Pour voir les autres types de publications sur ce sujet consultez le lien suivant : Wages – European Economic Community countries.
Articles de revues sur le sujet « Wages – European Economic Community countries »
Créez une référence correcte selon les styles APA, MLA, Chicago, Harvard et plusieurs autres
Consultez les 50 meilleurs articles de revues pour votre recherche sur le sujet « Wages – European Economic Community countries ».
À côté de chaque source dans la liste de références il y a un bouton « Ajouter à la bibliographie ». Cliquez sur ce bouton, et nous générerons automatiquement la référence bibliographique pour la source choisie selon votre style de citation préféré : APA, MLA, Harvard, Vancouver, Chicago, etc.
Vous pouvez aussi télécharger le texte intégral de la publication scolaire au format pdf et consulter son résumé en ligne lorsque ces informations sont inclues dans les métadonnées.
Parcourez les articles de revues sur diverses disciplines et organisez correctement votre bibliographie.
1
Courtis, Kenneth S. "La politique industrielle dans la Communauté économique européenne : Crise et changement." Études internationales 12, no. 2 (2005): 269–320. http://dx.doi.org/10.7202/701195ar.
Texte intégralRésumé :
The ultimate goal of industrial policy is to allow constant improvement in both the quality and standard of living. Necessary conditions to such improvement are full employment at both high, real wages and at increasing rates of productivity. For the European Economic Community, productivity must not only increase absolutely but also relatively, in comparison to other international competitors. Yet during the 60's and early 70's, Europe's competitive position in a number of major industrial sectors weakened, such that the energy shock, when it did come, signaled a reversal in established terms of trade. Suddenly, the Common Market was confronted with new problems of adjustment and decline. It is within this context that both the role and the focus of EEC industrial policy have changea and that come to play the underlying dynamics that shape European industrial policy formulation. In these new economic conditions, traditional policies of demand management, of counter-cyclical measures and of monetary control have proved inadequate to restore real growth, full employment and ordered structural change. While purely national solutions appear to be no longer possible in many sectors, member countries have become increasingly locked into competitive rather than the complementary industrial strategies. New and intense political strains have emerged. Political legitimacy and a clear mandate are critical to the formulation and implementation of industrial policy. Although the essential economic logic of the Treaty of Rome is clear, its political dimensions are less evident. Indeed there is nothing in the Common Market treaty about industrial policy. Yet as the question of industrial development moves to the centre of political debate, the future evolution of the community will be increasingly linked to EC industrial policy. This article analyzes European industrial policy as we enter the 80's. It begins with an analysis of the economic realities and the social and political forces behind the changing focus of European industrial policy and examines briefly the context of industrial policy formulation at the European Community level. Subsequently it turns to the new sectoral pattern and emphasis of European industrial policy. Finally, the article evaluates the evolution of European industrial policy in the latter part of the 70s and considers emerging trends.
2
Villani, Leonardo, Roberta Pastorino, Walter Ricciardi, John Ioannidis, and Stefania Boccia. "Inverse correlates of COVID-19 mortality across European countries during the first versus subsequent waves." BMJ Global Health 6, no. 8 (2021): e006422. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2021-006422.
Texte intégralRésumé :
The objectives of the study were to calculate the standardised mortality rates (SMRs) for COVID-19 in European Union/European Economic Area countries plus the UK and Switzerland and to evaluate the correlation between SMRs and selected indicators in the first versus the subsequent waves until 23 June 2021. We used indirect standardisation (using Italy as the reference) to compute SMRs and considered 16 indicators of health and social well-being, health system capacity and COVID-19 response. The highest SMRs were in Belgium, the UK and Spain in the first wave (1.20–1.84) and in Hungary, Czechia and Slovakia in the subsequent waves (2.50–2.69). Human Development Index (HDI), life expectancy, urbanisation and healthcare expenditure had positive correlations with SMR in the first wave (rho=0.30–0.46), but negative correlations (rho=−0.67 to −0.47) in the subsequent waves. Retail/recreation mobility and transit mobility were negatively correlated with SMR in the first wave, while transit mobility was inversely correlated with SMR in the subsequent waves. The first wave hit most hard countries with high HDI, high life expectancy, high urbanisation, high health expenditures and high tourism. This pattern may reflect higher early community seeding and circulation of the virus. Conversely, in the subsequent waves, this pattern was completely inversed: countries with more resources and better health status did better than eastern European countries. While major SMR differences existed across countries in the first wave, these differences largely dissipated by 23 June 2021, with few exceptions.
3
Ostapenko, Viktoriia. "Management of tax system adopting to European standards." Development Management 17, no. 1 (2019): 51–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.21511/dm.5(1).2019.05.
Texte intégralRésumé :
Ukraine is a social and legal state and seeks to become part of the European community. Therefore, the tax system needs to be reorganized regarding the level of financing of public goods, which will ensure the formation of financial resources sufficient for the fulfillment of the assigned functions of the state and guaranteeing citizens a sufficient standard of living. All this requires harmonization of the legal norms of Ukraine in accordance with the requirements of the European Union. Formation of tax policy in post-socialist countries has features related to the restructuring of the socio-economic system and redistributive mechanisms in the context of the formation and establishment of market relations. The aim of the work is to generalize theoretical approaches and develop practical recommendations for management of tax system according to European standards. The object of the study is the process of managing the tax system in Ukraine. The subject of the study is theoretical, methodological and practical principles aimed at managing the tax system of European standards. To solve the problems set in the work, such general scientific methods and research methods were used as analysis, economic-statistical method, synthesis, graphical and tabular method, historical methods of induction and deduction, method of theoretical generalization, system method. The conceptual approaches to the development of the tax system are proposed. The determinants of tax policy formation are determined. There are four main time stages of development of interstate cooperation in the tax area, which correspond to the waves of globalization of the world economy.
4
Borovsky, Y. V., and O. V. Shishkina. "Securitization of Energy Supply within the European Integration." MGIMO Review of International Relations 14, no. 3 (2021): 57–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.24833/2071-8160-2021-3-78-57-81.
Texte intégralRésumé :
The article uses the constructivist securitization concept to analyze the European Economic Community (EEC), and the European Union (EU) approaches to ensuring energy security. It seeks to establish whether the energy supply has been securitized within the European integration process and if so when it happened. The literature review does not give a definitive and comprehensive answer to this question which is essential for all the history of the EEC and the EU. The authors of this study use an extensive documentary database available on the EU websites. They established that for the EEC/EU the energy policy securitization is a long-lasting ongoing process that came into being in 1973. Within the European integration, the securitization is justified by the dependency of the member states on the imported energy resources, which is regarded through the prism of securing reliable, affordable, and (since 2000s) environmentally sustainable supply. The authors identified two waves of energy supply securitization in the EEC/EU. The first wave was triggered by the oil embargo of the OPEC Arab countries and, generally, the world oil crisis of 1973-1974. The second wave of the 2000s and 2010s was triggered by the Russian-Ukrainian gas conflicts of 2006 and 2009 and the sharp deterioration of Russian-Ukrainian relations in 2014. For both waves, the Commission was the main ‘securitizing actor’. However, during the second wave, the European Parliament, some EU countries, and even the United States made their own ‘securitizing moves’. The ‘audience’ (EEC/EU countries) expressed its opinion towards the ‘securitizing moves’ through the European Council and the Council decisions. The research conclusions can be useful for a profound scientific explanation of the EU energy policy as well as for the operationalization of the securitization concept.
5
Meilaender, Peter C. "Democracy, Community, and Modernity: Lessons from Jeremias Gotthelf's Die Käserei in der Vehfreude." German Politics and Society 29, no. 4 (2011): 21–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.3167/gps.2011.290402.
Texte intégralRésumé :
Among the challenges of today's globalizing world is the disruption that local communities experience, in developed and developing countries alike, in the face of economic and political modernization. Yet, such problems are not unprecedented. To the contrary, communities across nineteenth-century Europe faced similar difficulties as a result of the Industrial Revolution and political upheaval. For insights into such challenges, I turn to a perhaps unlikely resource for coming to grips with globalization: Jeremias Gotthelf, whose novel Die Käserei in der Vehfreude has been described by Hanns Peter Holl as an “examination of European developments of the 1840s.“ Through his portrayal of a Swiss village's attempt to form a cheese-making cooperative and sell its wares, with all the difficulties it encounters in the process, Gotthelf reveals himself as an important political thinker, whose treatment of democracy, community, and modernity remains relevant for us today.
6
Izergina, Nina I. "Formation of Russian identity in the context of socio-economic policy." Economic History 16, no. 1 (2020): 20–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.15507/2409-630x.048.016.202001.020-030.
