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1
Zwolsman, J. J. G., et A. J. van Bokhoven. « Impact of summer droughts on water quality of the Rhine River - a preview of climate change ? » Water Science and Technology 56, no 4 (1 août 2007) : 45–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2007.535.
Texte intégralRésumé :
It is generally recognized that climate change will affect the discharge regime of the Rhine River. Especially the anticipated increase in extreme river discharges (floods and droughts) poses serious problems to water management, both with regard to water quantity and water quality. Water quality effects of climate change are not sufficiently recognized, however. The purpose of this study is to investigate the impact of droughts on the water quality of the River Rhine. Time series of river flow and water quality were analyzed for station Lobith, located at the Dutch-German border. Over the past three decades, three major droughts were identified, occurring in the years 1976, 1991, and 2003. The water quality during these dry years was compared with the water quality in reference years, characterized by average hydrological conditions and similar chemical pollution. Four groups of water quality parameters were investigated: 1, general variables (water temperature, dissolved oxygen, chlorophyll-a); 2, major ions (chloride, sodium, sulfate, fluoride, bromide); 3, nutrients; and 4, heavy metals. It was found that water quality is negatively influenced by (summer) droughts, with respect to water temperature, eutrophication, major ions and heavy metals. Effects on nutrient concentrations were small for ammonium and could not be demonstrated for nitrate, nitrite and phosphate. The decline in water quality during summer droughts is both related to the high water temperatures and to low river discharges (limited dilution of the chemical load from point sources). Moreover, the impact of the 1976 drought on water quality was far more important than that of the 2003 drought, indicating that the impact of droughts on water quality will be greater when the water quality is already poor.
2
Benoist, Alfred P., et Gerard H. Broseliske. « Water Quality Prognosis and Cost Analysis of Pollution Abatement Measures in the Rhine Basin (The River Rhine Project : Ever) ». Water Science and Technology 29, no 3 (1 février 1994) : 95–106. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1994.0072.
Texte intégralRésumé :
For priority pollutants, the international Rhine Action Programme (RAP) aims to meet the quality objectives for the Rhine, set by the International Rhine Commission (IRC), by the year 2000. An assessment must be carried out to define additional measures exceeding best available technology (BAT) for point sources and best environmental practice (BEP) for diffuse sources for those priority pollutants still violating the quality objectives of the Rhine after implementing BAT and BEP only. To carry out the required assessments, an excessive amount of work and money is needed, including the application of sophisticated calculation models. For prioritizing reasons, the Institute for Inland Water Management and Waste Water Treatment (RIZA) initiated a project called EVER, which was conducted by DHV Water BV. EVER is the abbreviation of the Dutch equivalent for Effective Distribution of Emission Reductions (Effective Verdeling van Emissie Reducties). The aim of this project is to carry out a first and crude evaluation of the impact of abatement measures (BAT and BEP), as set by the IRC for the period 1985-1995. For those pollutants still showing a violation of the quality objectives for the Rhine in the year 1995, a range finding method is used, to predict the costs and impact of abatement measures exceeding BAT and BEP on the water quality of the Rhine. So, EVER is a management tool to prioritize the work to be done within the frame-work of the IRC, triggering the application of e.g. sophisticated calculation models for a selected number of priority pollutants. In EVER, the prognosis of the reduction of specific discharge rates for approximately forty priority pollutants is given for twelve sub-catchment areas for the year 1995. This prognosis is used to predict concentrations at eight international monitoring locations in the Rhine basin, using the discharges and concentrations of the year 1985 as a reference. The predicted concentrations for the year 1995 are compared with the (preliminary) water quality objectives as set by the IRC. The results indicate, that for six of the selected pollutants the number of available data is too small for sound predictions. Fifteen of the selected pollutants will satisfy the water quality objectives in 1995. Twenty (half) of the selected pollutants will still violate the quality objectives at several monitoring locations. These twenty pollutants are the basis for priorities to be set within the frame-work of the IRC for phase 3 (1995-2000) of the RAP. For these pollutants, additional abatement measures exceeding BAT and BEP are selected in EVER for the manageable groups of sources (anthropogenic non-point sources, industrial sources and municipal sources). Each measure is analyzed separately for costs and effectiveness. Finally the results of this project are integrated into a matrix system which will enable us to select the most effective mix of pollution abatement measures at the lowest costs. The result of the selected additional measures exceeding BAT and BEP shows that 17 pollutants will still violate the quality objectives.
3
Tonderski, A., A. Grimvall, K. Sundblad et P. Stålnacke. « An East-West perspective on riverine loads of nutrients in the Vistula and Rhine basins ». Water Science and Technology 30, no 5 (1 septembre 1994) : 121–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1994.0230.
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Measures proposed to reduce the load of nutrients to the Baltic Sea focus on the removal of point emissions through introduction of environmental technology in the eastern and southern parts of the drainage basin. This article draws attention to the mixed success of Western European river basin management by comparing water quality trends and turnover of nutrients in the Vistula and Rhine basins. Removal of point sources in the Rhine basin has caused a marked drop in the concentrations of phosphorus and ammonium nitrogen, whereas the long-term upward trend in the concentration of nitrate was broken only recently. As compared to the Vistula river, the Rhine is still in some respects more polluted. Expressed as area-specific export, the riverine load of nitrate from the Vistula basin is only about one sixth of that of the Rhine basin. The area-specific export of phosphorus is comparatively higher in the Vistula, but still only half of that of the Rhine. In addition to the lower input of nutrients in the Eastern European agriculture, the much lower runoff in the Vistula basin is an important explanation to the observed differences. Furthermore, in-stream processes, such as sedimentation of phosphorus, play an important role.
4
Gerhardt, A., L. Janssens de Bisthoven et E. Penders. « Quality Control of Drinking Water from the River Rhine with the Multispecies Freshwater Biomonitor ». Aquatic Ecosystem Health & ; Management 6, no 2 (avril 2003) : 159–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14634980301466.
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Mol, G. A. J., et A. P. Benoist. « Prediction of Sediment Quality in Catchment Areas of the River Rhine : Operation and Use of the Horizon Model ». Water Science and Technology 29, no 3 (1 février 1994) : 115–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1994.0077.
