Thèses sur le sujet « Tree Population dynamic »

Conifer bark beetles are typically associated with complexes of fungi with which they can display different functional relationships. Some of the fungi, generally non phytopathogenic, are known to have a directly mutualistic interaction with the beetles, serving as nourishment to the larvae. Other associated fungi are thought to be involved in the process of exhausting plant defenses, which is a necessary step for the insects to overcome host tree resistance and colonize the plant. In the latter case, bark beetle-associated fungi are often tree pathogenic species belonging to the morphologically homogenous group of the ophiostomatoid fungi, also referred to as ‘blue-stain’ fungi. In spite of the great interest the bark beetle-fungi symbiosis has gained in time, many fundamental aspects of this relationship are still widely debated, as for instance the degree of dependence of bark beetles on the blue-stain fungi in order to succeed their establishment in the host plant. In this thesis I addressed the fungal community associated with the pine engraver beetle Ips acuminatus (Gyll.), a small bark beetle infesting thin bark of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and that has been recently reported as pest in many alpine forests. I. acuminatus associated fungal community includes the obligate nutritional fungus Hyalorhinocladiella macrospora (Franke-Grosm.) Harr. and a specific blue-stain fungus which is consistently associated with the vector, but which identity is still uncertain. Early reports describe it as Ophiostoma clavatum Math.-Käärik, while a later research reported O. brunneo-ciliatum Math. instead. Objectives of the thesis were to determine the identity of the blue-stain fungi associated with I. acuminatus, and to investigate the fungal community interactions with the host plant, in order to better define the functional relationships occurring between the bark beetle and the associated fungi, and therefore contribute to the attempts in understanding ecology and population dynamics of this damaging species. In the first work a blue-stain fungus associated with I. acuminatus specimens collected in Italy and Sweden was isolated and identified. The identification of the species was achieved with both the support of morphological methods and DNA sequence-based methods, and the species resulted to be O. clavatum, in agreement with the first researches focused on I. acuminatus associated fungi. In the second work, to clearly assess which of the previously described Ophiostoma species was the main blue-stain fungus associated with the pine engraver beetle, three loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assays were developed and employed in a survey which has covered six Italian populations of I. acuminatus. The results confirmed that the identity of the blue-stain fungus more consistently associated with I. acuminatus in the Italian Alps is O. clavatum, while O. brunneo-ciliatum was not detected in any of the samples. Results of this study showed also that the occurrence of O. clavatum varies accordingly to the population dynamic phase of the vector, and is slightly lower in the outbreak populations. In the third work, the local and systemic defense responses of Scots pine against both the nutritional and the blue-stain fungi were characterized by identifying and quantifying terpenoids, phenolic compounds, and lignin. Results indicated that Scots pine has a generic, rather than specific, induced response. The fact that the nutritional and the blue-stain fungi triggered comparable induced defense responses suggests that even a non-pathogenic fungus may participate in exhausting host plant defenses, indirectly assisting in the beetle establishment process. This finding contributes to the further development of current theories on the role of associated fungal complexes in bark beetle ecology. In the last work, correlation patterns within constitutive defense secondary metabolites of Scots pine and potential trade-offs between constitutive concentration and inducible variation of individual chemical compounds were tested. Results revealed that different compounds display different behaviors, but no overall negative associations between defensive traits were found. On the whole, the four contributions of this thesis provide suggestions for a revaluation of one of the current theories on the role of associated fungi in bark beetles host establishment, and hints to understand the role of associated fungi in the population dynamics of bark beetles. Moreover, they clarify some aspects of Scots pine defense mechanisms, highlighting its competitiveness.
Gli scolitidi delle conifere sono insetti spesso associati ad un complesso di funghi con i quali possono instaurare differenti interazioni ecologiche. Alcuni di questi funghi, generalmente non fitopatogeni, sono coinvolti in un’interazione mutualistica diretta e vengono utilizzati come nutrimento per le larve del vettore. Altri funghi associati, invece, sono ritenuti coinvolti nel processo di esaurimento delle difese della pianta, che per l’insetto è uno dei passaggi necessari per superare la resistenza dell’ospite e poterlo quindi colonizzare. In quest’ultimo caso, i funghi associati sono di norma specie patogene appartenenti al gruppo morfologico dei funghi ophiostomatoidi, noti anche come ‘funghi di azzurramento’. Nonostante l’interesse che la simbiosi tra scolitidi e funghi ha riscosso nel tempo, molti degli aspetti fondamentali di questa interazione sono ancora discussi, come ad esempio il grado di dipendenza degli insetti vettori dai loro simbionti nelle fasi di colonizzazione della pianta ospite. In questa tesi è stata presa in considerazione la comunità fungina associata a Ips acuminatus (Gyll.), un piccolo scolitide che attacca di preferenza le parti del tronco del pino silvestre (Pinus sylvestris L.) con corteccia sottile, e che di recente ha causato numerose infestazioni in varie zone distribuite sull’arco alpino. Una delle specie che fanno parte della comunità fungina associata ad I. acuminatus è il simbionte alimentare Hyalorhinocladiella macrospora (Franke-Grosm.) Harr. Fa inoltre parte del complesso anche uno specifico fungo di azzurramento costantemente associato al vettore, ma la cui identità non è ancora ben definita. Le prime segnalazioni lo descrivono come Ophiostoma clavatum Math.-Käärik, mentre ricerche successive riportano O. brunneo-ciliatum Math. Gli obiettivi che questa tesi si è prefissa sono stati determinare l’effettiva identità del fungo di azzurramento associato ad I. acuminatus, ed indagare le interazioni del complesso fungino con la pianta ospite, al fine di definire meglio le relazioni che intercorrono tra scolitidi e fungi associati, e poter quindi contribuire ai tentativi di chiarire l’ecologia e la dinamica di popolazione di questo insetto dannoso. Nel primo lavoro sono stati descritti l’isolamento e l’identificazione di una specie fungina isolata da individui di I. acuminatus raccolti in Italia e in Svezia. L’identificazione della specie è avvenuta sia grazie all’osservazione delle caratteristiche morfologiche sia mediante un approccio di tipo molecolare. La specie è risultata essere O. clavatum, come era stato indicato nelle prime segnalazioni riguardanti i funghi associati ad I. acuminatus. Nel secondo lavoro sono stati descritti la messa punto e l’utilizzo di tre sonde molecolari per loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP), con l’obiettivo di determinare quale delle due specie del genere Ophiostoma sopracitate fosse effettivamente il fungo maggiormente associato a I. acuminatus nell’arco alpino. I risultati, riguardanti sei popolazioni italiane dell’insetto, hanno confermato che la specie maggiormente presente è O. clavatum, mentre O. brunneo-ciliatum non è mai stata rilevata. I risultati di questo studio hanno mostrato anche che la frequenza di associazione di I. acuminatus con O. clavatum varia a seconda della fase epidemica, ed è minore nei nuclei di infestazione rispetto alle popolazioni endemiche. Nel terzo lavoro sono state caratterizzate le risposte sia locali sia sistemiche del pino silvestre alla colonizzazione da parte del simbionte alimentare e del fungo di azzurramento, identificando e quantificando alcuni metaboliti secondari, come terpeni, fenoli e lignina. I risultati hanno mostrato che il pino silvestre risponde in maniera generica anziché specifica all’induzione. Il fatto inoltre che il simbionte alimentare e il fungo di azzurramento abbiano stimolato una risposta simile di loro suggerisce che anche un fungo non patogeno possa partecipare al processo di esaurimento delle difese della pianta, assistendo quindi l’insetto nelle fasi di colonizzazione dell’ospite. Questo risultato contribuisce quindi allo sviluppo delle attuali teorie sul ruolo dei funghi associati nell’ecologia degli scolitidi. Nell’ultimo lavoro sono state studiate le correlazioni tra i metaboliti secondari delle difese costitutive del pino silvestre, e le correlazioni tra la concentrazione costitutiva e la variazione indotta dei singoli composti. I risultati hanno messo in evidenza una differenziazione di comportamento tra composti e l’assenza in generale di una correlazione inversa tra i tipi diversi di difese, al contrario di quanto previsto da alcune teorie. Nel complesso, i quattro contributi di questa tesi suggeriscono la rivalutazione di una delle attuali teorie sul ruolo dei funghi associati nella colonizzazione dell’ospite da parte degli scolitidi, e forniscono degli spunti per la comprensione del ruolo dei funghi associati nella dinamica di popolazione del vettore. Chiariscono inoltre alcuni degli aspetti dei meccanismi di difesa del pino silvestre, mettendo in evidenza la sua competitività.