Texte intégralRésumé :
Introduction. The study of the conditions and factors of the modern process of formation and strengthening of Russian identity is actualized by the interrelated causes of the conceptual and practical-political plan. The purpose of the article is to draw the attention of researchers to the socio-economic issues of Russian identity formation at the present stage. Materials and Methods. The theoretical and methodological basis of the research is an organic approach to achieving the strategic goals of the state national policy, which makes it possible to exclude the opposition of civil and ethno-cultural components in the Russian identity and to ensure the formation of civil unity on the basis of preserving the country’s ethno-cultural diversity. The author analyzes the legal documents in the sphere of state national policy of the Russian Federation, scientific works of Russian scientists containing data from numerous sociological studies on ethnonational and socio-economic problems, including comparative studies of identity policy and social policy of European countries and Russia. Results. It is proved that the heuristic potential of the organic approach makes it possible to recognize a possible imbalance in the structure of Russian identity due to an underestimation of priority factors that affect the process of its formation in a specific historical period of the country’s development. On the basis of organic methodology and analysis of secondary data, the priority role of the socio-economic factor in the modern process of forming Russian identity is revealed, which is due to the higher social demands of Russians to the state in comparison with European countries. The article shows the negative impact of deep socio-economic and socio-professional differentiation that has developed in modern Russia on the formation of Russian identity, which exacerbates social and psychological tension and reduces the assessment of most parameters of the quality of life by Russians. Discussion and Conclusion. The analysis allows us to conclude that the role of the socio-economic factor in the formation of the all-Russian civil self-consciousness and spiritual community of the Russian nation in modern Russia is ambiguous. On the one hand, Russians put social indicators first, determining their well-being and the desired future of the country. On the other hand, unresolved social problems, such as low wages, lead to the formation of civil unity in a negative way, in the understanding of the disrespect of the state power to its own people and to the future of Russia. The expected effect of implementing an organic approach to the process of forming the Russian identity as a complex, historically developing phenomenon under the influence of various factors is the ability to adjust the modern state development strategy in the direction of creating a strong social state with a high level and quality of life of citizens, to promote their positive identification.
7
Zabrocki, Patryk Roger. "Wpływ współczesnych migracji terrorystycznych na bezpieczeństwo." Studia Prawa Publicznego, no. 2(34) (September 15, 2021): 107–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.14746/spp.2021.2.34.4.
Texte intégralRésumé :
The premise of this text is to analyze by means of selected examples the issues related to the broad definition of security, and modern and developing terrorist migration. Moreover, the aim of this paper is to approach the subject in question from the perspective of the current legal state by means of the formal and dogmatic method, but also by means of the method of criticism and analysis of the literature, which will allow a full understanding of the shape, functioning and causes of errors of modern security bodies. The above will influence the formulation of de lege ferenda postulates in the conclusion. The European Union is based on solid foundations. So how does globalisation, in its broadest sense, affect the world around us and the elementary values of the modern world? Modern terrorism, which strikes at the security of developed countries, is undoubtedly a global phenomenon that also sows fear for normal existence in one’s own country. Unrestricted, cross-border terrorist activity is leading to intra-community division. This is the result of internal conflicts over common values. The surveillance and detection of migrants from outside the European community who are criminals is becoming a more difficult task with time. This is due to the fact that terrorist organisations operate according to a well-defined plan, creating extensive networks and recruiting new members for their groups in many countries simultaneously. The fight against terrorism is being waged on Europe’s streets and in the homes and schools of its citizens. The struggle for security begins at the borders of European countries. What is crucial in this fight is the latest equipment and cooperation between security bodies, including the special services of all the countries of the European Union and NATO. It is essential to introduce appropriate legislation to limit the free movement of people who commit crimes and to develop methods to distinguish terrorists from economic migrants or refugees. The state must guarantee the security of its citizens and combat terrorism effectively.
8
Simonova, Natalya B. "Journalism. Institutionalization of Profession on the Boundary of the 19th – 20th Centuries: World Trends and Russian Specificity." Vestnik NSU. Series: History and Philology 19, no. 6 (2020): 33–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.25205/1818-7919-2020-19-6-33-47.
Texte intégralRésumé :
The article spans the growth of journalism as a profession, analyzes the process of its institutionalization in Europe, the USA and in Russia at the turn of the 19th – 20th centuries. The focus of the article is the genesis and development of professional organizations associated with internal corporate professional reflection. The journalism as a profession was established and recognized by society and the professional community almost simultaneously in European countries, in the USA, and in Russia, in the late 19th – early 20th centuries. At the same period significant changes shocked the economic, political and social spheres of these countries. Strengthening the activities of trade unions, the spontaneous struggle of workers for their rights led almost everywhere to an increase in wages and a decrease in the length of the working day. Technical innovations improved the process of collecting and disseminating information. All these above-mentioned factors encouraged the rapid development of the mass press. Publishers and journalists faced a major challenge since society demands for journalism, as one of the most public professions, at that time was extremely high, but journalists and professional community did not meet them well. The article studies the goals and functions declared by public professional journalistic organizations. As a result of investigation the author identifies several types among these institutions: organizations that maintained and broadcasted ethical and professional standards; organizations that fought for the rights of members of the corporation; organizations that provided financial support to members of the corporation; organizations that provided training for journalists; organizations that solved commercial, business problems through the intercorporate cooperation, protection of commercial interests in relations with the state. Organizations from different countries gave priority to various aspects of journalistic activity. Whereas the first European professional journalism organizations usually joined forces of the editors, journalists, and publishers to solve ethical and social problems, in the United States commercial interests and professional ethics came to the fore, so the fight for the rights and struggle for freedom of speech were far less important. The experience of journalists of the “Progressive Era” and the “Muckrakers” indicates that this is primarily due to the characteristics of political system and traditions of the country. In Russia, the process of institutionalization of corporate relations developed in accordance with global trends, but, unlike them, under state control. The main functions of professional associations were supporting members financially, establishing and codifying ethical standards.
9
Cooke, Martin. "Policy Changes and the Labour Force Participation of Older Workers: Evidence from Six Countries." Canadian Journal on Aging / La Revue canadienne du vieillissement 25, no. 4 (2006): 387–400. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/cja.2007.0015.
Texte intégralRésumé :
ABSTRACTIn response to the anticipated pressures of population aging, national governments and supranational bodies such as the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the European Union (EU) have promoted policies to encourage the labour force participation of older workers. The recent elimination of mandatory retirement in Ontario is an example of such a policy, and others include changes to national pension systems and changes to disability and employment insurance programs, active labour-market policies, and the promotion of phased or gradual retirement. This paper reviews the different policy approaches taken in the six countries included in the Workforce Aging in the New Economy (WANE) project, placing Canadian policy approaches in relation to those taken in Australia, Germany, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and the United States. From the life course perspective, the policy approaches discussed here do not consider the heterogeneity of older workers' life courses or the related domains of health and family. As well, the changes made thus far do not appear likely to lead to increased labour force participation by older workers, and some may leave older workers at greater risk of low income and low-wage work.
10
Ramonienė, Meilutė, and Jogilė Teresa Ramonaitė. "Language attitudes, practices and identity in the new Lithuanian diaspora." Russian Journal of Linguistics 25, no. 4 (2021): 1024–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.22363/2687-0088-2021-25-4-1024-1046.
Texte intégralRésumé :
After the changes in the socio-political situation in many countries of Eastern and Central Europe in the last decade of the 20th century, these countries experienced a major growth of emigration. In the context of the European Union, Lithuania is one of the countries that has faced the highest rates of emigration. The quick and somewhat sporadic emigration mainly for economic reasons is of interest both to linguists and language policy makers in order to support and give guidelines for the maintenance of the heritage language and identity. This paper deals with the data of the new post-Soviet wave of Lithuanian emigrants analysing the language behaviour and language attitudes. The aim is to look into the issues of language attitudes, practices and identity through the tripartite theoretical model - beliefs, emotions and declared language practices - of this wave and to compare it to the overall context of Lithuanian diaspora. The data analysed in this paper has been collected using quantitative (online surveys) and qualitative methods (in-depth interviews) in two research projects in the Lithuanian diaspora in 2011-2017. The main focus is on the use of the heritage Lithuanian language in various domains (home, community, friendship, church), comparing the use of Lithuanian by the post-Soviet emigrants with the language behaviour of the emigrants of earlier emigration waves. The results show equally positive beliefs and affective attitudes of the post-Soviet emigrants compared to previous waves, but a different language behaviour especially when comparing to the emigrants of the end of World War II.
11
Palat, Milan. "Integration prospects of Turkey into European Structures and Turkish Immigration to Germany." BORDER CROSSING 1, no. 1 (2014): 32–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.33182/bc.v4i1-2.515.
Texte intégralRésumé :
The objective of the paper was to evaluate Turkey’s integration prospects into European structures and relationships between immigration from Turkey and economic indicators in Germany using quantitative methods. Despite Turkey’s unclear European integration prospects, it is predicted that Turkish immigration to established member countries of the EU will continue. The strongest waves may flow to Germany, Netherlands or France, where numerous Turkish minorities are already present and where the living standards are high. Results from the statistical analysis of the paper showed a positive correlation between immigration total and the growth of gross domestic product On the other hand, a negative correlation of immigration total and unemployment was found and a positive relationship between immigration total and income total which is in agreement with the expected dependency direction. With regards to immigration from Turkey it is less correlated to unemployment than immigration total. But there is a correlation between immigration from Turkey and the stock of foreigners in Germany This is in accordance with the theoretical concept of network theory where an existing community of migrants keeps attracting new migrants because the costs and risks associated with migration are lower, thanks to established linkages to the country of origin. The observed correlation of migration and unemployment points to the fact that immigration to Germany responds to changes in demand in the labour market. Even though a time lag may occur in the case of unemployment and immigration, migration appears to be a relatively effective mechanism to offset existing imbalances in German labour markets.
