Littérature scientifique sur le sujet « Vows (Tantric Buddhism) »

This article examines the hierarchical systems established in Buddhist communities of Central Asia.  Hierarchies are viewed in the spiritual context: by level of taking of vows, educational attainment, level of practical implementation of knowledge, rank in the institution of “Reincarnated Lamas”; as well as hierarchies important in administrative context, such as levels of responsibility, governance of monasteries, rank within the structure of state administration, and interaction with government institutions. It is noted that genetically all of them ascend to Teacher – student hierarchy. This work explores the evolution of these hierarchies under the changing historical conditions, as well their complex interrelations. It is demonstrated that hierarchical system evolved depending on such factors, as the development of monastic education, increased role in the communities of “Reincarnated Lamas”, shift in the role of monasteries within state administration along with the role of government in regulation of the religious institutions. It is determined that hierarchies partially intersected, but also diverged due to the possibility of relatively autonomous practice of Sutra and Tantra, which formed different types of communities –  sangha and ganachakra respectively. In Russia, Buddhist communities were integrated into the system of state-religious relations, which required centralization of religious community resulting in the fact that the administrative church structures took the central stage. Liberalization of state control of the religious activity in post-Soviet Russia led to the emergence of multiple secular Buddhist associations that practiced Mahayanist and tantric methods structured as ganachakra. The central place was held by the structure of religious hierarchy along with “Teacher – student” relations. The conclusion is made that such structural differentiation of Buddhist communities is the results of the natural course of self-determination of various traditions in the conditions of freedom of religion.

This article examines the hierarchical systems established in Buddhist communities of Central Asia.  Hierarchies are viewed in the spiritual context: by level of taking of vows, educational attainment, level of practical implementation of knowledge, rank in the institution of “Reincarnated Lamas”; as well as hierarchies important in administrative context, such as levels of responsibility, governance of monasteries, rank within the structure of state administration, and interaction with government institutions. It is noted that genetically all of them ascend to Teacher – student hierarchy. This work explores the evolution of these hierarchies under the changing historical conditions, as well their complex interrelations. It is demonstrated that hierarchical system evolved depending on such factors, as the development of monastic education, increased role in the communities of “Reincarnated Lamas”, shift in the role of monasteries within state administration along with the role of government in regulation of the religious institutions. It is determined that hierarchies partially intersected, but also diverged due to the possibility of relatively autonomous practice of Sutra and Tantra, which formed different types of communities –  sangha and ganachakra respectively. In Russia, Buddhist communities were integrated into the system of state-religious relations, which required centralization of religious community resulting in the fact that the administrative church structures took the central stage. Liberalization of state control of the religious activity in post-Soviet Russia led to the emergence of multiple secular Buddhist associations that practiced Mahayanist and tantric methods structured as ganachakra. The central place was held by the structure of religious hierarchy along with “Teacher – student” relations. The conclusion is made that such structural differentiation of Buddhist communities is the results of the natural course of self-determination of various traditions in the conditions of freedom of religion.

Among the works of the Japanese Buddhist teacher Kūkai (774–835), not only treatises deserve attention, but also small works written on the occasion of vari­ous rites. In them, the basic provisions of Tantrism (mikkyō) are applied to ex­plain the meaning of the ritual and its significance for the community. The article considers one of such works: Ganmon at the offering-pūjā of ten thousand lamps on Mount Takano (Takano no yama mantōe no ganmon, 832). At the beginning, Kukai speaks here about the universal law of causality, arguing that both suffer­ing and liberation have a cause, after which he praises the Buddha Mahā­vairochana, whose light is able to dispel all obstacles on the path to enlighten­ment. Then the ritual itself is described – the offering of ten thousand lamps and flowers. Kūkai also talks about plans for the future: to regularly perform the cer­emony once a year and follow their vows until all living beings are freed from the cycle of rebirth. This is followed by a good wish – Kūkai hopes for the effec­tiveness of the rite and wishes all living things to achieve liberation, after which he says that his benefactors are all living beings. Thus, he performs parinama (“direction of merit”), turning the beneficial effects of the ritual to the benefit of all living things.

The 20th century brought different periods in the history of Mongolia including theocracy, socialism and democracy. This article describes what renouncing the world (especially the home and the family), taking ordination, and taking monastic vows meant at the turn of the 20th century and a century later. Extracts from interviews reveal the life of pre-novices, illustrating their family backgrounds, connections with family members after ordination, and support from and towards the family. The master-disciple relationship which was of great significance in Vajrayāna tradition, is also described. As few written sources are available to study monks’ family ties, the research was based on interviews recorded with old monks who lived in monasteries in their childhood (prior to 1937), monks who were ordained in 1990, and pre-novices of the current Tantric monastic school of Gandantegčenlin Monastery. The interviews revealed similarities and differences in monastic life in given periods due to historical reasons. Though Buddhism could not attain its previous, absolutely dominant role in Mongolia after the democratic changes, nowadays tradition and innovation exist in parallel.

Abstract Initiation (abhiṣeka) in Indian Buddhism had a long trajectory, beginning as lustration offerings to the bodhi tree and concluding with the sexual practices of tantric Buddhism. Between these two, abhiṣeka rites were developed that first reflected one of the primary values—purification, especially purification for those associated with the maṇḍala worship practices of fifth-century Indian Buddhism. By the seventh century, the purificatory practices were modified and patterned after the coronation rituals association with Indian kingship, now employed as a gateway ritual in which the candidate would be allowed entrance into the maṇḍala and sworn to secrecy. As such, they also reflected the other primary value: vivification or infusion with vitality, as the vivification of a king who is both human and divine. Concomitant with entrance into the maṇḍala was commitment to vows of behavior and permission to recite mantras of specific Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. Finally, in the eighth century, Buddhist tantrism was again modified to accept sexual practice, with the creation of “higher” initiations in the Yoga- and Yoginītantras.

This chapter addresses the role of vows in Buddhist ethics. Vows generate new moral perspectives, as well as new agent-relative moral considerations. Among the vows addressed are the lay vows, monastic vows, bodhisattva vows, and tantric vows. The chapter discusses the diverse Buddhist interpretations of the metaphysical status of vows, and the ways that they transform one’s moral landscape, changing the ethical status of actions. Also addressed here are the binding power of vows, including the roles of both initial intention and admitted exceptions, and the effects of transgressions, including atonement and confession, and the phenomenon of returning vows.