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Suspended matter and sediments in the catchment areas of European rivers are often highly polluted. A forecast of sediment quality in relation to discharges is of importance in formulating policy pertaining to emission reduction and sediment sanitation. The model Horizon has been developed to predict the sediment quality in the long term under various emission reducing scenarios. The model schematics consist of a description of the Rhine, the Meuse and the large lakes and basins in The Netherlands. The model calculates the concentration of eight inorganic and five organic micro pollutants in surface water, suspended matter and the sediment under the influence of processes such as sorption, evaporation, degradation, sedimentation, resuspension and burial. The principles underlying the model, the modelled pollutants, the schematics and the modelled physical/chemical processes are briefly discussed. The model input, calibration, validation and model errors follow. The predictions show that emission reductions more far reaching than the Rhine Action Programme (RAP) are needed to meet the Quality Objective 2000,set out in the Dutch National Policy Document on Water Management.
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Moellenkamp, S. « The "WFD-effect" ; on upstream-downstream relations in international river basins – insights from the Rhine and the Elbe basins ». Hydrology and Earth System Sciences Discussions 4, no 3 (7 juin 2007) : 1407–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/hessd-4-1407-2007.
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Abstract. The upstream-downstream relationship in international river basins is a traditional challenge in water management. Water use in upstream countries often has a negative impact on water use in downstream countries. This is most evident in the classical example of industrial pollution in upstream countries hindering drinking water production downstream. The European Water Framework Directive (WFD) gives new impetus to the river basin approach and to international co-operation in European catchments. It aims at transforming a mainly water quality oriented management into a more integrated approach of ecosystem management. After discussing the traditional upstream-downstream relationship, this article shows that the WFD has a balancing effect on upstream-downstream problems and that it enhances river basin solidarity in international basins. While it lifts the downstream countries to the same level as the upstream countries, it also leads to new duties for the downstream states. Following the ecosystem approach, measures taken by downstream countries become increasingly more important. For example, downstream countries need to take measures to allow for migrating fish species to reach upstream stretches of river systems. With the WFD, fish populations receive increased attention, as they are an important indicator for the ecological status. The European Commission acquires a new role of inspection and control in river basin management, which finally also leads to enhanced cooperation and solidarity among the states in a basin. In order to achieve better water quality and to mitigate upstream-downstream problems, also economic instruments can be applied and the WFD does not exclude the possibility of making use of financial compensations, if at the same time the polluter pays principle is taken into account. The results presented in this article originate from a broader study on integrated water resources management conducted at Bonn University and refer to the Rhine and Elbe basins (Moellenkamp, 2006).
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Rodda, D. W. « The environmental programme for the Danube River Basin ». Water Science and Technology 30, no 5 (1 septembre 1994) : 135–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1994.0232.
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The Programme has the objective of providing a regional approach to environmental management in the Danube River Basin where there is great pressure from a diverse range of human activities. Serious pollution problems exist from urban populations, from industry, and from intensive agricultural practices. Although the water quality of the main Danube river is probably better than the Rhine because of its greater flow, the same is not the case in the tributaries where there the problems are more serious. A factor which makes a compelling case for a regional approach is the deterioration of the Black Sea into which the main Danube river discharges significant loads of nutrients and a range of non-degradable contaminants. The application of limited financial resources will require fine judgement about the high priority pollution sources that will lead to cost-effective improvements. This action, and other technical assistance, also requires a considerable effort to strengthen the organisations having responsibility for environmental management, and to develop effective public participation. The paper emphasises the water pollution problems in the river basin.
8
Hoogweg, P. H. A., et F. Colijn. « Management of Dutch Estuaries the Ems-Dollard and the Western Scheldt ». Water Science and Technology 26, no 7-8 (1 octobre 1992) : 1887–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1992.0633.
Texte intégralRésumé :
In this paper the ecological situation of two Dutch estuaries will be described in relation to efforts of the Government to maintain or restore their environmental quality. The two estuaries are the Ems-Dollard estuary and the Western Scheldt. Both form the border with Germany and Belgium respectively and therefore are a potential management problem with respect to pollution crossing the borders between the countries involved. Therefore international consultation is needed to tackle environmental problems. Both estuaries are the remaining real estuaries of the Netherlands which can be conceived as one large Delta region of the rivers Rhine, Meuse, Scheldt and Ems. Plans for the sanitation of all rivers have been proposed and are in development as e.g. the Rhine Action Plan. For the smaller rivers like the Ems and Scheldt agreements about the reduction of pollutants have been made within the framework of the North Sea ministerial conferences. The ecological values of these estuaries are diminished through pollution, resulting in a reduced biological diversity, or reduced numbers of species. At present measures are taken to improve the ecological value which is based on the former ecological situation (ten Brink et al., 1991). Besides pollution also dredging and dumping of dredged material has levelled down the biological diversity and numbers of plants and animals.
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van Vliet, M. T. H., J. R. Yearsley, W. H. P. Franssen, F. Ludwig, I. Haddeland, D. P. Lettenmaier et P. Kabat. « Coupled daily streamflow and water temperature modelling in large river basins ». Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 16, no 11 (21 novembre 2012) : 4303–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/hess-16-4303-2012.
Texte intégralRésumé :
Abstract. Realistic estimates of daily streamflow and water temperature are required for effective management of water resources (e.g. for electricity and drinking water production) and freshwater ecosystems. Although hydrological and process-based water temperature modelling approaches have been successfully applied to small catchments and short time periods, much less work has been done at large spatial and temporal scales. We present a physically based modelling framework for daily river discharge and water temperature simulations applicable to large river systems on a global scale. Model performance was tested globally at 1/2 × 1/2° spatial resolution and a daily time step for the period 1971–2000. We made specific evaluations on large river basins situated in different hydro-climatic zones and characterized by different anthropogenic impacts. Effects of anthropogenic heat discharges on simulated water temperatures were incorporated by using global gridded thermoelectric water use datasets and representing thermal discharges as point sources into the heat advection equation. This resulted in a significant increase in the quality of the water temperature simulations for thermally polluted basins (Rhine, Meuse, Danube and Mississippi). Due to large reservoirs in the Columbia which affect streamflow and thermal regimes, a reservoir routing model was used. This resulted in a significant improvement in the performance of the river discharge and water temperature modelling. Overall, realistic estimates were obtained at daily time step for both river discharge (median normalized BIAS = 0.3; normalized RMSE = 1.2; r = 0.76) and water temperature (median BIAS = −0.3 °C; RMSE = 2.8 °C; r = 0.91) for the entire validation period, with similar performance during warm, dry periods. Simulated water temperatures are sensitive to headwater temperature, depending on resolution and flow velocity. A high sensitivity of water temperature to river discharge (thermal capacity) was found during warm, dry conditions. The modelling approach has potential to be used for risk analyses and studying impacts of climate change and other anthropogenic effects (e.g. thermal pollution, dams and reservoir regulation) on large rivers.