12
Sokolov, D. "COVID-19 and mobilization of healthcare in the post-Soviet space." Pathways to Peace and Security, no. 2 (2020): 96–119. http://dx.doi.org/10.20542/2307-1494-2020-2-96-119.
Texte intégralRésumé :
Those social changes that took place in the Spring and Summer of 2020 because of the COVID-19 pandemic were mainly related to information pressures, lockdowns, economic collapses, and, in most cases, to civil and governmental solidarity focusing on the idea to save human lives. The political elites of Russia, Georgia, Ukraine, and Armenia largely shared European and North American ideas and practices of combatting the pandemic, sometimes successfully using media power and quarantines to solve their political problems. Belarus followed a different path that eventually proved to be costly for its leadership. The second wave turned out to be heavier than the first one: as early as October, hospital beds were typically filled completely. Even in Georgia that managed to cope with the first wave of the epidemic by the early summer, morbidity and mortality set records in November. The article explores political elites, health care management systems, medical teams, and volunteer and community networks in post-Soviet countries reacted to and changed institutionally during the two waves of the pandemic.
13
Shevchenko, O. "Formation of strategic bases of separate elements of hybrid war of the Russian Federation: legislative aspect." Uzhhorod National University Herald. Series: Law, no. 69 (April 15, 2022): 467–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.24144/2307-3322.2021.69.77.
Texte intégralRésumé :
The article reveals the evolution of the national security strategies of the Russian Federation during the years of independence through the prism of defining in them the legislator of certain elements of hybrid warfare. It is determined that at the highest state level of Russia a number of issues related to the creation of the most effective system of state security within the existing at various stages of state formation National Security Strategies of Russia remain unresolved. hybrid war they waged against Ukraine, the EU and NATO.
 The content of concepts and strategies for ensuring the national security of the Russian Federation over the past decades is revealed. It is determined that there is a need to rethink the issue of ensuring all components of Ukraine's national security as an integral part of international security, as the signal for this is a radical change in geopolitical, military, political and economic situation in the world. Of the European Union and NATO from the hybrid aggression of the Russian Federation.
 The fact that the reorientation of the economic policy of both the Russian Federation and some countries of the European Union and the United States towards ensuring only their vital problems is a certain negative factor in counteracting Russian hybrid aggression.
 The internal and external threats to national security have been studied, as well as the national interests of the Russian Federation have been formulated in order to covertly enshrine certain elements of hybrid confrontation (war).
 It was stressed that Ukraine is a European state that currently faces a wide range of hybrid threats and challenges both in the internal format of the state mechanism and in the external format of relations with the international community, especially with Russia, which necessitates effective implementation. National Security Strategies of Ukraine "Human Security - Country Security".
 It is stated that the new National Security Strategy of Ukraine 2020 significantly eliminates the existing conceptual uncertainty and inconsistencies in the assessment of real and perceived threats and challenges facing our state, as well as ways and means of effective counteraction, including some elements of hybrid warfare. .
 It is emphasized that in recent decades the Russian legislator in its strategic documents on national security (Concepts and Strategies) has systematically enshrined at the legislative level, and in fact legalized, the full range of elements of the hybrid war waged and waged by Russia against Ukraine , EU and NATO countries.
 The main elements of the hybrid confrontation (war) of the Russian Federation have been formulated, which the top leadership of Russia has veiledly enshrined in its strategic documents during the years of independence.
14
Cavric, Branko. "The new planning in the latest Yugoslav state alliance of Serbia and Montenegro." Spatium, no. 8 (2002): 14–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/spat0208014c.
Texte intégralRésumé :
In the waves of transition and recent changes to political and planning regulatory mechanisms in most eastern and central European countries, the Yugoslav planning fabric is discovering new avenues and trying to develop new endeavors within the framework of economic, political and professional independence. The main idea of this paper is to challenge the history and evolution of Yugoslav planning system, legislature administration and education; planning techniques and the planning implementation. All these and other constitutive and important elements of a viable and flexible planning need to be considerably improved, since the arrival of a new political authorities and powers. The discussion should also enhance our knowledge about trans-national approaches and different planning ideas, concepts and practices applicable in the current Yugoslav planning environment. This could lead to a new planning based on global thinking and an interconnected world, flavoured with locally sustainable planning solutions that could bring the Yugoslav planning machinery on the board of the new century. At the same time, this approach would reflect how the Yugoslav planning community could improve its "own values" whilst looking forward to creating a modern and efficient planning mechanism.
15
Mosakova, E. A., and K. Kizilova. "Labor market in the UK in digital era: The gender dimension." RUDN Journal of Sociology 21, no. 3 (2021): 512–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.22363/2313-2272-2021-21-3-512-519.
Texte intégralRésumé :
The article considers gender discrimination in the field of labor relations in the United Kingdom (UK) in the pre-covid period. In the past decades, the Western European countries have made the most significant progress in achieving gender equality in various fields, including labor relations, and became the world leader in this area. However, despite all the efforts of the international community, no country has achieved a full gender equality, and Great Britain is no exception. The authors argue that the British anti-discrimination legislation (before leaving the European Union) was based on international acts and conventions. For a long time, there were acts and laws prohibiting discrimination in the labor market, which seriously hindered the implementation of an effective anti-discrimination policy in the sphere of labor relations. It was not until 2010 that the law on equality was passed to replace all previous laws and regulations and to provide an exhaustive list of criteria for prohibiting discrimination. As a result, Great Britain began to develop a rather strict national anti-discrimination legislation in the field of labor relations. Thus, in the past decades, the UK has been achieving gender equality in the economic sphere at a faster pace than the average European Union country. The study shows a steady decline in the gender wage gap in the UK over the past two decades, which may be considered one of the countrys most significant achievements in fighting gender discrimination in the labor market. However, there is still a number of serious challenges: a relatively low female labor force participation and employment rate, a gender wage gap and income gap, horizontal and vertical segregation, a gender gap in postgraduate education, and a significant gender gap in time spent on family responsibilities. Age discrimination presents a special problem in the sphere of labor relations in Great Britain. In the European Union, the first laws prohibiting age discrimination were adopted only in the 2000s, and in the UK - in 2006. This problem still remains extremely acute for the labor market, since age discrimination in the UK ranks third among the most common grounds for discrimination - after gender and disability.
16
Aliev, T. "Poverty in Kazakhstan." World Economy and International Relations 59, no. 12 (2015): 105–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.20542/0131-2227-2015-59-12-105-115.
Texte intégralRésumé :
To properly assess the extent of poverty in Kazakhstan it is important to understand the methodology of its definition and measurement. There are three basic concepts of measuring poverty. Absolute poverty is based on the establishment of a living wage or poverty line. The position of the World Bank is dominant in the world in the assessment of absolute poverty. The WB experts use multiple criteria income. An internationally accepted poverty line was established in 2005 at US$ 1.25 (PPP) per person per day. They also used less “hard” indicator of US$ 2 per day (in constant 2005 prices) which is the median poverty line for all developing countries. For the transitional economies WB applies poverty line based on the differential absolute poverty equal to US$ 4.3 (before 1999 – US$ 4), for developed economies – US$ 11. According to a relative concept, the category of poor includes individuals and households with income clearly insufficient to live on prevailing community standards of consumption. This approach is used primarily for the developed countries. For example, in the EU the relative poverty is defined at the level of 60% of the median per capita income. Subjective approach (developed by Leiden University, Netherlands) takes into account people’s own estimates of their welfare status. In terms of Kazakhstan, the author states that any one-dimensional approach will fail to estimate the real extent of poverty and deprivation of the population. International and national statistics fail to provide an accurate picture of the number of poor in the country and the dynamics of poverty. According to national and WB statistics, in recent decades Kazakhstan showed substantial progress in reducing poverty. However, this was achieved largely due to maintaining rather low official levels of subsistence and cost of minimum food basket. Establishment of these indicators is mainly determined by political considerations, thus it lacks objectivity. For a country aiming to improve competitiveness of its economy and to achieve the level and quality of life comparable to developed countries the focus on a poverty criteria that is close to the standards of the poorest developing countries is not acceptable. Actually, the poverty situation in Kazakhstan continues to be a serious challenge. This is evidenced by the materials of international statistics based on criteria of poverty for countries in transition; by a quite high proportion of household spending on food and the relatively low (as compared to many Eastern European countries) national poverty line. It is concluded that a large-scale poverty still persists in Kazakhstan despite high rates of economic growth.
17
Galgóczi, Béla, and Emmanuel Mermet. "Wage developments in candidate countries." Transfer: European Review of Labour and Research 9, no. 1 (2003): 50–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/102425890300900106.
Texte intégralRésumé :
This article examines wage developments in 1990-2000 in the central and eastern European candidate countries. Two basic approaches are used: a comparison of wage levels in these countries with wages in EU countries and an examination of the development of wages in relation to other indicators of economic performance in the countries observed. Nominal wage levels were found to be 17% of EU levels whereas wage levels at purchasing power parity were found to be 39% of EU levels. The authors conclude that real wages in the period between 1992 and 2000 lagged substantially behind labour productivity and, in most countries, also behind GDP growth.