Yellow-cedar (Chamaecyparis nootkatensis (D. Don) Spach) forests of coastal British Columbia are apparently experiencing decline in a manner similar to that observed in southeastern Alaska. In this pilot study, we collect tree-ring data from live and standing dead yellow-cedar trees from four declining sites on the North Coast of British Columbia. We use this data to compare growth patterns at our sites to those of yellow-cedar trees at non-declining and declining sites in southwestern British Columbia and southeastern Alaska and, in addition, to assess the possibility of reconstructing yellow-cedar population dynamics in declining stands using dendrochronology. We found coherent growth patterns (i.e. marker years and periods of suppression) among yellow-cedar chronologies from non-declining and declining sites across a broad geographic range as well as unique growth patterns between our chronologies from declining sites and those from declining sites in nearby Alaska. Using outer-ring dates of increment cores, we were able to estimate time since death of decade- to century-old standing dead yellow-cedar trees, although the precision of the estimates was influenced by partial cambial mortality and erosion of outer rings. Our results provide baseline dendrochronological information that will be useful for planning future studies that assess growth-climate relations and reconstruct the long-term population dynamics of yellow-cedar in declining stands.

Species of trees inhabit diverse and heterogeneous environments, and often play important ecological roles in such communities. As a result of their vast ecological breadth, trees have become adapted to various environmental pressures. In this dissertation I examine various environmental factors that drive evolutionary dynamics in threePinusspecies in California and Nevada, USA. In chapter two, I assess the role of management influence of thinning, fire, and their interaction on fine-scale gene flow within fire-suppressed populations of Pinus lambertiana, a historically dominant and ecologically important member of mixed-conifer forests of the Sierra Nevada, California. Here, I find evidence that treatment prescription differentially affects fine-scale genetic structure and effective gene flow in this species. In my third chapter, I describe the development of a dense linkage map for Pinus balfouriana which I use in chapter four to assess the quantitative trait locus (QTL) landscape of water-use efficiency across two isolated ranges of the species. I find evidence that precipitation-related variables structure the geographical range of P. balfouriana, that traits related to water-use efficiency are heritable and differentiated across populations, and associated QTLs underlying this phenotypic variation explain large proportions of total variation. In chapter five, I assess evidence for local adaptation to the eastern Sierra Nevada rain shadow within P. albicaulisacross fine spatial scales of the Lake Tahoe Basin, USA. Here, genetic variation of traits related to water availability were structured more so across populations than neutral variation, and loci identified by genome-wide association methods show elevated signals of local adaptation that track soil water availability. In chapter six, I review theory related to polygenic local adaptation and literature of genotype-phenotype associations in trees. I find that evidence suggests a polygenic basis for many traits important to conservation and industry, and I suggest paths forward to best describing such genetic bases in tree species. Overall, my results show that spatial and genetic structure of trees are often driven by their environment, and that ongoing selective pressures driven by environmental change will continue to be important in these systems.