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van Vliet, M. T. H., J. R. Yearsley, W. H. P. Franssen, F. Ludwig, I. Haddeland, D. P. Lettenmaier et P. Kabat. « Coupled daily streamflow and water temperature modelling in large river basins ». Hydrology and Earth System Sciences Discussions 9, no 7 (6 juillet 2012) : 8335–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/hessd-9-8335-2012.
Texte intégralRésumé :
Abstract. Realistic estimates of daily streamflow and water temperature are required for effective management of water resources (e.g. electricity and drinking water production) and freshwater ecosystems. Although hydrological and process-based water temperature modelling approaches have been successfully applied to small catchments and short time periods, much less work has been done at large spatial and temporal scales. We present a physically-based modelling framework for daily river discharge and water temperature simulations applicable to large river systems on a global scale. Model performance was tested globally at 1/2° × 1/2° spatial resolution and a daily time step for the period 1971–2000. We made specific evaluations on large river basins situated in different hydro-climatic zones and characterized by different anthropogenic impacts. Effects of anthropogenic heat discharges on simulated water temperatures were incorporated by using global gridded thermoelectric water use data sets and representing thermal discharges as point sources into the heat-advection equation. This resulted in a significant increase in the quality of the water temperature simulations for thermally polluted basins (Rhine, Meuse, Danube and Mississippi). Due to large reservoirs in the Columbia which affect streamflow and thermal regimes, a reservoir routing model was used. This resulted in a significant improvement in the performance of the river discharge and water temperature modelling. Overall, realistic estimates were obtained at daily time step for both river discharge (median normalized BIAS = 0.3; normalized RMSE = 1.2; r = 0.76) and water temperature (median BIAS = −0.3 °C; RMSE = 2.8 °C; r = 0.91) for the entire validation period, with similar performance during warm, dry periods. Simulated water temperatures are sensitive to headwater temperature, depending on resolution and flow velocity. A high sensitivity of water temperature to river discharge (thermal capacity) was found during warm, dry conditions. The modelling approach has potential to be used for risk analyses and studying impacts of climate change and other anthropogenic effects (e.g. thermal pollution, dams and reservoir regulation) on large rivers.
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Schulze, F. H., H. Wolf, H. W. Jansen et P. van der Veer. « Applications of artificial neural networks in integrated water management : fiction or future ? » Water Science and Technology 52, no 9 (1 novembre 2005) : 21–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2005.0279.
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An Artificial Neural Network (ANN) is nowadays recognized as a very promising tool for relating input data to output data. It is said that the possibilities of artificial neural networks are unlimited. Here we focus on the potential role of neural networks in integrated water management. An Artificial Neural Network (ANN) is a mathematical methodology which describes relations between cause (input data) and effects (output data) irrespective of the process laying behind and without the need for making assumptions considering the nature of the relations. The applications are widespread and vary from optimization of measuring networks, operational water management, prediction of drinking water consumption, on-line steering of wastewater treatment plants and sewage systems, up to more specific applications such as establishing a relationship between the observed erosion of groyne field sediments and the characteristics of passing vessels on the river Rhine. Especially where processes are complex, neural networks can open new possibilities for understanding and modelling these kinds of complex processes. Besides explaining the method of ANN this paper shows different applications. Three examples have been worked out in more detail. An intelligent monitoring system is shown for the on-line prediction of water consumption, ANN are successfully used for sludge cost monitoring and optimizing wastewater treatment and the usage of ANN is shown in optimizing and monitoring water quality measuring networks. An ANN appears to be a multiuse and powerful tool for modelling complex processes.
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Roos, A., J. F. M. van Vliet, J. A. van Pagee, T. A. Nauta et M. B. de Vries. « An Integral Approach to Support Managerial Actions on Micropollutants in the Southern North Sea ». Water Science and Technology 24, no 10 (1 novembre 1991) : 29–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1991.0273.
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During the last decades the southern part of the North Sea has been exposed to high inputs of micropollutants from various sources. Within the framework of the project Management Analysis North Sea (MANS), studies have been carried out to quantify the impact of anthropogenic pollution inputs on coastal water quality, sediments and biota. In order to study the effects of different managerial actions an integrated modelling framework has been developed to enable a spatial evaluation. In this regard special attention has been given to:–the reduction of river inputs, as a result: of domestic and industrial waste water treatment–the storage of dredging sludge from the Rhine-Meuse estuary. It is shown by the results of this study that input reductions of heavy metals since 1980 have resulted in a significant reduction of concentrations in Dutch coastal waters. Long-term simulation of accumulation of pollutants in the sediment, however, showed that due to the long time scale the reduction of the seabed can take several decades. Similar conclusions can be drawn for organic micropollutants, although the input reductions seem to be less pronounced. Based on bioaccumulation modelling, the pollution of the sediment proved to be an important source for uptake of micropollutants in the food web. This study also made clear that significant reductions of North Sea pollution can be established if combined actions are taken. Reduction of pollutants from the Rhine-Meuse estuary, together with the storage of polluted dredging sludge from the Rotterdam harbours, will result in a significant reduction of the state of pollution of the coastal waters of the Netherlands.
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Wolff, Emma, et Michelle T. H. van Vliet. « Impact of the 2018 drought on pharmaceutical concentrations and general water quality of the Rhine and Meuse rivers ». Science of The Total Environment 778 (juillet 2021) : 146182. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.146182.