18
Batrancea, Larissa M., Mehmet Ali Balcı, Ömer Akgüller, and Lucian Gaban. "What Drives Economic Growth across European Countries? A Multimodal Approach." Mathematics 10, no. 19 (2022): 3660. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/math10193660.
Texte intégralRésumé :
This research study examines the factors that determined economic growth measured by gross domestic product, gross value added, final consumption expenditure of households, and gross fixed capital formation across a sample of 36 European countries during the time frame Q3 2018−Q3 2021. We conducted a panel data analysis with the first-difference generalized method of moments (GMM) approach and cross-section fixed effects. Empirical results estimated with four econometric models indicated a significant robust impact of the independent variables exports, imports, foreign direct investment inflow, foreign direct investment outflow, social contributions, and wages on economic growth proxies. In addition, multiplex network analysis was used to investigate the connection architectures of the 36 countries, and it yielded statistical measurements for all layers in the multi-layered structure. Relevant policy implications of reported empirical results are also addressed.
19
Behr, Andreas, and Ulrich Pötter. "Downward Wage Rigidity in Europe: A New Flexible Parametric Approach and Empirical Results." German Economic Review 11, no. 2 (2010): 169–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0475.2009.00472.x.
Texte intégralRésumé :
Abstract We suggest a new parametric approach to estimate the extent of downward nominal wage rigidity in ten European countries between 1995 and 2001. The database used throughout is the User Data Base of the European Community Household Panel (ECHP). The proposed approach is based on the generalized hyperbolic distribution, which allows to model wage change distributions characterized by thick tales, skewness and leptokurtosis. Significant downward nominal wage rigidity is found in all countries under analysis, but the extent varies considerably across countries. Yearly estimates reveal increasing rigidity in Italy, Greece and Portugal, while rigidity is declining in Denmark and Belgium. The results imply that the costs of price stability differ substantially across Europe.
20
Kołoszycz, Ewa. "ECONOMIC VIABILITY OF DAIRY FARMS IN SELECTED EUROPEAN UNION COUNTRIES." Annals of the Polish Association of Agricultural and Agribusiness Economists XXII, no. 3 (2020): 129–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0014.3986.
Texte intégralRésumé :
The aim of the study was to assess the economic viability of farms specializing in dairy cattle breeding in countries with the highest share of milk production in the EU. Viability was measured using two models based on the opportunity cost of unpaid labour and equity. The study used a comparative analysis of farm viability indicators calculated on the basis of data collected in the FADN system in 2008-2017, taking changes in income in the short and long term into account. The research indicates that farms with greater economic potential were characterized by higher economic viability. Italian and Polish farms with an economic size of EUR 100,000-500,000 were considered viable and developing, as well as Italian and German farms from the group of over EUR 500,000. British and French farms were characterized by a lack of viability. The results were largely influenced by differences in the level of average wages in the national economy of the analysed countries, inputs of unpaid labour and the level and volatility of income.
21
Menguy, Séverine. "Efficiency of Demand Shocks in Order to Reduce Current Account Imbalances in the EMU." ISRN Economics 2013 (November 7, 2013): 1–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/787352.
Texte intégralRésumé :
With the current European sovereign public debt crisis and current account imbalances difficulties in the EMU, many papers now underline that the problem of the European construction is its lack of institutional framework and common economic governance necessary to make a monetary union viable. According to these papers, the solution would lie in a stronger economic cooperation, with the Northern European countries contributing to lighten the burden of the Southern debtor countries. In this context, our model shows that a symmetric positive demand shock in the EMU could only slightly reduce the external indebtedness of the Southern European countries but would efficiently reduce their public debt levels. To the contrary, an asymmetric positive demand shock in the creditor Northern European countries (e.g., an increase in German wages) could reduce the current account deficits of the Southern European countries, in particular for countries with the highest openness to trade. Nevertheless, it would worsen the indebtedness levels, and it would also increase the recessionary risks in these countries.
22
Marchal, Sarah, and Ive Marx. "Stemming the tide: What have European Union countries done to support low-wage workers in an era of downward wage pressures?" Journal of European Social Policy 28, no. 1 (2017): 18–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0958928717704747.
Texte intégralRésumé :
Governments across the European Union (EU) have been striving to get more people into work while at the same time acknowledging that more needs to be done to ‘make work pay’. Yet this drive comes at a time when structural economic shifts are putting pressure on wages, especially of less skilled workers. This article focuses on trends in minimum wages, income taxes and work-related benefits within a selection of 15 EU countries, for the period 2001–2012, with three US states included as reference cases. We find evidence for eroding relative minimum wages in various EU countries, yet combined with catch-up growth in the new member states. We also find that governments counteracted eroding minimum wages through direct income support measures, especially for lone parents. Most prevalent among these were substantial declines in income tax liabilities.
23
Kondonassis, A. J. "The European Economic Community: Thirty Years Later." Journal of Applied Business Research (JABR) 6, no. 1 (2011): 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.19030/jabr.v6i1.6312.
Texte intégralRésumé :
The European Economic Community has been in operation for about 30 years. During this period an increased economic cooperation has been attained but the goal of a truly integrated Europe has remained elusive. The Single European Act, which was ratified in 1987, represents a recommitment to an integrated Europe by 1992. It is premised on a number of changes and reforms. Above all the effectiveness of the new effort will depend on the achievement of social cohesion and supranationalism among the EEC countries.
24
Noé, Claus. "The euro - wages - employment." Transfer: European Review of Labour and Research 4, no. 1 (1998): 36–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/102425899800400106.
Texte intégralRésumé :
The arrival of the euro will do away with all possibilities of using exchange rate adjustments to accommodate excessively high or excessively low pay settlements. In a situation of mass unemployment and extremely slow price developments, there is a risk of excessively low wage settlements being reached in order to win markets to the detriment of Euro-partners. There is a threat of mercantilist races to devaluation and a deflatory spiral would destroy any successes achieved on the growth and employment front. Under a single monetary and coordinated fiscal policy (EU stability pact), there is also a need to seek to coordinate incomes policies. The participants must undertake to abide by a macro-economic criterion of wage determination. The productivity trends of the national economies, taken together with the European Central Bank's unavoidable inflation forecast, are useful macro-economic indicators. Such concertation, hitherto neglected in the Treaties, is a task for the labour market partners and the Community bodies.
25
Pernica, Martin. "Evaluation of the adequacy of government minimum wage valorization policy in the Czech Republic in 2017 in the European context." Oeconomia Copernicana 8, no. 1 (2017): 21. http://dx.doi.org/10.24136/oc.v8i1.2.
Texte intégralRésumé :
Research background: The government of the Czech Republic has agreed to an increase in the minimum monthly wage as of the beginning of 2017 to 11,000 CZK, which represents a year-over-year increase of over 11 %. The government is thus fulfilling its objective set out in February 2014 and stipulated in the Government Statement of Purpose, i.e. to approximate the minimum wage to 40 % of average wages.
 Purpose of the article: The purpose of the article is to assess the adequacy of the Government Minimum Wage Valorization Policy, in particular from two points of view. Firstly, in view of selected macroeconomic indicators in the Czech Republic — the development of consumer prices, average gross wages, economic growth and workforce productivity. Secondly, in comparison with other EU member states which have introduced the institution of a minimum wage.
 Methods: In order to assess the adequacy of government policy to improve the social protection of the rights of the working population, a background research was conducted into the literature of important studies on the effects of minimum wages on unemployment, while the development of average gross wages in the CR, the minimum monthly wages in the CR and the Kaitz index were also analyzed. Furthermore, an evaluation of selected macroeconomic indicators in the Czech Republic was performed by means of time lines and the percentage representation of employees in the individual gross wage bands according to sex and type of economic activity. Last, but not least, a comparison was made of minimum wages, real gross domestic product per capita and workforce productivity in Euros and in purchasing power standards between the Czech Republic and countries which have enacted the institution of minimum wages.
 Findings and Value added: The minimum wage in the Czech Republic is the fifth lowest in the EU. In the long term, it is earned by approximately 3% of employees, which is less than the rate common in other EU countries. Currently, the amount of the minimum wage is below the threshold of income poverty. In comparison with the GDP per capita in PPS and real labour productivity per person employed in other EU countries, the position of the Czech Republic is significantly better, although other EU countries offer higher minimum wages. The decision of the current government to significantly increase the minimum wage as of 2017 is correct.
26
Advokatova, N. O. "FACTORS INFLUENCING ON UKRAINIAN LABOR`S MIGRATION WITHIN THE CONDITIONS OF EUROPEAN INTEGRATION." Economic innovations 19, no. 2(64) (2017): 12–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.31520/ei.2017.19.2(64).12-18.
Texte intégralRésumé :
The article presents factors influencing on the Ukrainian labor`s migration within conditions of European integration. We denoted the impact factors on migration processes in Ukraine within conditions of European integration. This analysis allows to work out measures for improving migration policy, and as a result � economical growth of the country. We defined the causes and effects. We traced the Ukrainian migration flows into the international economy. The impact factors of Ukrainian labor migration abroad within conditions of European integration in the current political and economic situation are the demographic situation, the unemployment rate, the rate of wages, migration policy, the political situation in Ukraine and in the world as well. We established the impact direction of each factor on the dynamics for the number of working migrators. So, in particular, the reduction and ageing of the population in the EU countries; the presence of hidden unemployment in Ukraine; the problems of youth employment after graduation; the excess of the EU countries� wages in 3-5 times over Ukraine`s wages; the absence of specific activity in Ukraine aimed at repatriation of Ukrainians, and, on the contrary, the presence of such activity in foreign countries; political instability in Ukraine are all factors that contribute increasing of Ukrainian migrants� number to the EU.