In recent years, there has been a worldwide increase in obesity, which parallels a rise in pathologies, including type 2 diabetes, collectively termed the metabolic syndrome. Chronic, low-grade inflammation has been implicated as a major link between these diseases. Recent work showed the presence of a unique subset of CD4+Foxp3+ regulatory T cells residing in visceral adipose tissue (VAT Treg) with PPAR-g being the key transcription factor responsible for their phenotype and function in controlling adipose tissue inflammation and, thereby, insulin sensitivity. VAT Tregs inversely correlated with insulin resistance. In contrast, there was a dramatic age-associated increase in frequency of VAT Tregs in lean animals, correlating with continued insulin sensitivity, despite significant increases in body and adipose tissue weights. This increase in Treg frequencies was not observed in other lymphoid and non-lymphoid tissues, including the subcutaneous fat depot. We characterized this unique age-associated increase in VAT Tregs through the use of adoptive transfer models, in vivo labeling and tracking systems, parabiosis, and analysis of the T cell receptor (TCR) repertoire used by VAT Tregs. Our findings indicate that the progressive increase in VAT Tregs is not due to conversion of conventional CD4+ T cells nor to substantial infiltration of Tregs from the circulation and secondary lymphoid organs. However, by analyzing the TCR repertoire on a single-cell level we uncovered a striking oligo-clonal expansion of VAT Tregs, suggesting their accumulation results from in situ proliferation. We further showed that this accumulation is dependent on major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II, but not on CD1d. Finally, we showed that IL-33 was able to induce proliferation of VAT Tregs. In parallel, we extended our analysis of TCR repertoire to the Treg population residing in skeletal muscle. In acute and chronic models of muscle injury, muscle-resident Tregs underwent a substantial clonal expansion, with a particular clone being detected in multiple individuals. Taken together these studies highlight the importance of proliferation as a mechanism of Treg accumulation in tissues in response to acute and chronic inflammation.

Miombo woodlands are vast wooded savannas covering 2 million km2 in East and Southern Africa. The main feature of these landscapes with closed but not overly dense canopy is the dominance of Brachystegia, Isoberlina, and Julbernardia legume trees genera. The timing of the onset of such vegetation, mainly understood through pollen fossils remains unclear. Dated molecular phylogeny calibrated with fossils for the aforementioned genera has the potential to provide details regarding the origin of species that nowadays dominate the current woodlands and possibly of miombo vegetation as a whole. The Brachystegia is a taxonomically complex genus and is compared to the other aforementioned genera, rich in species with 21 savanna species and eight species in the African Guineo-Congolian rain forests. We aim through the thesis to identify the diversification history of Brachystegia using dated phylogenies.We first reconstruct the Brachystegia phylogeny using nearly full plastome sequences in addition to ribosomal DNA sequences. Both sequences were obtained using a genome- skimming approach. In plastid phylogeny, species represented by multiple specimens appear rarely monophyletic while plastid clades display strong geographical structuring, independently of the species. Ribosomal phylogeny conversely allowed to identify morphological clades, but the lack of DNA polymorphism prevents the reconstruction of a well-resolved Brachystegia phylogeny. The strong spatial structure detected in plastid phylogeny suggests hybridization among the different species leading to recurrent chloroplast captures. Plastomes proved very informative for tracking the past dynamics of the genus and suggest a historical westwards expansion of miombo Brachystegia during the Plio-Pleistocene. We subsequently reconstructed the evolutionary history of the genus using targeted enrichment sequencing. Phylogenetic inferences were conducted using supermatrix and summary-method approaches on a dataset encompassing around 200 individuals loci for more than 200,000 base pairs. Opposite to previous reconstructions, most species appear as monophyletic groups even if high levels of gene tree conflict between the species trees and individual gene trees are reported, suggesting either incomplete lineage sorting (ILS) and/or reticulate evolution. Introgressed plastomes, and signature of ILS and reticulation for nuclear genes when species are nevertheless relatively well delineated by nuclear genome support to some extent that Brachystegia may behave a group of interfertile but still relatively well-delineated species (i.e. syngameon). Molecular dating analysis supports a Pliocene origin for the genus, with most of the diversification events occurring during the Plio-Pleistocene. We also conducted preliminary investigations to explore the potential of the genomics approaches used in this thesis to delineate problematic species or to reconstruct the past spatial dynamic of Brachystegia in current miombo regions.Overall, through this thesis, we clarified many aspects of the taxonomically complex Brachystegia genus. Genomic data support hybridization and plastid introgression on large spatial scales, giving credit to a Brachystegia syngameon that remains yet to be furthered characterised and validated. Moreover, results indicate a fairly recent origin of dominant species of the miombo congruently with their spatial expansion documented by plastid data, giving possibly insights into the temporal and spatial evolution of the miombo woodlands
Doctorat en Sciences
info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

Water trees are a major form of degradation in solid organic electrical insulation subject to high AC voltages and water. The work is aimed at developing a more rigorous approach to analysing water tree data from ageing experiments on practical insulation geometries. Such data is in the form of tree length distributions and time-increasing tree number densities. Tree inception statistics are directly accessible from the data, but the effects of growth are convolved with those of inception. An approach is developed for analysing the data to quantify aspects of both inception and growth. In particular, mean growth rates and distributions of growth times can be estimated. The distribution of inception times seems to be close to exponential. Analysis shows that the effects of varying the field on the dynamics of inception depend upon whether the voltage or the insulation thickness is being varied. Increasing the frequency or decreasing thickness increases the number of possible water tree sites but decreases the inception rate from an average site. Frequency accelerates inception in a non-linear manner. Increasing the voltage both increases the number of sites and the inception rates. At frequencies close to 1 kHz, the mean length of a tree increases with the square root of growth time. Initial tree growth rates increase in a way that is consistent with a linear dependence on frequency. It is concluded that the approach developed can be applied to real data and is useful. It is expected that application of the approach to more extensive data sets would give rise to considerable advances in the empirical knowledge of the dependence of water treeing on various physical parameters which it is not possible to obtain using existing techniques.

The Holocene spread of Picea abies in Scandinavia provides an excellent opportunity for detailed study of the dynamics of tree spread and population expansion. Early- and mid-Holocene macrofossil evidence for the presence of Picea abies in Scandinavia has questioned traditional interpretations of the timing and direction of its spread. This study aims to determine the pattern of the spread of Picea abies in Scandinavia from pollen and other data, to evaluate the significance of possible early outpost populations and to deduce possible factors that influenced the spread and population expansion of Picea abies in Scandinavia.