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Siegwald, Laura, et Carmen de Jong. « Anthropogenic Impacts on Water Quality in a Small, Forested Mountain Catchment : A Case Study of the Seebächle, Black Forest, Southern Germany ». Sustainability 12, no 21 (30 octobre 2020) : 9022. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su12219022.
Texte intégralRésumé :
The aims of this case study are to assess water quality in a small, forested mountain catchment in the Black Forest, forming part of a National Park and Natura 2000 zone. Field work was carried out in the catchment of the Seebächle torrent, a small headwater basin of the River Acher, a confluent of the Rhine, in Southern Germany between late winter and early summer of 2018. The catchment has a diverse natural setting of water bodies, including springs, torrents, and a lake, and is impacted by anthropogenic activities such as summer tourism, winter sports, two quarries, road traffic, and an isolated construction site. Physio-chemical and bacterial water samples were obtained at 10 measurement sites, including a spring, a lake (Mummelsee), a fountain, artificial and natural snow on and next to a ski run (Seibelseckle), artificial ditches and parking lots draining the ski run, and the Seebächle torrent above two granite mines. Samples were either taken directly on site or analyzed in corresponding hydrology and hospital microbiology laboratories. Water of the Seebächle is oxygen-rich, peaty, and mostly acidic, but the pH varies between 4.1 and 9.5 throughout the catchment, inclining towards acid in the fountain and below the ski run and towards alkaline in the lake. Conductivity is spatially highly variable, reaching the most elevated values below the ski run and its parking lot (149 µS/cm). A high density of bacteria including enterobacteria was detected at nearly all sites. Human pathogenic bacteria were found below and surrounding the ski run, at parking lots draining the ski run, as well as at the lowest site during the mid-spring campaign. They were also detected in the touristically highly frequented lake and in the spring feeding the lake during the end-of-spring campaign. Whilst most physico-chemical parameters followed a similar pattern and fell within good to very good EU drinking water quality status, the lake turbidity levels (19.2 NTU) by far exceeded norms after ice thawing. The most contaminated site in terms of bacteria and turbidity (5.2 NTU), ammonium nitrogen (0.18 mg/L), and total nitrogen (5.06 mg/L) was the spring feeding the Mummelsee draining the construction site of a new restaurant. These field analyses show that the water quality of a virtually uninhabited, natural headwater catchment is strongly interconnected and can degrade both by direct and indirect impacts of overtourism.
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Hoffmann, Thomas O., Yannik Baulig, Helmut Fischer et Jan Blöthe. « Scale breaks of suspended sediment rating in large rivers in Germany induced by organic matter ». Earth Surface Dynamics 8, no 3 (10 août 2020) : 661–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-661-2020.
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Abstract. Understanding the transport of suspended sediment and associated nutrients is of major relevance for sustainable sediment management aiming to achieve healthy river systems. Sediment rating curves are frequently used to analyze the suspended sediments and their potential sources and sinks. Here we use more than 750 000 measurements of suspended sediment concentrations (SSCs) and discharge (Q) collected at 62 gauging stations along 19 waterways in Germany based on the suspended sediment monitoring network of the German water and shipping authority, which started in the 1960s. Furthermore, we analyze more than 2000 measurements of the loss on ignition (LOI) of suspended matter at two stations along the rivers Moselle and Rhine to provide a proxy for the relative contributions of mineral load and organic matter. SSC and LOI are analyzed in terms of the power-law rating curve to identify discharge-dependent controls of suspended matter. Our results indicate that for most studied gauging stations, rating coefficients are not constant over the full discharge range, but there is a distinct break in the sediment rating curve, with specific SSC–Q domains above and below this break. The transition of the rating exponent likely results from increased supply of mineral suspended sediments from hillslope erosion at high flow and a shift of the organic matter sources from aquatic biomass-derived organic matter (i.e., high % LOI) at low flow, to mineral-associated organic matter with low % LOI eroded from hillslopes at higher flow. Based on these findings we developed a conceptual rating model for large (>10 000 km2) and low-turbidity (SSC < 1000 mg L−1) rivers separating the mineral and organic fraction of the suspended matter in German waterways. This model allows evaluating the sources of the mineral and organic fraction of the suspended matter and facilitates new insights into the first-order control of discharge on the quality and quantity of suspended sediments.
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Ruchay, Dietrich. « Living with water : Rhine River basin management ». Water Science and Technology 31, no 8 (1 avril 1995) : 27–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1995.0255.
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Protecting the River Rhine always means dealing with a complex international system of environment, economic and transport policy problems. About 50 million people live and work in the Rhine catchment area. Since 1950 the governments of Switzerland, France, Germany, Luxembourg and The Netherlands have co-operated in the International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine against Pollution (ICPR). So far, three phases characterize this co-operation. During the first phase up to the mid-seventies joint work was developed and organised, learning processes about national efforts took place and the first inventory of the hot spots was conducted. The second phase comprises the period from the signing of the Convention on the Protection of the Rhine against Chemical Pollution to the fire at the Sandoz warehouse at the end of 1986. It was characterized by efforts to determine international threshold values for extremely hazardous substances. The third phase will be terminated at the same time as the Rhine Action Programme in 1999. Its most important target is the return of higher species, such as the salmon, to the Rhine. In December 1994 the Conference of Rhine Ministers has to decide about next phase. It is expected that its beginning will be marked by a new improved Bern Convention.
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MALLE, K. G. « ChemInform Abstract : Water Quality of the River Rhine ». ChemInform 22, no 52 (22 août 2010) : no. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/chin.199152361.
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Zavarsky, Alex, et Lars Duester. « Anthropogenic influence on the Rhine water temperatures ». Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 24, no 10 (28 octobre 2020) : 5027–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/hess-24-5027-2020.