27
Alfiyah, Nur Inna, and Very Andrianingsih. "DAMPAK KRISIS EKONOMI YUNANI TERHADAP EUROPEAN ECONOMIC COMMUNITY (EEC)." PERFORMANCE: Jurnal Bisnis & Akuntansi 11, no. 1 (2021): 55–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.24929/feb.v11i1.1318.
Texte intégralRésumé :
Globalization is a phenomenon that cannot be separated from human life, where all international structures and orders change. Easy access to information, technology and the exchange of goods, services and ideology make globalization a very important part. Changing the structure and economic, political and social order at this time requires existing countries to adapt to all changes brought about by globalization. The birth of non-state actors in globalization then brought about its own changes, especially in the economic field. This study aims to explain how the impact of the Greek economic crisis on the European economic community. The method used in this research is a qualitative method with a descriptive approach. The results of this study indicate that the economic interdependence between European countries which has led to the birth of the European Economic Community (EEC) is very influential on one another. This can be seen from how the Greek crisis was able to change the economic policy order of member countries of the European Economic Community (EEC).
28
Malina, Anna. "Assessment of women’s situation on the labour market in EU countries." Wiadomości Statystyczne. The Polish Statistician 65, no. 3 (2020): 9–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0014.0458.
Texte intégralRésumé :
The aim of the article is to analyse and evaluate the changes in women’s situation on the labour market of European Union countries in the years 2005–2018. The analysis focused on the economic activity of women and men and the following selected aspects of the labour market: the employment and unemployment rates and the relation between women and men’s wages. A hypothesis that women’s situation on the labour market improved, and the pay discrimination against women shrank in EU countries, has been formulated. The study utilised statistical data from the Eurostat Data Base. The evaluation of women’s situation was performed by means of a synthetic measure whose values were determined using the non-standard formula. That measure served as the basis for the linear ordering of EU countries according to the situation of women on the labour market. The study demonstrated that overall, women’s situation on the labour market improved in most EU countries in the analysed period. In all EU countries, the employment rate of women remains lower than the employment rate of men, and additionally, the former strongly varies throughout EU countries. The indicator which differentiates between the women’s and men’s labour markets to a large extent is the percentage of persons employed part-time. Part time employment is more popular in Western European countries and concerns women to a much greater extent than men. The study indicates that the levelling of women’s and men’s wages is taking place; nevertheless, women’s wages in nearly half of EU countries still do not exceed 80% of men’s average wages.
29
Babic, Blagoje. "Economic relations between Slavic countries." Zbornik Matice srpske za drustvene nauke, no. 128 (2009): 7–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/zmsdn0928007b.
Texte intégralRésumé :
Economic relations between Slavic countries are a taboo topic. This is a reflection of divisions in Europe, which have also been transmitted to the Slavic world. Although the aspiration for Slav unification has existed for centuries, Slavic peoples have been a part of a single community only once - and even then not of their own choice - in the Eastern Block, which emerged from the division of Europe after the Second World War. The decomposition of the Eastern Bloc was followed by the decomposition of the Slavic world as well, which became more disunited than ever before. Changes that have been occurring in Europe - the incorporation into the European Union of several Slavic countries, the transformation of socio-economic systems in the Slavic countries and the global economic crisis - are driving the Slavic peoples toward a gathering on a new basis. The Slavic world is becoming the most promising emerging market in the world, for which the European Union is showing increasing interest. With the building of a pan-European energy infrastructure, which would also encompass all the Slavic countries, coupled with efforts toward creating a 'single European economic space' that would include both the European Union and Russia, all Slavic peoples will be united by common economic interests. Pan-European arrangements have as a consequence the development of economic relations among Slavic countries, bringing added benefit to their mutual political relations as well. Paradoxically, the European Union is accomplishing for the Slavic peoples what the Slavic peoples aren't able to accomplish for themselves.
30
Fuentes, Itzel, Karla Henriquez, Fausto Muñoz, et al. "COVID-19 situation in Honduras: lessons learned." Gaceta Médica de Caracas 128, S2 (2020): S242—S250. http://dx.doi.org/10.47307/gmc.2020.128.s2.12.
Texte intégralRésumé :
Introduction: Several emerging and re-emerging diseases in the last decade have shown the global weakness to detect and act in a timely manner in situations that threaten the health of the planet. Latin America has been vulnerable to outbreaks as a result of increased poverty, social inequity and the poor response capacity of the public health system. Objective: Describe the situation of COVID-19 in Honduras and the challenges it presents. Methodology: Analysis of the epidemiology and control strategies applied in the country to contain the spread of SARS-CoV-2, in the context of the social and economic reality until September 18, 2020. Results: Honduras ranks fifth in Central America in the number of tests performed; the cumulative incidence rate of cases is 7 105 per million inhabitants. The country has an accelerated growth in the percentage of positivity with intense community transmission. Some 63.4 % of cases are concentrated in the group 20-49 years old (43 624 cases); 15.2 % in adults 60+ (10 440 cases) and 7.5 % in children under 20 (5 133 cases). With a disjointed health system and a chronic and recurrent shortage of physical and human resources, the National Risk Management System (SINAGER), which includes the Ministry of Health (SESAL), implemented various strategies to reduce the spread of the virus. Some control measures were border closures, physical distancing and the use of masks were made mandatory by legislative decree. The serious impact on the weak national economy forced an intelligent opening coinciding with the rise of cases. Conclusions: Current data show that the age group most affected is adults between 20 and 49 years old. The country’s socioeconomic situation has been aggravated by the pandemic; the continuous rise in the number of cases, hospitalizations and deaths has collapsed the public health system leaving the majority of Hondurans in continuous vulnerability. Primary care clinics and mobile medical brigades have been implemented as a new way to contain the spread and impact of transmission. Several European countries and cities in the Americas have had to reverse the process of economic reopening when faced with successive waves of outbreaks. Honduras has demonstrated limited capacity to deal with catastrophic situations. The national epidemiological surveillance system and access to timely and quality diagnostic tests remain weak and fragmented. There is an urgent need to improve the health and surveillance system to guide strategic evidence-based decision making and to prevent future pandemics.
31
Adriaenssens, Niels, Robin Bruyndonckx, Ann Versporten, et al. "Consumption of quinolones in the community, European Union/European Economic Area, 1997–2017." Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 76, Supplement_2 (2021): ii37—ii44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jac/dkab176.
Texte intégralRésumé :
Abstract Objectives Data on quinolone consumption in the community were collected from 30 EU/European Economic Area (EEA) countries over two decades. This article reviews temporal trends, seasonal variation, presence of change-points and changes in the composition of main subgroups of quinolones. Methods For the period 1997–2017, data on consumption of quinolones, i.e. ATC group J01M, in the community and aggregated at the level of the active substance, were collected using the WHO ATC/DDD methodology (ATC/DDD index 2019). Consumption was expressed in DDD per 1000 inhabitants per day and in packages per 1000 inhabitants per day. Quinolone consumption was analysed by subgroups based on pharmacokinetic profile, and presented as trends, seasonal variation, presence of change-points and compositional changes. Results In 2017, quinolone consumption in the community expressed in DDD per 1000 inhabitants per day varied by a factor of 8.2 between countries with the highest (Bulgaria) and the lowest (Norway) consumption. The second-generation quinolones accounted for >50% of quinolone consumption in most countries. Quinolone consumption significantly increased up to 2001, and did not change significantly afterwards. Seasonal variation increased significantly over time. Proportional consumption of third-generation quinolones significantly increased over time relative to that of second-generation quinolones, while proportional consumption of both third- and second-generation quinolones significantly increased relative to that of first-generation quinolones. Levofloxacin and moxifloxacin represented >40% of quinolone consumption in the community in southern EU/EEA countries. Conclusions Quinolone consumption in the community is no longer increasing in the EU/EEA, but its seasonal variation continues to increase significantly as is the proportion of quinolones to treat respiratory infections.
32
Deng, Haoran, Tzuhan Lin, Zihao Ma, and Yixi Wang. "The impact of European Monetary Union on different countries within the EU." Highlights in Business, Economics and Management 2 (November 6, 2022): 255–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.54097/hbem.v2i.2371.
Texte intégralRésumé :
The decision on the establishment of economic and Monetary Union will be regarded as a major event in the economic history of Europe. A stable European monetary structure will affect the future not only of the Member States of the Community, but also of the whole world. It is likely to serve as a guidepost for the economic policies of future members of the European Community, such as Austria, Sweden and Finland, as well as the emerging market economies of Central and Eastern Europe. These countries are looking forward to closer links with the European Community. Monetary union would also provide a currency for the European Community. The creation of economic and monetary union is a complex undertaking from both a technical and a political point of view. It requires a high degree of consistency between economic policy and performance. At the same time, it would greatly reduce the economic autonomy of participating countries. The traditional differences in the economic and monetary policies of the member states of the European Community also have different effects. Therefore, this paper mainly studies the influence of EMU on different EU countries by studying the EU's political ideology, historical and economic development, economic main body structure and cultures of different EU countries.