Palaeoecological investigations were carried out on the sediments of four small lakes in central Sweden to gain detailed insight into the dynamics of the spread. Holocene pollen diagrams with independent dating control were collected from Fennoscandia and adjacent areas to compare the timing of selected features of the Picea abies pollen curve. Computer models were used to test possible scenarios for the spread and Picea abies population expansion.

Picea abies entered the Scandinavian peninsula from the east at different times and by different pathways. Early-Holocene outposts can be discerned in pollen records from northwest Russia, eastern and northeastern Finland for the time before 9000 cal. BP. Pollen records from Sweden and Norway indicate small Picea abies populations after 8000 cal. BP. The mid to late-Holocene spread, which superficially resembles a front-like pattern, may in fact represent a wave of expanding populations. Disturbance through fire and human activity did not significantly influence the pattern of the spread. Changing climate parameters, slow adaptation and gene flow through seeds and pollen have to be considered as possible explanations for the late spread of the tree. Population dynamics and propagule pressure are likely to be important factors that shaped the spread of Picea abies.

Avaliou-se a dinâmica do componente arbóreo de uma área de Floresta Ombrófila Mista na região sudeste do Brasil, com o objetivo de verificar seu estádio sucessional e sua aderência aos modelos dinâmicos propostos para esta formação. O primeiro, modelo lozenge, ou de substituição temporal de área, propõe que a dinâmica é influenciada por padrão de recrutamento intermitente dependente de distúrbios severos, para as pioneiras longevas, geralmente gimnospermas, que dominam estruturalmente a floresta. O segundo propõe que a presença da Araucaria angustifolia é indicativa de sucessão em curso, pois esta espécie não se regenera no interior da floresta, sendo substituída por espécies latifoliadas. Um terceiro propõe recrutamento dependente de abertura de clareiras para as pioneiras longevas. Esta avaliação foi feita em três etapas: através da dinâmica da estrutura fitossociológica observou-se se ocorreram alterações na ordem de importância das espécies; com a análise demográfica buscou-se caracterizar a estrutura de tamanho das populações arbóreas e através da análise da dinâmica espacial da floresta verificou-se se a formação de clareiras permitiu recrutamento das pioneiras longevas. Os resultados mostraram uma estrutura fitossociológica sem alteração na ordem de importância das espécies, embora tenha sido observado aumento da representação de espécies umbrófilas na submata e redução das espécies de áreas mais abertas. A análise demográfica mostrou que as gimnospermas mostram estrutura de coortes, de acordo com o que é esperado para pioneiras longevas, e que no período observado não recrutaram indicando declínio para suas populações. As espécies do dossel mostraram populações em desenvolvimento e na submata foi observada dinâmica mais intensa, com aumento populacional para espécies umbrófilas. A dinâmica espacial mostrou que várias espécies independem das clareiras para recrutamento e crescimento, mas o recrutamento, a mortalidade e o enriquecimento da floresta estão correlacionados com este processo. Não foi observado recrutamento das pioneiras longevas nas clareiras presentes na área de estudo. Estes resultados indicam que a floresta está em desenvolvimento, e que sua dinâmica é influenciada pela dinâmica das pioneiras longevas. Houve indicação de aderência aos dois primeiros modelos, e na ausência de distúrbios maiores, pode-se esperar que as pioneiras longevas sejam substituídas.
The dynamics of the tree component of a Mixed Ombrophylous Forest in the Southeast Brazil was evaluated to verify its successional stage and its agreement with dynamic models proposed for this formation. The first one, Lozenge model, or temporal plot replacement, proposes that the dynamics of long-lived pioneers, often gymnosperms, which structurally dominates the forest, is influenced by intermittent recruitment pattern, dependent of severe disturbances. The second proposes that the presence of Araucaria angustifolia is indicative of ongoing succession and that the A. angustifolia fate is to be substituted by broadleaf species. A third one proposes gap dependent recruitment for the long-lived pioneers. The evaluation was conducted in three phases: through the analysis of the dynamics of the phytosociological structure it was observed if changes occurred in the order of importance of the species, with a demographic analysis to characterize the size structure of the tree populations and through the analysis of the spatial dynamics of the forest it was investigated if gap formation fostered the recruitment of long-lived pioneers. The results showed a phytosociological structure with no change in the order of importance of the species, although it was observed an increase in the representation of umbrophyllous species in the understory and the reduction of sun tolerant species. The demographic analysis showed that the gymnosperms present a cohort structure in accordance with what is expected for long-lived pioneers and that during the observed time span they did not recruit, indicating a decline in their population. The canopy species presented populations in development and, in the uderstorey, a more intense dynamic was observed with population increases for the umbrophyllous species. The spatial analysis showed that many species are independent of gaps for recruitment and development but the forest recruitment, mortality and species enrichment are correlated with this process. It was not observed the recruitment of long-lived pioneers in the gaps presented in the study area. These results indicate that the forest is under development and that its dynamics is influenced by the dynamics of the long-lived pioneers. There was indication of adherence to the first two models and that, in the absence of major disturbances, it can be expected that the long-lived pioneers will be replaced.