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Abstract. River temperature is an important parameter for water quality and an important variable for physical, chemical and biological processes. River water is also used by production facilities as cooling agent. We introduced a new way of calculating a catchment-wide air temperature using a time-lagged and weighed average. Regressing the new air temperature vs. river water temperature, the meteorological influence and the anthropogenic heat input could be studied separately. The new method was tested at four monitoring stations (Basel, Worms, Koblenz and Cologne) along the river Rhine and lowered the root mean square error of the regression from 2.37 ∘C (simple average) to 1.02 ∘C. The analysis also showed that the long-term trend (1979–2018) of river water temperature was, next to the increasing air temperature, mostly influenced by decreasing nuclear power production. Short-term changes in timescales < 5 years were connected with changes in industrial production. We found significant positive correlations for the relationship.
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Havinga, Hendrik. « Towards Sustainable River Management of the Dutch Rhine River ». Water 12, no 6 (26 juin 2020) : 1827. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w12061827.
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Two thousand years of human interventions has heavily modified the Dutch Rhine river. Situated in a densely populated and developed delta, the river and its infrastructure fulfil important societal functions: safety against flooding, inland waterways, nature, freshwater supply, and agriculture. Programs to improve individual functions increasingly lead to conflicts with other functions and therefore call for an integrated approach. This paper reviews the history of the Dutch Rhine and documents the sectoral improvement programs in recent decades, explaining adverse effects such as the large-scale bed degradation at rates of up to 4 cm per year. The lessons from the past are used to propose avenues for future integrated and sustainable river training and river management, arguing that mitigating adverse effects while maintaining societal functions requires a combination of recurrent sediment management measures and extensive structural measures that may change the layout of the river system.
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Broseliske, G. H., J. de Jong et H. Smit. « Historical and Present Day Management of the River Rhine ». Water Science and Technology 23, no 1-3 (1 janvier 1991) : 111–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1991.0407.
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The river Rhine has undergone changes in morphology, chemistry, and ecology. They represent the results of historical management of the river. An overview of the river management from 1815 on is given together with an analysis of the present situation and the changes necessary to meet the final objectives of the Rhine and North Sea Action Programmes. The complexity and level of the present problems make it necessary that an integrated problem approach and a multinational decision making is used for an adequate future management of the river basin.
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van Breemen, Lambert W. C. A., Henk A. M. Ketelaars, Wim Hoogenboezem et Gertjan Medema. « Storage reservoirs – a first barrier for pathogenic micro-organisms in the Netherlands ». Water Science and Technology 37, no 2 (1 janvier 1998) : 253–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1998.0147.
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Production of drinking water from river water, abstracted either directly from river or from storage reservoirs, requires the application of barriers for pathogenic micro-organisms. About one third of the total production of drinking water in the Netherlands is derived from surface water, mainly the River Meuse and branches of the River Rhine. The results of extensive monitoring programmes show that the microbiological water quality of the River Rhine and River Meuse is strongly influenced by domestic and agricultural waste water discharges, with respect to the River Meuse mainly in the Liège-region in Belgium. Densities of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in both rivers are comparable; the highest density was found in the Belgian Meuse basin. Elimination rates of 1.7- to 3.1 10log-units for pathogenic micro-organisms were found in Dutch storage reservoirs, which can thus be considered as an important first barrier for pathogenic microorganisms. The elimination capacity of reservoirs is influenced by retention time and contamination by waterfowl. To meet the proposed quality criteria for pathogens in drinking water, however, additional barriers are required.
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Mälzer, Hans-Joachim, et Rolf Gimbel. « Assessment of River Water Quality by Test Filters in the View of Drinking Water Catchment ». Water Science and Technology 29, no 3 (1 février 1994) : 125–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1994.0080.
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In the years 1985-1987, test filters have been used to determine the DOC- and AOX-concentrations and the loads of water-works-relevant and drinking-water-relevant organic constituents in the rivers Rhine and Ruhr. The constituents determined by AOX have been found to be not drinking-water-relevant. The input of water-works-relevant DOC and AOX mainly could be put down to diffuse sources.
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Huisman, Pieter, Koos Wieriks et Joost de Jong. « Rejuvenating the Rhine — the long road to integrated river management ». Waterlines 15, no 4 (avril 1997) : 10–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.3362/0262-8104.1997.016.
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te Linde, A. H., P. Bubeck, J. E. C. Dekkers, H. de Moel et J. C. J. H. Aerts. « Future flood risk estimates along the river Rhine ». Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences 11, no 2 (15 février 2011) : 459–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/nhess-11-459-2011.
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Abstract. In Europe, water management is moving from flood defence to a risk management approach, which takes both the probability and the potential consequences of flooding into account. It is expected that climate change and socio-economic development will lead to an increase in flood risk in the Rhine basin. To optimize spatial planning and flood management measures, studies are needed that quantify future flood risks and estimate their uncertainties. In this paper, we estimated the current and future fluvial flood risk in 2030 for the entire Rhine basin in a scenario study. The change in value at risk is based on two land-use projections derived from a land-use model representing two different socio-economic scenarios. Potential damage was calculated by a damage model, and changes in flood probabilities were derived from two climate scenarios and hydrological modeling. We aggregated the results into seven sections along the Rhine. It was found that the annual expected damage in the Rhine basin may increase by between 54% and 230%, of which the major part (~ three-quarters) can be accounted for by climate change. The highest current potential damage can be found in the Netherlands (110 billion €), compared with the second (80 billion €) and third (62 billion €) highest values in two areas in Germany. Results further show that the area with the highest fluvial flood risk is located in the Lower Rhine in Nordrhein-Westfalen in Germany, and not in the Netherlands, as is often perceived. This is mainly due to the higher flood protection standards in the Netherlands as compared to Germany.
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van Gils, J. A. G., et D. Argiropoulos. « Axios river basin water quality management ». Water Resources Management 5, no 3-4 (septembre 1991) : 271–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf00421996.
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Pfeiffer, Ellen, et Jan Leentvaar. « Knowledge leads, policy follows ? Two speeds of collaboration in river basin management ». Water Policy 15, S2 (1 novembre 2013) : 282–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wp.2013.024.
