jarlan” became a part of the “Próchnik” holding, and in 2002 the controlling interest was purchased by Krzysztof Dajczak.Due to the nature of its production, women prevail among “Jarlan’s” employees. In the 1980’s, out of 3000 people employed, two-thirds were women. During the transformation period, employment was reduced to 982 people, 199 men and 783 women, which constituted only 28% of the 1980 employment level. The year 2000 was a breakthrough for “Jarlan”, which resulted from the difficulties that the “Próchnik” holding, to which the Factory belonged, was going through. The number of finished articles dropped significantly and the sales profits were the lowest in the company’s entire history – 11 million of estimated losses. Measures were undertaken to regain “Jarlan’s” financial fluency and its position on the market through winning new customers, especially abroad. As soon as 2002, the profits amounted to 1mln. Presently, the Knitting Factory “Jarlan” is an international company, selling their turtlenecks, round-neck sweaters, vests, cardigans and tunics mainly to England, Spain, Germany and France. Due to high quality products and varied sets of patterns and colours, the company is extremely competitive, which has been recognized by Polish customers as well.

In Sweden — as in other European countries - the question of tax deduction of domestic services is being discussed. The argument is that the high taxes in Sweden hinder the growth of a märket for domestic services. By introducing tax deductions prices would be lowered and the demand for such services would increase. This would in turn enhance employment and transform "black märket work" into regular employment. It would also further gender equality since women who could buy domestic services would spend less time performing household work and more on paid work or a career. However, in all countries domestic services are usually performed outside the regular terms of employment, i.e. neither taxes nor social security is paid. This is true whether taxes are high as for example in Germany or low as in the U.S. But the people doing this kind of work probably differ between countries. In Germany it is common that "housewives" do domestic work for pay in other peoples' homes and in the U.S. such work is often done by unregistered immigrants. The number of unregistered immigrants performing domestic work is probably growing in European countries. The large märket for domestic services in Germany can not be seen as a sign of a high degree of gender equality, but rather the reverse. Since there have been limited employment opportunities for women on the regular labour märket, domestic work outside the regular labour märket has provided an alternative. In the U.S. a märket for domestic services is presumably a result of big income differences in general. Women in high-income households can employ a person in their home at a very low wage. But in the very top positions in the private sector there are hardly any women in the U.S. as in Sweden. It is possible however, that there is a greater proportion of women managers in the private sector on lower levels in the U.S. than in Sweden. The reason is not necessarily that there are more female managers in general in the U.S. than in Sweden, but rather that the work women do - for example in hospitals - in the U.S. is done in the private sector and in Sweden in the public sector. Tax deductions have been introduced in several European countries. However, besides France, this has had very little effect on employment and black märket labour. In France subsidies have transformed black märket jobs into regular employment, which means that these employees have become part of the social security system. But it also means that high-income groups are subsidised and the costs have been high for the taxpayers. The subsidies were lowered in 1998. In Sweden the black märket for domestic services is probably quite small compared to many other countries, but it is growing. One current proposal is tax deduction of domestic services performed in the home, another is also tax deductions of services provided outside the home such as restaurants, dry cleaners, etc. This second proposal would mean that not only people with high incomes, but also those with quite low incomes could benefit, since most people for example at least some times eat in a restaurant. However, it is debatable whether this is the best way to transform black märket jobs into regular employment, to further employment or gender equality.

Bibliography: pages 233-248.
This dissertation seeks to examine an area of South African historiography which has largely been ignored, that is, domestic labour. It posits a relationship between working class women, domestic labour paid and unpaid. The material has been arranged around the primary objective of examining the silence around domestic labour and highlighting the gender content of domestic work. It is divided into two parts. The first part examines the conceptualization of class and gender struggles, while the second part examines aspects of working class women's experience of this. Chapter One deals with why women have been ignored in recorded history; Chapter Two examines Marxist approaches to the Woman Question. Chapter Three examines the silence arourid women's experience in South African historiography, while Chapter Four is a critical examination of the recorded history of domestic workers. Chapter Five examines aspects of black working class women's experience of domestic labour in their own families, while Chapter Six documents the experience of a group of organized workers in Cape Town. The study concludes that the way forward is to develop a gender sensitive class analysis as outlined in the work of Lise Vogel. This will open up new areas for research, for example, the rise of the public and private dichotomy, the separation of productive and reproductive labour, the ideology of motherhood and sexuality as well as the changing nature of the social construction of gender identity.