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Capes
This study aimed to evaluate the behavior and health of hives of honeybees (Apis mellifera) used in pollination services in apple orchards in the municipality of Vacaria, RS. Conducted under the conventional production system. For that were evaluated during two consecutive seasons (2014/15 and 2015/16), the behavior of bees in the collection of flowers resources during the pollination period (09/23/14 to 10/20/14 – crop season 2014 / 15, 09.02.15 and 15.10.15 and between 2015/16 crop season), the occurrence of parasitism by Varroa destructor mites and infections caused by Nosema sp. areas of stored features, and areas of immature hives and A. mellifera used in the pollination of apple orchards. In the course of experiments, the hives had activities during evaluations with an average of 27.5 to 40.8’ bees observed in five minutes. Regardless of the place of origin of the hives or evaluation harvest, the nectar was the preferred feature by bees. It was found that 95% of the bees have sought nectar while only 5% of the search effected pollen. In both crops, beehives used had average ranging from 3.0 to 6.7% of parasitism by V. destructor. There was an increase in parasitism levels in the period of pollination, in high population hives, since hives with smaller populations have not followed the same behavior. The presence of spores Nosema sp. It was noted only in hives used in the harvest of 2014/15, and did not occur in the harvest of 2015/16. There are significant variations in the internal areas of stored resources and areas of immature of hives used for pollination of apple trees services, these related to places of origin, before the entry of the swarms in the orchards. It is that coming from places with large supply of resources are the most affected by the stay in the orchard. which they suffered decreases in the internal space of the hives by the withdrawal of nests in preparation for the stay in the orchards. This fact led to numerous swarming bees reflecting in food reserves and population status.
O presente estudo objetivou avaliar o comportamento e a sanidade de colmeias da abelha melífera (Apis mellifera) utilizadas em serviços de polinização em pomares de macieiras no município de Vacaria, RS. Conduzidos sob o sistema convencional de produção. Foram avaliados, no decorrer de duas safras consecutivas (2014/15 e 2015/16), o comportamento das abelhas na coleta de recursos florais no decorrer do período de polinização (23/09/14 a 20/10/14 - safra 2014/15, e entre 02/09/15 e 15/10/15 - safra 2015/16), a ocorrência de parasitismo pelo ácaro Varoa destructor e infecções causadas por Nosema sp., áreas de recursos armazenados, e áreas de imaturos em colmeias e de A. mellifera utilizadas na polinização de pomares macieiras. No decorrer do presente experimento as colmeias apresentavam atividades durante as avaliações com média de 27.5 a 40.8 abelhas observadas em cinco minutos. Independentemente do local de origem das colmeias ou safra de avaliação, o néctar foi o recurso preferido pelas abelhas. Foi verificado que 95% das abelhas buscaram o néctar enquanto apenas 5% efetuaram a busca de pólen. Em ambas as safras, as colmeias utilizadas apresentaram médias que variam de 8 3,0 a 6,7 % de parasitismo por V. destructor. Houve aumento nos níveis de parasitismo no período da polinização, em colmeias com alta população, já colmeias com populações menores não seguiram o mesmo comportamento. A presença de esporos de Nosema sp. foi constata apenas em colmeias utilizadas na safra de 2014/15, e não ocorreu na safra de 2015/16. Há variações significativas nas áreas internas de recursos armazenados e áreas de imaturos das colmeias utilizadas em serviços de polinização de macieiras, estas ligadas aos locais de origem, antes da entrada dos enxames nos pomares. Sendo que os vindos de locais com grande oferta de recursos são os mais prejudicados pela estada no pomar, os quais sofreram pelas diminuições no espaço internos das colmeias pela retirada de sobre ninhos em preparação para a estadia nos pomares. Fato que levou a inúmeras enxameações, refletindo nas reservas de alimentos e estado populacional