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The 21st century began as a period of increasing water scarcity, conflicts over shared water resources and major flood disasters. This context keeps the establishment of effective basin management on the top of the global water agenda. Capacity development in the field is often modelled on the experience of existing river commissions, such as the International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine (ICPR), widely perceived as a reference for successful trust and knowledge-based collaboration. The relevance of knowledge in transboundary river basin management is uncontested, but its concrete function remains unclear. This pilot study investigates the influence of knowledge collaboration in internal working groups on ICPR development during the implementation of its milestone Rhine Action Programme, testing a phenomenological approach based on actor accounts. The results suggest that active stimulation of knowledge-based collaboration can lead to substantial influence on policy processes, but that the direction of such influence is ambiguous. Internal dynamics of the ICPR are likely to have assumed patterns of scale-dependent, cross-level interplay at the time. This has significant implications for capacity development, since such dynamics can both support and obstruct the development of effective resource management.
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Lenders, H. J. R., J. A. M. Garritsen et R. S. E. W. Leuven. « Environmental Quality and Legal Protection of Floodplain Wetlands in the Dutch Part of the Rhine Basin ». Water Science and Technology 29, no 3 (1 février 1994) : 293–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1994.0123.
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Large parts of the floodplains in the Dutch Rhine basin can be considered wetlands of international importance. Few data are available concerning the threats to these wetlands. Legal protection and the principle of ' wise use' of the wetlands, as stipulated in the Ramsar Convention, are hardly being implementated in national and local policies. Until 1993 none of the floodplains in the river basin has actually been designated as wetland of international importance. In zoning plans the ' wetland function' is hardly ever recognized as the main function. A relatively small part of the river floodplains is designated as nature reserves or protected areas. More research should be carried out concerning the environmental quality of and ecological standards for wetlands. The physical threats of deterioration, disturbance and fragmentation of habitats deserve special attention. Legal protection and 'wise use' of wetlands in the Rhine basin should be further implemented.
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Schiff, Jennifer S. « The evolution of Rhine river governance : historical lessons for modern transboundary water management ». Water History 9, no 3 (11 février 2017) : 279–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12685-017-0192-3.
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Malle, Karl-Geert. « Accidental Spills – Frequency, Importance, Control, Countermeasures ». Water Science and Technology 29, no 3 (1 février 1994) : 149–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1994.0088.
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Since pollution of the Rhine has been greatly reduced by the construction of sewage treatment plants, the significance of accidents for water quality has become obvious. Most accidents are of only local importance, but after an incident in 1969 the water for fighting the Sandoz warehouse fire caused the second long distance death of fish in the river in 1986. Many waterworks are effectively protected from pollution surges by a bank filtration for the water. Waterworks with direct water intake shut their intakes down temporarily when a pollution wave is flowing past. Both wastewater discharges and the river Rhine are continuously and carefully monitored. Rapidly responding biological tests and screening processes are being used to an increasing extent. A well equipped water protection police service is an additional important control element. Safety during transport and transfer of goods by ship is controlled by the regulations on transporting hazardous goods on the Rhine. Special care and safety measures are taken for loading and unloading of ships. Routine cost-free bilge emptying is an important contribution to water protection too. Accidental pollution incidents with cooling water discharges or from the outlet from treatment plants can occur from the bank. Rapid recognition and elimination of faults are essential for cooling water protection.
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Rothmeier, Louisa Marie, Andreas Martens, Burkard Watermann, Karsten Grabow, Jennifer Bartz et René Sahm. « The Danubian cryptic invader Theodoxus fluviatilis (Gastropoda : Neritidae) in the River Rhine : a potential indicator for metal pollution ? » Ecotoxicology 31, no 1 (8 octobre 2021) : 24–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10646-021-02485-4.
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AbstractMetal pollution poses a major threat to aquatic systems especially in anthropogenic influenced areas, in as much as metals are persistent in the environment. The freshwater snail Theodoxus fluviatilis has often been used as an indicator species for the ecological status in river monitoring. In the River Rhine, the native Northern-European form of T. fluviatilis is nowadays extinct, whilst the Danubian form is spreading along the river. The aim of our study was to investigate if the cryptic invader is affected by metal exposure present in the River Rhine and to discuss its potential as an indicator for metal pollution. Several environmental abiotic (14 water environmental variables plus five common metal concentrations in water and biofilm) and biotic parameters (biofilm mass) were measured across 23 sites along the River Rhine. Five population and six histopathological parameters were evaluated on snails collected at all 23 sites. Aqueous chromium concentration was positively correlated to the damage of male reproductive organs of T. fluviatilis, and higher ammonium concentration was correlated to a decrease in snail size and an increase in the proportion of juveniles. None of the analysed snail parameters was negatively correlated to concentrations of other metals measured, like copper and zinc. Therefore, based on the parameters evaluated, our results indicate that the Danubian form of T. fluviatilis is only restrictedly suitable as an indicator for metal pollution in the River Rhine system. Further field and laboratory investigations including other stressors are necessary to evaluate the indicator potential of the cryptic invader holistically.
31
Eckert, P., R. Lamberts et C. Wagner. « The impact of climate change on drinking water supply by riverbank filtration ». Water Supply 8, no 3 (1 septembre 2008) : 319–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2008.077.
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Riverbank filtration (RBF) is a well proven natural treatment, which in many countries is part of a multi-barrier concept in drinking water supply. The induced infiltration of river water into the aquifer produces a significant improvement in river water quality. Riverbank filtration wells are characterized by a high capacity. Based on data from recent years, an integrated approach to assessing the impact of climate change on safe drinking water production by RBF is demonstrated in the Lower Rhine Valley, Germany. Influencing factors on quantitative as well as qualitative aspects were identified. During low river water periods, the capacity of the RBF-wells decreases. In addition the lower discharge within the river is accompanied by a increased concentration of several chemical compounds. Together with higher water temperatures which influence the hydrogeochemical processes during RBF, the changing raw water composition has to be considered for the subsequent technical treatment step. However, our investigations reveal that despite the impact of climate change on RBF, the multi-protective barrier concept, including both natural and technical purification, has proven a reliable method for drinking water production. The sanitation of the Rhine over the last decades was an important step to make RBF more resilient to climate change.
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Krahe, P., H. Buiteveld, L. Pfister, Ch Ritz et E. Sprokkereef. « Climatic change and the effect on hydrology and water management in the Rhine basin ». Water Science and Technology 51, no 5 (1 mars 2005) : 23–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2005.0100.