Els més recents estudis sobre els canvis en l’estructura ocupacional en els processos d’industrialització han qüestionat les teories generals sobre la contribució dels diferents sectors al creixement econòmic, donant nova rellevància al sector serveis. Tal com s’ha assenyalat en diversos estudis, si poguéssim superar el tradicional subregistre del treball femení aquesta importància encara seria més elevada. Aquesta línia de recerca ha contribuït a donar un nou impuls a l’interès per l’estudi del sector serveis, que ha tingut una importància i una anàlisi menor per part de la història econòmica i social; com a conseqüència, també s’ha atorgat rellevància a un millor coneixement del servei domèstic. Aquesta tesi té com a objectiu contribuir a un millor coneixement del sector des de l’estudi del servei domèstic a la ciutat de Barcelona entre el 1900 i el 1950. En ella s’analitzen els canvis de l’estructura intrasectorial i de la composició de gènere de la mà d’obra emprada en aquest sector; el paper de l’Estat i de les associacions obreres en els canvis en l’estructura ocupacional del sector o de les condicions laborals i de protecció sociolaboral. Veurem com la diversitat d’oficis i professions que havien conformat el servei domèstic durant el període preindustrial havia anat desapareixent progressivament al llarg dels segles XVIII i XIX. Així al segle XX s’estava consolidant la pèrdua d’heterogeneïtat del sector reduint-se a la figura de la “noia a tot estar” capaç de realitzar múltiples tasques domèstiques i de cura, perdent, en aquest procés, valor, tant en condicions laborals com en estatus social. D’aquesta manera, també s’estava completant el procés de feminització que, alhora, estava contribuint a precaritzar aquest sector econòmic empitjorant la seva posició social dins del mercat de treball barceloní. Així mateix, s’analitza la formació del mercat de treball del servei domèstic, l’origen sociodemogràfic dels seus treballadors i treballadores i el funcionament de l’esmentat mercat a través de les institucions i els mecanismes intermediaris entre l’oferta i la demanda de servei domèstic. Alhora, s’estudien també les condicions salarials i laborals, així com l’associacionisme de diferent signe i la posició dels diferents actors socials (Estat, sindicats, patronal i treballadors/es domèstics) davant la situació del servei domèstic. Per realitzar aquest treball he utilitzat diferents fonts de caràcter heterogeni per tal d’encaixar-les i aproximar-me a la situació d’un grup laboral que disposa de poques fonts de caràcter homogeni. En aquest sentit, en primer lloc, he realitzat un recorregut per les lleis i normatives que afectaven el servei domèstic, la jurisprudència emesa pels tribunals i les anàlisis realitzades per la doctrina jurídica. En segon lloc, s’ha analitzat la variada documentació de diverses institucions públiques i privades (Ajuntament, Diputació de Barcelona, Diòcesi de Barcelona, Escola Popular de la Dona, etc.) així com la informació estadística emesa per alguns d’aquests organismes. Així mateix, els Censos Nacionals de Població, complementats amb altre tipus d’informació estadística (padrons, estadístiques emeses per organismes locals, etc.), m’han permès examinar l’estructura del sector domèstic. En tercer lloc, la premsa, tant la burgesa com l’obrera, ha estat central en aquest treball. Així doncs, s’han buidat exhaustivament els diaris La Vanguardia i Solidaridad Obrera. Finalment, també he buidat els expedients judicials conservats de les demandes presentades pel servei domèstic davant dels tribunals de caràcter laboral (tribunals industrials i magistratures de treball). En definitiva, durant la primera meitat del segle XX, a diferència del que succeïa durant el període preindustrial –on en el sector convivien homes i dones amb diversitat d’edats i orígens socials–, el servei domèstic barceloní concentrava noies joves de classes populars que arribaven a un sector econòmic que s’havia anat precaritzant: desregulat normativament, desatès sindicalment i amb males condicions salarials i laborals, s’havia empitjorat la seva posició en el mercat de treball urbà barceloní. Analitzar aquest sector històricament permet observar com aquesta situació va consolidar unes condicions que contribueixen a explicar l’actual fragilitat d’aquest sector econòmic, tal com mostren les darreres dades de l’OIT.