33
V, Kovorotnyi, and Levchenko O. "PROBLEMS OF HUMAN RESOURCES OF THE ENTERPRISES OF THE TRANSPORT COMPLEX OF UKRAINE." National Transport University Bulletin 49, no. 2 (2021): 84–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.33744/2308-6645-2021-2-49-084-094.
Texte intégralRésumé :
The object of research – staffing, labor market trends and employment in enterprises by type of activity «Transport, warehousing, postal and courier activities». The purpose of the work – 1) to investigate 93 the indicators of wages and labor movement in domestic enterprises by type of economic activity «Transport, warehousing, postal and courier activities»; 2) compare labor market indicators with those of the European Union. The research method is monographic and statistical. The article is devoted to the study of trends in the staffing of domestic enterprises by type of economic activity «Transport, warehousing, postal and courier activities», including by sectors: land transport, water transport, air transport, warehousing and ancillary activities in the field of transport, sweating and courier activities. An international comparison of wage indicators in these sectors of economic activity «Transport, warehousing, postal and courier activities». The results of the study show that the main trends in the labor market by type of economic activity «Transport, warehousing, postal and courier activities» are unequal pay in the sectors of economic activity; high staff turnover; growing demand for skilled workers; uncompetitive level of wages compared to the countries of the European Union; the possibility of free movement of labor to EU countries. This situation complicates the work of domestic enterprises and negatively affects their efficiency. Further areas of research are to study the dependence of the efficiency of enterprises of the activity «Transport, warehousing, postal and courier activities» on the general economic and social factors that have formed in Ukraine; development of proposals for the formation of state personnel policy in the field of transport. KEY WORDS: PERSONNEL, HUMAN RESOURCES, TRANSPORT, STATE POLICY, EMPLOYMENT, WAGES, LABOR MARKET, PERSONNEL TURNOVER, TRANSPORT ENTERPRISES
34
Versporten, Ann, Robin Bruyndonckx, Niels Adriaenssens, et al. "Consumption of cephalosporins in the community, European Union/European Economic Area, 1997–2017." Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 76, Supplement_2 (2021): ii22—ii29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jac/dkab174.
Texte intégralRésumé :
Abstract Objectives Data on cephalosporin consumption in the community were collected from 30 EU/EEA countries over two decades. This article reviews temporal trends, seasonal variation, presence of change-points and changes in the composition of the main subgroups of cephalosporins. Methods For the period 1997–2017, data on consumption of cephalosporins (i.e. first-, second-, third- and fourth-generation cephalosporins; ATC subgroups J01DB, J01DC, J01DD and J01DE, respectively) in the community and aggregated at the level of the active substance, were collected using the WHO ATC/DDD methodology (ATC/DDD index 2019). Consumption was expressed in DDD per 1000 inhabitants per day and in packages per 1000 inhabitants per day. Cephalosporin consumption was analysed based on ATC-4 subgroup, and presented as trends, seasonal variation, presence of change-points and compositional changes. Results In 2017, cephalosporin consumption in the community expressed in DDD per 1000 inhabitants per day varied by a factor of 285 between countries with the highest (Greece) and the lowest (the Netherlands) consumption. Cephalosporin consumption did not change significantly between the first quarter of 1997 and the last quarter of 2017. Seasonal variation decreased significantly over time. Proportional consumption of second- and third-generation cephalosporins significantly increased over time compared with that of first-generation cephalosporins, and proportional consumption of fourth-generation cephalosporins significantly decreased compared with that of second- and third-generation cephalosporins. Conclusions Despite considerable variation between countries in the composition of cephalosporin consumption and trends over time, a significant shift towards consumption of more broad-spectrum cephalosporins in the community was observed across the EU/EEA during 1997–2017.
35
Bruyndonckx, Robin, Niels Adriaenssens, Niel Hens, et al. "Consumption of penicillins in the community, European Union/European Economic Area, 1997–2017." Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 76, Supplement_2 (2021): ii14—ii21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jac/dkab173.
Texte intégralRésumé :
Abstract Objectives Data on consumption of penicillins in the community were collected from 30 EU/European Economic Area (EEA) countries over two decades. This article reviews temporal trends, seasonal variation, presence of change-points and changes in the composition of the main subgroups of penicillins. Methods For the period 1997–2017, data on consumption of penicillins, i.e. β-lactam antibacterials, penicillins (ATC group J01C), in the community aggregated at the level of the active substance, were collected using the WHO ATC/DDD methodology (ATC/DDD index 2019). Consumption was expressed in DDD per 1000 inhabitants per day and in packages per 1000 inhabitants per day. Consumption of penicillins was analysed based on ATC-4 subgroups, and presented as trends, seasonal variation, presence of change-points and compositional changes. Results In 2017, consumption of penicillins in the community expressed in DDD per 1000 inhabitants per day varied by a factor of 4.9 between countries with the highest (Spain) and the lowest (the Netherlands) consumption. An increase in consumption of penicillins, which was not statistically significant, was observed between 1997 and 2003 and up to 2010. A decrease, which was not statistically significant, was observed from 2010 onwards. Proportional consumption of combinations of penicillins, including β-lactamase inhibitors (J01CR) increased during 1997–2017, which coincided with a decrease in the proportional consumption of extended-spectrum penicillins (J01CA) and narrow-spectrum penicillins (J01CE). Conclusions Considerable variation in the patterns of consumption of penicillins was observed between EU/EEA countries. The consumption of penicillins in the EU/EEA community did not change significantly over time, while the proportional consumption of combinations of penicillins increased.
36
Gylka, K. "Prospects for European Integration of the Republic of Moldova and the Constitutional Component." Scientific Research and Development. Economics of the Firm 10, no. 2 (2021): 84–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.12737/2306-627x-2021-10-2-84-89.
Texte intégralRésumé :
The European Union (EU) is an economic and political union of 28 European countries. The population is 508 million people, 24 official and working languages and about 150 regional and minority languages. The origins of the European Union come from the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) and the European Economic Community (EEC), consisting of six states in 1951 - Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg and the Netherlands. These countries came together to put an end to the wars that devastated the European continent, and they agreed to share control over the natural resources needed for war (coal and steel). The founding members of ECSC have determined that this European project will not only be developed in order to share resources or to prevent various conflicts in the region. Thus, the Rome Treaty of 1957 created the European Economic Community (EEC), which strengthened the political and economic relations between the six founding states. The relevance of the topic stems from their desire of peoples and countries to live better. The purpose of the study is to identify the internal and external development mechanisms of European countries and, on this basis, to formulate a model of economic, legislative and social development for individual countries. The results of the study provide a practical guideline for determining the vector of the direction of efforts of political, economic, legislative, humanitarian, etc.
37
Veiga, Francisco José. "Forecast errors in prices and wages: the experience with three programme countries." Notas Económicas, no. 44 (February 28, 2018): 7–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.14195/2183-203x_44_1.
Texte intégralRésumé :
This paper evaluates the accuracy of price and wage forecasts made under the scope of the Greek, Portuguese and Irish Economic Adjustment Programmes (EAPs). Besides comparing the quality of forecasts for the three EAPs, it checks if they were less accurate than forecasts for other euro area countries, and compares the European Commission’s forecasts with those of the IMF and OECD. Programme forecasts for Greece were, overall, the least accurate, but those made under the second Greek EAP seem to have gotten closer to actual values. The results also suggest that EC forecasts were not less accurate than those produced by the IMF or the OECD.
38
Boţoroga, Cosmin-Alin, Alexandra Horobeţ, Lucian Belaşcu, Alexandra Smedoiu Popoviciu, and Aura Gîrlovan. "Assessing the Nexus Between Education, Economic Growth, and Innovation: An Empirical Analysis." Studies in Business and Economics 17, no. 3 (2022): 18–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/sbe-2022-0043.
Texte intégralRésumé :
Abstract Countries with a higher proportion of tertiary education graduates are wealthier and offer more diverse and motivating career opportunities to individuals, including students. In recent years, an increasing number of studies have examined the impact of education on wages and economic development and the impact of R&D and innovation on economic and social progress. However, research has focused less on the specific impact of education components (competencies, learning methods, information and communications, technology, and infrastructure) on economic development and innovation. The paper uses quantitative research methodology and dynamic panel models explore the impact of education on economic development, wages, and innovation in the European Union countries and countries that participate in PISA testing, over the period 2012-2019. The data was gathered from Eurostat, and the time period studied ranged from 2012 to 2019. We found evidence that the substantial funding of R&D and education, which promote innovation, supports a country’s need to develop and distinguish itself from others that underfund the most critical areas of economic development. The implications of this study are significant for Romania’s academic and political environments, as it encourages changes in educational policies that will consider the multifaceted impact of educational components on development through innovation.
39
Spasojević, Boris, Aleksandar Đukić, and Dragan Stanković. "Reforms of the Community Agrarian Policy: Misconception or New Agricultural Architecture?" ECONOMICS 5, no. 2 (2017): 125–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/eoik-2017-0024.