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There has been a marked increase in recent years in the resources dedicated to investigating the problems arising from climate change with respect to hydrology and to some extent to water resource management. Many of these studies are concentrated on the river Rhine basin. In order to review the actual state of scientific findings a workshop, organised by the International Commission for the Hydrology of the Rhine (CHR), was held on 24 and 25 June 2003. The invited experts discussed the following topics: observed variability in climatic and hydrological data, the development and interpretation of climate scenarios, and assessment of changes in the discharge regimes and the occurrence of hydrological extremes. Based on the workshop the question of whether or not current knowledge and procedural strategies can be used as a basis for future water management was evaluated by an expert group of the CHR. In this paper the process of decision-making with regard to flood management is analysed. Hints are given to convince the decision-makers to take into account the impacts of climate change in water resources management. The special challenges arising in international river basins are discussed.
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Francesch, Maria. « Europe’s Rhine River Delta and China’s Pearl River Delta : Issues and Lessons for Integrated Water Resources Management ». Asian Journal of Public Administration 24, no 1 (juin 2002) : 23–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02598272.2002.10800393.
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HOUSE, MARGARET A. « A Water Quality Index for River Management ». Water and Environment Journal 3, no 4 (août 1989) : 336–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-6593.1989.tb01538.x.
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Schwarzbauer, Jan, et Sabine Heim. « Lipophilic organic contaminants in the Rhine river, Germany ». Water Research 39, no 19 (novembre 2005) : 4735–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2005.09.029.
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van Splunder, I., H. Coops et M. M. Schoor. « Tackling the Bank Erosion Problem : (Re-)Introduction of Willows on Riverbanks ». Water Science and Technology 29, no 3 (1 février 1994) : 379–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1994.0139.
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River regulation and increased shipping have resulted in serious erosion problems on the banks of the River Rhine. As an alternative for hard material or suppletion of sand, the Institute of Water Management and Waste Water Treatment is considering the use of willows for riverbank protection. Floodplain forests in The Netherlands are almost absent, mainly due to intensive cattle grazing. Various willow species were planted on sandy beaches at five locations along the River Rhine in 1990. After 2 growing seasons Common Osier (Salix viminalis) had the highest percentage survival and Grey Willow (S. cinerea) the lowest. Additionally, a survey has been planned to calculate roughness changes in the riverbed and wave extinction caused by the vegetation. Another goal of the project is to investigate the possibilities of establishment and development of a natural riverbank forest after excluding cattle.
37
SEAGER, J. « Statutory Water Quality Objectives and River Water Quality ». Water and Environment Journal 7, no 5 (octobre 1993) : 556–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-6593.1993.tb00885.x.
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Wieriks, Koos, et Anne Schulte-Wülwer-Leidig. « Integrated water management for the Rhine river basin, from pollution prevention to ecosystem improvement ». Natural Resources Forum 21, no 2 (mai 1997) : 147–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1477-8947.1997.tb00686.x.
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Steinebach, G., et K. Wilke. « Flood Forecasting and Warning on the River Rhine ». Water and Environment Journal 14, no 1 (février 2000) : 39–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-6593.2000.tb00224.x.
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McCulloch, J. S. G. « The rhine under the influence of man — River engineering works, shipping, water management — Commission for the hydrology of the Rhine basin ». Journal of Hydrology 167, no 1-4 (mai 1995) : 401. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0022-1694(95)90011-x.
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Sobczak, Patrycja, et Agata Rosińska. « Concentration of Total Organic Carbon and Its Fractions in Surface Water in Poland and Germany ». Proceedings 51, no 1 (24 novembre 2020) : 35. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/proceedings2020051035.
Texte intégralRésumé :
Total organic carbon (TOC) present in surface water consists of different fractions like dissolved organic carbon (DOC) or biodegradable dissolved organic carbon (BDOC). BDOC may have an impact on the bacteriological quality of water as it can be a source of carbon and energy for microorganisms. It is important to consider this parameter in case of the distribution of drinking water. The aim of this research was to compare the qualities of chosen surface water in Poland and Germany in terms of concentration of total organic carbon and its fractions. The samples were taken from the reservoir in Poland and Rhine River in Germany. The first one is a source of drinking water for humans. The research showed that, considering the analyzed compounds, the water from the river has better quality.
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Popovyan, N. O., et A. B. Usov. « DYNAMIC SURFACE WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM ». Ecology. Economy. Informatics.System analysis and mathematical modeling of ecological and economic systems 1, no 6 (2021) : 144–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.23885/2500-395x-2021-1-6-144-149.
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The article examines the interaction of subjects of a two-level hierarchical system. An industrial enterprise discharges wastewater into the river as a result of its work. To prevent the ingress of a large amount of pollutants, water treatment facilities have been installed, the operation of which is regulated by the level of technical support. The state allocates funds to support the activities of the enterprise and regulates the standards for the discharge of pollutants. The interests of both subjects are to maximize their target functional. The article is devoted to the problem of finding optimal control in a mathematical model of water quality management in a dynamic system. Examples of calculations for specific parameters are given. Based on the examples given, we can draw conclusions about the influence of parameters on the system. The type of the emitted substance has the greatest influence on the system, namely the values of such parameters as the initial concentration and the coefficient of non-conservativeness. With long-term interaction, the speed of self-cleaning of the river plays a significant role. At a low level of self-purification of the river, the concentration of substances in the river almost reaches the maximum permissible level. The deterioration of the environmental situation leads to losses on the part of the Host. The reverse situation allows us to continue cooperation in the future, while receiving a greater gain. Also, the winnings of the subjects significantly depend on the volume of investments.
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Cazemier, W. G. « Present Status of the Salmonids Atlantic Salmon and Sea-Trout in the Dutch Part of the River Rhine ». Water Science and Technology 29, no 3 (1 février 1994) : 37–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1994.0057.