This thesis aims to contribute to a better knowledge of the domestic sector in the city of Barcelona between 1900 and 1950. It analyses the changes in the structure and composition of the workforce employed in this sector; the role of the state and trade unions in changes in the occupational structure of the sector, working conditions and labour protection. We see how the variety of professions that the domestic service had featured during preindustrial period gradually faded over the 19th and 20th centuries. Therefore, in the 20th century there was no occupational diversity and the figure of "all girl being" [noia a tot estar; chica para todo] was widespread. These domestic servants were able to perform all sorts of chores, but the de-specialisation process involved the decrease in their labour and social status. Thus, the feminization process was completed, which contributed to make the domestic sector more precarious and worsened its social position in the labour market of Barcelona. Likewise, we analyse the socio-demographic origin of domestic workers, the formation of the domestic labour market and how this market worked through institutions and intermediary mechanisms between supply and demand. Similarly labour conditions, wages and the role of associations, trade unions and employers in the domestic service are also studied. Heterogeneous sources have been used. Firstly, the thesis studies the laws and regulations that affected the domestic service. Secondly, it analyses documents from several public and private institutions (Barcelona City Council, Barcelona Provincial Council, Diocese of Barcelona, etc.) as well as statistical information issued by some of these organisations. Besides, the National Census of Population, combined with other statistical sources (registers, statistics issued by local organisations, etc.), has allowed to examine the structure of the domestic sector. Thirdly, the press issued by bourgeois and working-class organisations has been crucial in this thesis. Finally, the requests brought before the labour tribunals (industrial tribunals and labour tribunals) have been analysed.

Defence date: 14 November 2016
Examining Board: Professeur Laura Downs, EUI (Directrice de thèse EUI); Professeur Lucy Riall, EUI; Professeur Raffaella Sarti, Università degli Studi di Urbino « Carlo Bò »; Professeur Anne Verjus, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon.
Thesis in two volumes.
First made available online on 9 March 2017
Extraite des Souvenirs de Victor Ogier sur un industriel lyonnais, Camille Dognin -ici le « malheureux », cette citation résume en quelques lignes plusieurs problématiques liées à la domesticité : rencontre entre classes sociales antagonistes, mise en exergue de la dimension économique de l'unité familiale, potentielles reconfigurations des relations affectives... Sur l'ensemble des XIXe et du XXe siècles, la domesticité, pour les femmes et pour les hommes, constitue un statut professionnel omniprésent, aussi bien en ville qu'en milieu rural. Elle met en contact direct les classes populaires, le haut des classes moyennes, et les classes dominantes dans des relations de travail. A l'heure actuelle, la recherche, surtout en sociologie, s'intéresse particulièrement au caractère direct de ces relations de travail, entre employeur.e.s « amateurs » et employé.e.s professionnel.le.s, à la formation de cet « autre monde populaire », aux tensions liées aux rapports sociaux de genre et de race. Le travail domestique rémunéré demeure une thématique féministe : pourquoi est-il exercé massivement par des femmes ? Quelle est sa valeur ? Quelle est sa place dans le fonctionnement des migrations contemporaines ? Quel rôle a-t-il dans la définition des identités et des rapports sociaux ?