Texte intégralRésumé :
Summary The European Union is the most complex and by any aspect the most unique example of a regional economic integration. Its origin, evolution and survival are based on a common legislative and institutional framework. The so-called common policies implemented in a number of economic and non-economic areas are particularly distinctive. Most of them are implemented on two levels: national and communal. The only common policy that is fully implemented at the European Union level is the Community Agrarian Policy (CAP), whereas the agriculture has the highest expenditure in the communal budget. The function of CAP is primarily economic as its goals are strictly related to economic issues: price stability of agricultural products, productivity growth, higher wages for the farmers, etc. The CAP strengthens the Union’s social cohesion, which is of utmost importance in times of constant crises, BREXIT and other extreme instabilities. For this reason, the CAP has been in the processes of continuous reforms (MacShary, Mansholt and those of recent times) for decades, in order to increase its efficiency and justify enormous financial investments. The CAP results depend on the achievement of preset objectives and the exchange of agricultural products and food that the European Union generates globally. It has been demonstrated that the CAP is a significant common policy, both in achieving economic goals and in the sphere of strengthening communal cohesion.
40
Bruyndonckx, Robin, Ana Hoxha, Chantal Quinten, et al. "Change-points in antibiotic consumption in the community, European Union/European Economic Area, 1997–2017." Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 76, Supplement_2 (2021): ii68—ii78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jac/dkab179.
Texte intégralRésumé :
Abstract Objectives Surveillance of antibiotic consumption in the community is of utmost importance to inform and evaluate control strategies. Data on two decades of antibiotic consumption in the community were collected from 30 EU/European Economic Area (EEA) countries. This article reviews temporal trends and the presence of abrupt changes in subgroups of relevance in antimicrobial stewardship. Methods For the period 1997–2017, data on yearly antibiotic consumption in the community, aggregated at the level of the active substance, were collected using the WHO ATC classification and expressed in DDD (ATC/DDD index 2019) per 1000 inhabitants per day. We applied a range of non-linear mixed models to assess the presence of changes in the consumption of antibacterials for systemic use (ATC group J01) and eight antibiotic subgroups. Results For the majority of the studied groups, a country-specific change-point model provided the best fit. Depending on the antibiotic group/subgroup and on the country, change-points were spread out between 2000 and 2013. Conclusions Due to the heterogeneity in antibiotic consumption in the community across EU/EEA countries, a country-specific change-point model provided the better fit. Given the limitations of this model, our recommendation for the included countries is to carefully interpret the country-specific results presented in this article and to use the tutorial included in this series to conduct their own change-point analysis when evaluating the impact of changes in regulations, public awareness campaigns, and other national interventions to improve antibiotic consumption in the community.
41
Adriaenssens, Niels, Robin Bruyndonckx, Ann Versporten, et al. "Quality appraisal of antibiotic consumption in the community, European Union/European Economic Area, 2009 and 2017." Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 76, Supplement_2 (2021): ii60—ii67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jac/dkab178.
Texte intégralRésumé :
Abstract Objectives The quality of antibiotic consumption in the community can be assessed using 12 drug-specific quality indicators (DSQIs) developed by the European Surveillance of Antimicrobial Consumption (ESAC) project. We compared quality in 2009 and 2017 in the EU/European Economic Area (EEA) and evaluated the impact of using different DDD values (ATC/DDD indices 2011 and 2019) for the 2009 quality assessment using these DSQIs and a joint scientific opinion (JSO) indicator. Methods We calculated the 12 DSQIs and the JSO indicator for 2017 and for 2009 for EU/EEA countries able to deliver values. For each of the indicators we grouped the 2017 and 2009 indicator values into four quartiles. To evaluate changes in quality between 2009 and 2017, we used the quartile distribution of the 2009 indicator values in 30 EU/EEA countries as benchmarks. In addition, we compared the quality assessment for 2009 using the ATC/DDD indices 2011 and 2019. Results In 2017, a difference in the quality of antibiotic consumption in the community between northern and southern EU/EEA countries remained, but also several eastern EU/EEA countries shifted towards lower quality. Quality of antibiotic consumption decreased between 2009 and 2017 in particular indicator values for penicillin, quinolone, relative β-lactam and broad- versus narrow-spectrum antibiotic consumption, and seasonal variation. Using different ATC/DDD indices did not substantially change countries’ ranking based on their DSQI values. Conclusions The quality of antibiotic consumption in the community as measured by the DSQIs further decreased between 2009 and 2017, especially in Southern and Eastern European countries. A continuous effort to improve antibiotic consumption is essential to reduce antibiotic consumption in general and the use of broad-spectrum antibiotics in particular.
42
Szczepańska-Woszczyna, Katarzyna, Dainora Gedvilaitė, Joanicjusz Nazarko, Andrius Stasiukynas, and Aleš Rubina. "ASSESSMENT OF ECONOMIC CONVERGENCE AMONG COUNTRIES IN THE EUROPEAN UNION." Technological and Economic Development of Economy 28, no. 5 (2022): 1572–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.3846/tede.2022.17518.
Texte intégralRésumé :
The debate on the presence of economic benefits in the European Union (EU) is not over. The study responds unequivocally to this question, with the intensity of economic development in the countries that joined the European Union in 2004 and beyond twice as high as that of the countries that joined it this year, i.e. the EU’s old ones compared to the new ones; smoothness – 1.1 times and dynamics – 1.6 times. Another important trend for further development is that, as the level of economic development increases, its smoothness is diminishing. In respect of the context of the EP of all EU Members, it turned out that the higher intensity of enlargement was characterised by higher economic levels, with similar homogeneity and almost identical values for the dynamic indicator. The introduction to the article presents the context of the studies, i.e. two groups of EU Community countries are formed according to their level of economic development and the year of their accession to the Community, as well as a survey scheme. The literature review reveals the methods used to analyse the convergence of economic development in these countries, as members of the Community. The research methodology introduces the indicator of economic development of countries and provides a methodology for assessing its dynamics. The empirical part assesses the dynamics of economic development of both groups of countries and identifies trends in terms of convergence. The discussion section summarises the consolidation and destabilising factors in the EU and the importance of the study carried out in this context. The conclusions present the main results of the studies and outline their further directions. The results of the study can be used both in the EU and for the purpose-oriented decisions of its members on further economic development.
43
Bruyndonckx, Robin, Niels Adriaenssens, Ann Versporten, et al. "Consumption of antibiotics in the community, European Union/European Economic Area, 1997–2017." Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 76, Supplement_2 (2021): ii7—ii13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jac/dkab172.
Texte intégralRésumé :
Abstract Objectives Data on antibiotic consumption in the community were collected from 30 EU/EEA countries over two decades. This article reviews temporal trends, seasonal variation, presence of change-points and changes in the composition of the main antibiotic groups. Methods For the period 1997–2017, data on consumption of antibiotics, i.e. antibacterials for systemic use (ATC group J01), in the community, aggregated at the level of the active substance, were collected using the WHO ATC/DDD methodology (ATC/DDD index 2019). Consumption was expressed in DDD per 1000 inhabitants per day and in packages per 1000 inhabitants per day. Antibiotic consumption was analysed based on ATC-3 groups, and presented as trends, seasonal variation, presence of change-points and compositional changes. Results In 2017, antibiotic consumption in the community expressed in DDD per 1000 inhabitants per day varied by a factor 3.6 between countries with the highest (Greece) and the lowest (the Netherlands) consumption. Antibiotic consumption in the EU/EEA did not change significantly over time. Antibiotic consumption showed a significant seasonal variation, which decreased over time. The number of DDD per package significantly increased over time. The proportional consumption of sulphonamides and trimethoprim (J01E) relative to other groups significantly decreased over time, while the proportional consumption of other antibacterials (J01X) relative to other groups significantly increased over time. Conclusions Overall, antibiotic consumption in the community in the EU/EEA did not change during 1997–2017, while seasonal variation consistently decreased over time. The number of DDD per package increased during 1997–2017.
44
Sychenko, Elena V. "Measures taken in the European Union to protect workers during the pandemic." Russian Journal of Labour & Law 12 (2022): 37–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.21638/spbu32.2022.103.
Texte intégralRésumé :
This article examines EU initiatives prompted by the need to protect the labor market and working citizens in member states, and measures taken at the national level in Germany and France. The EU’s involvement in ensuring protection of workers’ rights in pandemic circumstances has been limited to formulating recommendations to countries and financial assis-tance, as well as prioritizing the social element in European Union policies. This paper examines the Support to mitigate Unemployment Risks in an Emergency instrument developed by the EU in 2020 and the draft directive on an adequate minimum wage in the EU published at the height of the pandemic in autumn 2020. A review of measures in Germany and France focuses on a mechanism to reduce working hours during the period of economic activity restrictions by placing most costs on the state. In Germany, this is the Kurzarbeit (reduced working hours) program. In France, this is the transfer to reduced working hours with the permission of the administrative authority, in the case of lost wages caused by the temporary closure of the company or part of it, or reduction of working hours below the statutory working hours. The author concludes that the rapid economic and labor market recovery in these countries is, among other things, due to the financing of the wages lost due to wage restraint from the state budget. It is of interest to further study the foreign experience of implementing reduced working hours programs for possible use in Russia.
45
Alujas, Juan Antonio. "Empleo-salarios: un binomio clave para garantizar la seguridad económica." Revista de Estudios en Seguridad Internacional 8, no. 2 (2022): 63–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.18847/1.16.5.