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In the past, the anadromous salmonids, Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) and sea-trout (Salmo trutta), have formed natural populations in the river Rhine. From the beginning of the nineteenth century onwards, the greater part of the drainage area of the river has been gradually altered from a more or less rural and agricultural area, into a highly industrialised one with subsequent industrialisation, river-engineering and heavy pollution. These developments are considered to be the major cause for the disappearance of the populations of anadromous salmonid fish in the 1950s. The water quality has recovered significantly during the past 25 years. From about 1975 onwards, this process gave rise to a recovery of the anadromous trout population. Results of recent studies of the sea-trout migration pattern are presented. They reveal that nowadays these salmonids can complete their up- and downstream migrations from the North Sea to places, situated at hundreds of kilometres upward the river and vica versa. The numbers of recorded Atlantic salmon and catch locations in inland waters are presented. They show a significant increase since 1989. These phenomena can be understood as promising signs of the recovery of the Rhine aquatic ecosystem.
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Bode, H., P. Evers et D. R. Albrecht. « Integrated water resources management in the Ruhr River Basin, Germany ». Water Science and Technology 47, no 7-8 (1 avril 2003) : 81–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2003.0674.
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The Ruhr, with an average flow of 80.5 m3/s at its mouth, is a comparatively small tributary to the Rhine River that has to perform an important task: to secure the water supply of more than 5 million people and of the industry in the densely populated region north of the river. The complex water management system and network applied by the Ruhrverband in the natural Ruhr River Basin has been developed step by step, over decades since 1913. And from the beginning, its major goal has been to achieve optimal conditions for the people living in the region. For this purpose, a functional water supply and wastewater disposal infrastructure has been built up. The development of these structures required and still requires multi-dimensional planning and performance. Since the river serves as receiving water and at the same time as a source of drinking water, the above-standard efforts of Ruhrverband for cleaner water also help to conserve nature and wildlife. Ruhrverband has summed up its environmental awareness in the slogan: “For the people and for the environment”. This basic water philosophy, successfully applied to the Ruhr for more than 80 years, will be continued in accordance with the new European Water Framework Directive, enacted in 2000, which demands integrated water resources management in natural river basins, by including the good ecological status of surface waterbodies as an additional goal.
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Mosselman, Erik. « Studies on River Training ». Water 12, no 11 (4 novembre 2020) : 3100. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w12113100.
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This editorial regards a Special Issue of Water on river training. It introduces five papers in a framework of history, fundamentals, case studies and future. Four papers result from decades of experience with innovation, planning, design and implementation of river training works on rivers in Colombia, the Rhine branches in the Netherlands and the Brahmaputra-Jamuna River in Bangladesh. A fifth paper reviews the state-of-the-art in predicting and influencing the formation and behavior of river bars. The editorial argues that the future lies in more flexible river training, using a mix of innovative permanent structures and recurrent interventions such as dredging, sediment nourishment, vegetation management and low-cost temporary structures.
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Vanham, D. « The Alps under climate change : implications for water management in Europe ». Journal of Water and Climate Change 3, no 3 (1 septembre 2012) : 197–206. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wcc.2012.032.
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The Alps function as a water tower for four of the major European river basins. However, a climate change-induced shift in mountain hydrological regimes and the future predicted disappearance of Alpine glaciers at the end of this century will have consequences for water management in both the Alps and the water-dependent lowlands. In this paper the importance of mountain water in the European lowlands and the impact of climate change on the water sector in both the mountains and lowlands are shown. Different demand stakeholders of the Alpine water sector will be affected. Dependent on the particular region in the Alps, problems will be less or more severe but generally adaptation can be achieved by means of the right investments and policies. However, major impacts on the water sector in the lowlands of the Danube, Rhine, Rhone and Po river basins are foreseen. Integrated water management at basin level is required to cope with these challenges.
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Gerike, P., K. Winkler, W. Schneider et W. Jakob. « Zur Wasserqualität des Rheins bei Düsseldorf / On the water quality of the river Rhine near Düsseldorf ». Tenside Surfactants Detergents 26, no 1 (1 janvier 1989) : 21–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/tsd-1989-260110.
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Lo, K. S. L., et H. H. Chen. « Water Quality Management of Keelung River, Northern Taiwan ». Water Science and Technology 24, no 6 (1 septembre 1991) : 109–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1991.0146.
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The Keelung River is one of the major tributaries of the Tansui River in Northern Taiwan. It has been heavily polluted by municipal and industrial wastewater. Based on the anaerobic CBOD and DO models, nitrification in the Keelung River and flushing time of pollutants, the calibration and verification of water quality parameters were investigated and discussed. The results of sensitivity analysis showed that K1 is the most sensitive parameter and K2 is the least sensitive to DO values in non-tidal river reaches. For the tidal reaches, the analysis indicated that Kd and K2 have larger effects on the DO values and D1 has the least effect relatively. In order to meet the water quality standards of the Keelung River, a great amount of benthic oxygen demand should be removed in addition to the secondary treatment of all point sources at downstream reaches. From the analysis of the waste load allocation, it was found that the amount of removed waste will be underestimated due to the fact that the nitrification process in the Keelung River is ignored.
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Zessner, Matthias. « Monitoring, Modeling and Management of Water Quality ». Water 13, no 11 (28 mai 2021) : 1523. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w13111523.
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In this special issue, we are able to present a selection of high-level contributions showing the manifold aspects of the monitoring, modeling, and management of water quality. Monitoring aspects range from cyanobacteria in water using spectrophotometry via wide-area water quality monitoring and exploiting unmanned surface vehicles, to using sentinel-2 satellites for the near-real-time evaluation of catastrophic floods. Modeling ranges from small scale approaches by deriving a Bayesian network for assessing the retention efficacy of riparian buffer zones, to national scales with a modification of the MONERIS (Modeling Nutrient Emissions in River Systems) nutrient emission model for a lowland country. Management is specifically addressed by lessons learned from the long-term management of a large (re)constructed wetland and the support of river basin management planning in the Danube River Basin.
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Fujiwara, Okitsugu, Selvanayagam K. Gnanendran et Shinichiro Ohgaki. « Chance Constrained Model for River Water Quality Management ». Journal of Environmental Engineering 113, no 5 (octobre 1987) : 1018–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/(asce)0733-9372(1987)113:5(1018).
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