Orientador: Flavio Antonio Maes dos Santos
Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Biologia
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Resumo: O objetivo dessa tese foi comparar a densidade, estrutura e dinâmica de populações de três espécies de palmeiras (Astrocaryum aculeatissimum (Schott) Burret, Euterpe edulis Mart. e Geonoma schottiana Mart.) em uma paisagem fragmentada de Mata Atlântica. As populações foram marcadas em 2005, reamostradas em 2006 e 2007 em cinco fragmentos florestais (19, 21, 57, 2.400 e 3.500 ha). Todos os indivíduos das três espécies dentro das parcelas foram marcados e medidos: diâmetro à altura do solo, altura até a inserção da última folha, número de folhas e tipo de folha. Esses dados serviram para classificar os indivíduos em cinco classes: plântula, infante, jovem, imaturo e reprodutivo (Capítulo 1). Para testar a existência de relação entre densidade de cada espécie e o tamanho do fragmento, nós fizemos uma correlação para dados ranqueados, usando coeficiente de Spearman. A comparação das estruturas demográficas de cada espécie foi feita pela soma das diferenças entre o número de indivíduos em cada classe, em cada ano, para cada dois fragmentos (Capítulo 2). Para cada espécie, matrizes agregadas foram construídas para cada transição de ano, onde foram juntadas todas as parcelas de todos os fragmentos, depois estimadas as probabilidades de transição e fecundidade e calculado o ? e a sensibilidade (Capítulo 3). Matrizes agregadas foram construídas para E. edulis com os dados dos três fragmentos pequenos para comparar com a população do maior fragmento para cada transição de ano. Comparamos a dinâmica (? e elasticidade) entre os fragmentos, e quantificamos a contribuição de cada taxa vital básica para a diferença observada entre os ? das áreas através do LTRE (Capítulo 4). As densidades de A. aculeatissimum, E. edulis e G. schottiana não foram influenciadas pelo tamanho do fragmento, mas apresentaram grande variação entre as áreas. A estrutura da população de A.aculeatissimum foi alterada nos menores fragmentos, principalmente as plântulas e os reprodutivos. A estrutura populacional de E. edulis nos menores fragmentos foi fortemente impactada pela exploração do palmito; a maior parte da população estava representada por imaturos. A estrutura populacional de G. schottiana não foi afetada pelo tamanho do fragmento ou pela exploração de suas folhas. Baseado nas matrizes agregadas, os ?s de A. aculeatissimum e G. schottiana não foram diferentes de um, sugerindo que essas populações não estão crescendo e nem diminuindo de tamanho. As populações de E. edulis foram projetadas para diminuir de tamanho no segundo intervalo de amostragem. As sobrevivências das três espécies foram altas para todos os estádios e a taxa vital mais importante é a sobrevivência dos maiores indivíduos. Baseado na matriz do maior fragmento, a população de E. edulis está projetada para decrescer e baseado nas matrizes agregadas dos fragmentos pequenos, a população do E. edulis está projetada para crescer. O padrão da elasticidade para as populações foi muito similar para as duas transições de ano, com os maiores valores de elasticidade sendo para a sobrevivência das classes mais desenvolvidas. A análise do LTRE revelou que o maior ? encontrado para os menores fragmentos foi principalmente influenciado pela maior sobrevivência dos imaturos e reprodutivos. De maneira geral, sobrevivência e fecundidade contribuíram de maneira positiva para ? ?, e o crescimento teve uma contribuição negativa para o ? ?. Portanto, foram encontrados resultados bastante contrastantes para as três espécies de palmeiras estudadas. Apesar de pertencerem à mesma família botânica, as três espécies possuem características e sofrem pressões ambientais bem distintas, resultando em um comportamento diferente frente à redução do habitat e a exploração de seus recursos
Abstract: The aim of this thesis was to compare the density, the structure and the dynamic of populations of three tropical palm species, Astrocaryum aculeatissimum (Schott) Burret, Euterpe edulis Mart. and Geonoma schottiana Mart., in different size fragments of Atlantic Rain Forest. For these analysis palms were censused five forest fragments (19, 21, 57, 2.400 e 3.500 ha). We tracked the survival of the palms from year 2005 through the year 2007, and recorded all new individuals encountered. Each individual had its diameter and height measured; also the number and the kind of leaf recorded. With these measures we assigned each individual to one of the five pre-established class: seedling, infant, juvenile, immature and reproductive (Chapter 1). To test if there was a relationship between density of each species and the size of the fragment we did a correlation for rank-order data, using Spearman coefficients. The comparison of the demographic structure of each palm was analyzed with the sums of the differences between the numbers of individuals in each class in each year between two fragments (Chapter 2). Summary matrices were constructed for each transition years by pooling data from all plots of all fragments together for each species, and then estimating the transition probabilities and fecundity using pooled data. With these matrices we calculated the population growth rate (?) and its elasticities for each species (Chapter 3). We found difference between ? of E. edulis in a big and the smaller fragment. Therefore, to quantify the contribution of each lower level vital rate to the observed differences in ? between the fragments, we used a fixed-design LTRE (Chapter 4). A. aculeatissimum, E. edulis and G. schottiana densities were not influenced by the size of the fragment, but showed a high variation between areas. A. aculeatissimum population structure was altered, especially by the proportion of seedlings and reproductive individuals. E. edulis population structure in the smaller fragments seemed to be highly impacted by palm heart harvest where a large proportion of the populations were represented by immature individuals. On the other hand, fragment structure and leaf harvest did not have a strong effect on the population structure of G. schottiana. In a landscape level, A. aculeatissimum and G. schottiana asymptotic population growth rates were not significantly different from one, suggesting that populations of these palms were stable. E. edulis populations are projected to decrease in size in the second transition year. A. aculeatissimum, E. edulis and G. Schottiana survivorship was high for all stage classes. We found that the more important vital rates were the survival rates in larger stages for all three species. Based on the matrix of the bigger fragment, E. Edulis populations are projected to decrease in size. On the other hand, based on summary matrices made by pooling the three smaller fragments together, E. edulis populations are projected to growth. Our LTRE analysis revealed that the generally upper ? in the smaller fragments was due primarily to great survival of immatures and reproductives in both transitions years. On average, survival and fecundity made the largest positive total contribution to ? ?, and growth made a negative contribution to ? ?. Therefore, we found very different results or the three palms studied. In spite of being the same botany family, the species are very different in its characteristics and environmental pressure, resulting in a very different behavior in face of habitat reduction and harvesting
Doutorado
Doutor em Ecologia

Les interactions biotiques figurent parmi les processus clés de la dynamique des populations et constituent un enjeu fort pour le renouvellement et la persistance des espèces au sein des écosystèmes. En particulier, l’herbivorie par les insectes prédateurs des graines avant dispersion est un processus écologique majeur de la dynamique forestière par son impact sur le succès reproducteur des arbres et leur régénération naturelle. Cependant, les conséquences de cette herbivorie sur la dynamique et l’évolution des populations d’arbres demeurent des fronts de science, qui ont été abordés dans cette thèse de façon intégrative en combinant des approches empirique et théorique. L’approche empirique a visé la caractérisation des déterminants de la dynamique spatio-temporelle du taux de prédation des graines en forêt naturelle. Le système modèle d’interactions arbres-insectes analysé implique des Hyménoptères séminiphages (Megastigmus spp., Torymidae) et leur hôte obligatoire, le Cèdre de l’Atlas (Cedrus atlantica, Pinaceae), localisé dans le sud-est de la France. À l’échelle de la population d’hôtes, les résultats ont révélé le caractère transitoire de la distribution spatiale des insectes qui est fortement déterminée par les variations spatio-temporelles de la densité des graines. En outre, la dynamique de fructification de type ‘masting’ du Cèdre est un moteur majeur de la dynamique spatio-temporelle des insectes. De plus, on a pu montrer l’existence d’une variation inter-individuelle de la sensibilité des arbres à la prédation des graines. Une analyse préliminaire a suggéré que cette variation est en partie d’origine génétique, et les travaux complémentaires à mener en ce sens ont pu être précisés. L’approche théorique a permis d’analyser les effets conjoints du masting et de la distribution spatiale des prédateurs des graines sur les processus démographiques et la diversité génétique dans une population d’arbres en expansion naturelle. La modélisation analytique de ces interactions a révélé d’une part que la prédation des graines avant dispersion génère des effets Allee influençant la mise en place de la diversité génétique de la population d’arbres au cours d’une expansion, et que le masting est susceptible de tempérer cet impact de la prédation des graines. Ces travaux ont apporté un éclairage nouveau sur les implications possibles des insectes prédateurs des graines avant dispersion dans la dynamique et l’évolution des peuplements forestiers
Biotic interactions are among key processes in population dynamics and critical issues for the renewal and persistence of species within ecosystems. In particular, herbivory by pre-dispersal seed insect predators is a major ecological process in forest dynamics due to its impact on tree reproductive success and on natural regeneration. However, its consequence on tree population dynamics and evolution remain poorly documented. This thesis contributed to fill this gap as an integrative combination of empirical and theoretical approaches. The empirical approach aimed to characterize the drivers of the spatio-temporal dynamics of seed predation rates in natural forest. We used a system of tree-insect interactions involving seed predators (Megastigmus spp., Hymenoptera: Torymidae) and their obligate host, the Atlas Cedar (Cedrus atlantica, Pinaceae), located in south-eastern France. At the host population scale, our results revealed that the transient pattern of the spatial distribution of insects was primarily explained by spatiotemporal variations in seed density. Thus, Cedar masting appeared to be a major driving force of the insects’ spatial and temporal dynamics. We have also highlighted the existence of an inter-individual variation in the sensitivity of trees to seed predation. A preliminary analysis has suggested that such variation is partly under genetic control and we propose further analyses to be carried out in such perspective. The theoretical approach aimed to analyse the joint effects of masting and the spatial distribution of pre-dispersal seed predation by insects on demographic processes and genetic diversity in an expanding tree population. The analytical modelling of these interactions revealed on the one hand that pre-dispersal seed predation induce Allee effects that may affect the spatial structure of genetic diversity in the expanding tree population, and on the other hand, that masting was likely to buffer such demogenetic impact of seed predation. This work has shed new light on the possible implications of pre-dispersal predation by insects in the dynamics and evolution of forests