Texte intégralRésumé :
Economic security in its labour dimension is linked to both employment and wages, and ultimately has an impact on the level of well-being of a society. The objective of this study is to determine the differences between the countries of the European Union in relation to the level of economic security, based on the lack of employment or its precariousness and also on insufficient income, considering the unequal impact according to gender, age, educational level, type of contract and working time. The data analysed show that job insecurity generates poverty, challenging one of the key elements for European internal security, namely social inclusion.
46
Farkas, Beáta, Andor Máté, and Tamás Rácz. "A contested foundation of European integration: The free movement of labour." Society and Economy 44, no. 3 (2022): 310–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1556/204.2022.00015.
Texte intégralRésumé :
Abstract Since the eastern enlargement of the European Union (EU), the movement from east to west has become the main driver of intra-EU mobility. Recently, the free movement of labour has been contested not only in the debates around Brexit, but also in other receiving countries. It is not on the political agenda, but several studies have highlighted the economic and demographic effects of massive emigration in eastern EU Member States. More recently, the COVID-19 pandemic has disrupted the functioning of free movement. Economic integration theory assumes that migration continues until wages are equalized in the receiving and sending countries. This paper analyses the perception of intra-EU mobility in the literature and empirically tests whether there is a relationship between the dynamism of income growth in the receiving (Germany, Austria and Spain) and sending (Central and Eastern European) countries, and the dynamism of migration. The empirical results do not support the neoclassical assumption that an equalization mechanism can function, even in the long run. To cope with recent challenges, this paper argues that free movement should not be considered as an element of a spontaneous market mechanism, but as an economic-political product, based on a constitutional order.
47
Lugo-Laguna, Daniel, Angel Arcos-Vargas, and Fernando Nuñez-Hernandez. "A European Assessment of the Solar Energy Cost: Key Factors and Optimal Technology." Sustainability 13, no. 6 (2021): 3238. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su13063238.
Texte intégralRésumé :
Solar energy has become one of the most important sources of energy all around the world. Only in the European Union, between 2010 and 2019, solar photovoltaic (PV) electricity generation capacity increased from 1.9 to over 133 GW. Throughout this work, an economic analysis of the production of photovoltaic solar energy utility scale facilities is performed, previously defining some theoretical concepts relating to electricity generation by means of photovoltaic modules, as well as commenting on studies that have inspired the project. In order to carry out this economic analysis, the locations of twenty capital cities within European Union countries are selected, in order to estimate their yearly solar PV energy produced under specific conditions. The Levelized Costs of Energy (LCOE) is calculated with the goal of comparing the profitability of each photovoltaic tracking technology: fixed, one-axis tracking systems (vertical or inclined) and two-axis tracking systems; including LCOE maps country-wise for each technology. A sensitivity analysis is also presented, in order to evaluate the significance and impact of the main variables involved in the analysis. The results show that one-axis tracking systems are the best option in all countries, reducing LCOE by more than 20% when compared to two-axis tracking system. The impact of wages is also significant. In higher latitudes, in most cases, wages also increase, hence the LCOE is higher and consequently less interesting for a potential investor.
48
Demyen, Suzana, Mirela Minică, and Carmen Năstase. "THE WAGES SYSTEM IN ROMANIA – BETWEEN CONVERGENCE AND DISCRIMINATION. SUSTAINABILITY OR OVER-REGULATION?" Annals of the University of Oradea. Economic Sciences 30, no. 30 (1) (2021): 23–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.47535/1991auoes30(1)002.
Texte intégralRésumé :
Abstract: The wages system in Romania is a subject of great importance. Although, apparently, the situation on the labour market has improved during the last years, compared to the member countries of the European Union there are many problems in Romania, due to an inadequate structure in the national economy, the way in which privatization and economy restructuring were performed, the mass emigration labour market, which have generated imbalances between labour supply and demand. The paper aims at highlighting the changes in the salary system in Romania in the period of post-accession to the European Union. An analysis was conducted, the official statistical data on the evolution of the average net monthly salary were detailed, differentiated by size classes of economic agents, by gender and by sectors of the national economy. Keywords: labour market, discrimination, wages, public sector, private sector
49
Kwiatkowski, Eugeniusz. "Recent Labour Market Trends in the Visegrad Group Countries." Comparative Economic Research. Central and Eastern Europe 14, no. 2 (2011): 25–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/v10103-011-0009-z.
Texte intégralRésumé :
This study analyses labour market trends that appeared in Poland and other Visegrad Group countries during the global economic crisis, i.e. between 2007 and 2009. Special attention is paid to the changes in employment and unemployment rates that occurred in that period. For the sake of comparison, the labour market indicators are contrasted with average rates for the European Union and the euro area. The presented analysis aims to identify the degree to which unemployment rates and indicators of employment changed in the selected countries in response to the global crisis and to explain why the labour markets in the sample countries reacted differently. It also addresses the changing production volumes and labour market flexibility, particularly towards wages, employment and working time. The above analyses show that the labour markets of the Visegrad Group countries changed significantly during the global economic crisis, i.e. between 2007 and 2009; unemployment rates rose, while volumes and rates of employment decreased. In Poland, the two indicators changed their values relatively insignificantly, but in Hungary, Slovakia and the Czech Republic the changes were quite distinct. In the crisis years, Polish employment fell and unemployment increased to a relatively small degree. Although the main reason for this was the quite favourable growth trend in the Polish GDP, cuts in real wage and working time reductions also played a role. The relatively marked decline in the Hungarian employment is maliny attributed to the strong downward trend in the country’s GDP, but the decline would have probably been much more extensive, if not for the reductions in working time, real wages and labour productivity. The large declines in the Slovak and Czech employment appeared because the countries' GDPs grew smaller while real wages grew bigger. Shorter working hours and limitations on labour productivity that the two countries introduced could not reverse the unfavourable employment trends that occurred during economic downturn.
50
Palat, Milan. "Avrupa’ya Türk göçü: Almanya örneği." Göç Dergisi 1, no. 1 (2014): 47–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.33182/gd.v1i1.547.
Texte intégralRésumé :
Bu çalışmanın amacı, Türkiye’den göç ve Almanya’nın ekonomik göstergeleri arasındaki ilişkiyi, nicel metot yöntemleri kullanarak değerlendirmektir. Türkiye’nin belirsiz Avrupa ile bütünleşme beklentilerine rağmen Avrupa Birliğinin köklü üyelerine olan Türk göçü devam edecektir. Çok sayıda Türk azınlığın yaşadığı ve hayat standartlarının yüksek olduğu Almanya, Hollanda ve Fransa’ya büyük bir göç dalgası gerçekleşebilir. Çalışmanın istatistiksel bölümünün sonuçları, toplam göç ile gayri safi yurtiçi hasıladaki büyüme arasında pozitif, toplam göç ile işsizlik arasındaki negatif ve tahmin edilen bağımlılık yönüyle uygunluk içerisinde olan toplam göç ile aylık gelir arasında pozitif ilişki olduğunu göstermektedir. Türkiye’den göçle işsizlik arasındaki ilişki, toplam göçle olan ilişkiden daha düşüktür. Ancak, Almanya’daki yabancı mevcudiyeti ile Türkiye’den göç arasında bir ilişki bulunmaktadır. Bu durum, var olan göçmen topluluğunun olduğu yerin, yeni göçmenleri, köken bağlarına dayanarak cezbetmesi ve maliyet- riskler sebebiyle göçün düşük seviye de olduğuna dayanan kuramsal Ağ teorisi görüşü ile uygunluk göstermektedir. Göç ve işsizlik arasında gözlenen ilişki, Almanya’ya göçün işgücü piyasasında talepte meydana gelen değişime karşılık geldiği gerçeğini göstermektedir. İşsizlik ve göç olgularının meydana geliş zamanlarında bir aralık olsa bile göç, Alman emek pazarında var olan dengesizliklerin azaltılmasında nispeten etkili bir mekanizma gibi görünmektedir. ENGLISH TITLE & ABSTRACTTurkish Immigration to the European Union: The Case of GermanyThe objective of the paper was to evaluate the relationships between immigration from Turkey and economic indicators in Germany using quantitative methods. Despite Turkey’s unclear European integration prospects, it is predicted that Turkish immigration to established member countries of the EU will continue. The strongest waves may flow to Germany, Netherlands or France, where numerous Turkish minorities are already present and where the living standards are high. Results from the statistical analysis of the paper showed a positive correlation between immigration total and the growth of gross domestic product. On the other hand, a negative correlation of immigration total and unemployment was found and a positive relationship between immigration total and income total which is in agreement with the expected dependency direction. With regards to immigration from Turkey it is less correlated to unemployment than immigration total. But there is a correlation between immigration from Turkey and the stock of foreigners in Germany This is in accordance with the theoretical concept of network theory where an existing community of migrants keeps attracting new migrants because the costs and risks associated with migration are lower, thanks to established linkages to the country of origin. The observed correlation of migration and unemployment points to the fact that immigration to Germany responds to changes in demand in the labour market. Even though a time lag may occur in the case of unemployment and immigration, migration appears to be a relatively effective mechanism to offset existing imbalances in German labour markets.