Le palmier babaçu (Attalea speciosa Mart. ex Spreng.) est une plante native de la forêt amazonienne. La déforestation a pour impact qu'il apparaît dans des milieux ouverts désormais anthropisés (pâturages, et champs cultivés). Le babaçu fait partie des ressources " extractivistes " du Brésil : activité de cueillette suivie de commercialisation de produits non ligneux. Cette activité concerne des personnes parmi les plus démunies du pays d'où l'importance de gérer au mieux sa durabilité dans un contexte conflictuel. Force est de constater que les connaissances du fonctionnement durable de l'espèce au sein de ces milieux anthropisés font cruellement défaut: son cycle de vie est peu connu et sa dynamique de population non étudiée.Le travail de thèse est donc pionnier et s'inscrit au sein d'un projet interdisciplinaire Open Science de la fondation Agropolis. L'objectif est double : il consiste à produire un modèle de la dynamique de population du babaçu validé par une analyse in situ et à capitaliser les connaissances issues de divers milieux scientifiques (biologistes, écologues, mathématiciens, informaticiens et économistes français et brésiliens). Le modèle, à plus long terme, doit étayer les recommandations relatives à la gestion durable de l'espèce.L'approche retenue a consisté à expliciter au sein de divers modèles, les connaissances partagées sur l'espèce et les modèles mathématiques potentiels ainsi que sur le contexte sociétal. Ceci nous a permis de proposer un modèle d'observation conforme aux préconisations d'OBOE (Ontologie relative a la sémantique des observations scientifiques) permettant la mise en place du protocole d'acquisition des données. L'acquisition in situ a été réalisée par le partenariat franco-brésilien entre 2013 et 2016 au sein du territoire de la communauté de Benfica (Pará, Brésil). La pérennisation des données s'est faite après conception, au sein d'une base de données spatiales prenant en compte l'aspect socio-économique.Enfin, nous proposons un modèle matriciel aléatoire ayant pour entrée des variables agrégées au niveau des stades biologiques de l'espèce. Les probabilités de la matrice de transition entre les stades sont modélisées selon un modèle hiérarchique Dirichlet-Multinomial. L'intégration des informations a priori a été formalisée grâce à une approche bayésienne. L'estimation et la validation du modèle ont été effectuées avec des critères bayésiens.Des simulations basées sur les paramètres estimés constituent une première ébauche d'étude du comportement de l'espèce
The babassu palm tree (Attalea speciosa Mart. ex Spreng.) is an endemic species of the amazonian forests. The deforestation highlights henceforth this palm tree in the anthropogenic open areas (pastures and cultivated fields). The babassu is one of the "extractive" resources in Brazil: gathering activity followed by marketing of non-timber products. This activity involves people among the most disadvantaged in the country thus the importance to better manage its sustainability in a context of conflict. It is clear that knowledge of sustainable functioning of the species within these manmade environments is sorely lacking: its life cycle is not well known and its population dynamics unstudied.This PhD work is pioneer and is a part of an Open Science interdisciplinary project of the Agropolis foundation. The objective is twofold it is to generate a model of population dynamics of the babassu palm tree validated by in situ analysis and capitalizing knowledge from various scientific communities (biologists, ecologists, mathematicians, computer scientists and economists from France and Brazil). In the long-term the model should support the recommendations for the sustainable management of the species.Our approach explicit within different models the shared knowledge about the species and the potential mathematical models as well as the societal context. This has allowed us to provide an observation model compliant with the recommendations ofOBOE (Ontology on a semantic scientific observations) for the development of data acquisition protocol. The acquisition was made in situ by the French-Brazilian partnership between 2013 and 2016 in the community of Benfica (Pará, Brazil). The perpetuation of the data was made after conception, within a spatial database taking into account the socio-economic aspect.Finally, we proposed a random matrix model having as input aggregated variables based on the biological stages of the species. The probabilities of the between stages transition matrix are modeled using a hierarchical Dirichlet-Multinomial model. The integration of prior information was formulated through a Bayesian approach. The estimation and model validation were performed with Bayesian criteria.Simulations based on the estimated parameters represent a first outline of the study of the species behavior

Dans la gestion forestiere des espaces montagnards abandonnes des alpes internes francaises et italiennes, il importe de determiner les potentialites du sapin (abies alba mill. ) et de l'epicea (picea abies (l. ) karsten), compte tenu de leur comportement vis-a-vis du climat et de l'action anthropique passee. ? une etude dendroecologique a d'abord ete realisee sur 33 populations echantillonnees dans 4 vallees : la tarentaise, la maurienne, le brianconnais et le val de suse. Des fonctions de correlation ont ete calculees entre les chronologies d'indices de croissance radiale de chaque population et les parametres climatiques mensuels. Dans les populations mixtes, la comparaison des reponses au climat des deux especes met notamment en evidence le caractere thermophile du sapin et la sensibilite de l'epicea a l'aridite estivale. Les differences entre les relations cerne/climat permettent d'analyser le comportement physiologique de ces essences selon l'espece, le site, l'altitude et l'exposition. De plus, les annees caracteristiques (a croissance inhabituellement faible ou forte) soulignent le role des facteurs climatiques limitants ou favorables. ? ensuite, les aspects historiques passes et la dynamique des peuplements ont ete etudies a partir de documents anciens et des courbes de croissance radiale par age courant. L'approche historique montre l'influence des deboisements passes (etendus dans ces regions de montagne) sur la dynamique forestiere des versants sud. La reinstallation des forets y est donc en plein essor, et le sapin n'est sans doute encore pas intervenu. L'ensemble des resultats obtenus permet de preciser la place potentielle des essences dans les vallees etudiees : le sapin est amene a se developper en adret en tarentaise et haute-maurienne. En brianconnais, il peut etre favorise dans la recolonisation des melezins d'ubac du montagnard superieur. Dans le coeur du brianconnais, il est preferable de ne pas tenter de reboiser avec de l'epicea qui trouve ses limites climatiques a nevache et bardonecchia. Dans les environs de suse, le sapin et l'epicea favorises par les pluies printanieres ont une place a tenir en ubac et, dans une certaine mesure, en adret.

On examine les caracteristiques ecologiques essentielles de la zone de combat de l'epicea, a sa limite superieure subalpine afin de mieux connaitre la dynamique du peuplement etudie. Etude des interactions etroites entre parametres microstationnels, facteurs climatiques et comportement des arbres (morphologie, croissance, reproduction vegetative). Une analyse dendroclimatologique, realisee a posteriori, permet de completer et de confirmer les precedents resultats

Disturbance at the scale of single trees shapes the development of boreal forest ecosystems, especially in 'overmature' or 'old-growth' stages, despite the acknowledged role of fire as a catastrophic agent of stand reinitiation. This study has reconstructed the population dynamics of fourteen Sub-Boreal Spruce stands (composed of Picea engelmanni x glauca, Abies lasiocarpa and lesser amounts of Pinus contorta and Populus tremuloides) since the last stand destroying wildfire. Identification of the post-disturbance cohort and subsequent recruitment provided a means of assessing the relative role of small-scale (single-tree) disturbance and large-scale, catastrophic disturbance on species composition and stand development. The results suggest that SBS stands are self-perpetuating, and that although Picea may disappear from some stands it is maintained within forests of this zone. Presumably due to its high shade tolerance, Abies recruitment (when present) occurred uniformly throughout the stand's history. Picea ingress was associated with more exacting conditions, and it can return in sufficient numbers to perpetuate itself after long periods of exclusion. Minor disturbances were important in accelerating the reinitiation of Picea below the forest canopy. In many stands Abies was the most abundant species but this study suggests that although Picea regeneration often occurred in lower numbers it is maintained as a dominant overstory species due to poorer Abies recruitment to larger size classes. In many of the stands there was evidence of an earlier Populus component that may have played an important role in conifer establishment after wildfire. The faster growing Populus may ameliorate harsh environmental conditions to the benefit of conifer regeneration. This process may be especially important in the Sub-Boreal Spruce zone where long periods of colonization (on average 75 years but up to 100 years) are common. Another part of this project focused on defining the later stages of forest stand development in terms of tree population biology. Old-growth was recognized as the stage when the rate of tree regeneration and mortality, and thus age structure, are influenced more by single tree processes than by the stand initiating disturbance (Hayward 1991). The tree population structures and old-growth attributes described for SBS stands suggest that this definition was a useful and objective ecological tool for ranking the later stages of stand development. In the SBS structural data was found appropriate for identifying the later stages of stand development through multivariate analysis. Attributes found to be strongly correlated with stand development, such as the number of large downed logs and snags, reflect the importance of single-tree mortalities to the old-growth stage.

碩士
國立中興大學
森林學系所
107
Abies kawakamii (Kawakami fir) is a critical ecological indicator in subalpine ecosystems and is composed mostly of pure forest distributed 3100–3600 m above sea level, most typically on Mt. Xue of North Taiwan. Thus, the estimation of growth and stock may be worth including in discussions on the regeneration, biomass, and carbon storage of Kawakami fir forest. The content is separated into two parts: one is small scale for the single-tree level, and the other is large scale for the stand-stock level. By reconstructing and verifying the volume equation of Abies kawakamii, the dynamic stock from Mt. Xue was evaluated. Seven permanent plots (50 m × 40 m) were established at the preserved area in 2008 and were resurveyed in 2017. The study sample consisted of 18 trees that were uprooted by Typhoon Soudelor in 2015; among them, nine provided the parameter estimates for reconstructing the tree volume equation. To evaluate the volume equation, six models were selected to test the fitted model for the tree volume equation of the Kawakami fir. After comparing the structure and composition of the stand stock of trees in permanent plots between 2008 and 2017, the model with the best fit was used to calculate the variation within 10 years. The results revealed that the best model was the logarithmic equation of the Schumacher function, V = aDbHc (V = 0.000073087 D1.71399 H1.14667). At the single-tree level, the growth pattern of Abies kawakamii was diverse from a microhabitat perspective. The real tree age of a Kawakami fir was difficult to estimate on the basis of the diameter at breast height (dbh) because of the effect of strong competition among neighboring trees on the growth rate. At the stand level, the main differences among trees at different plots were attributable to different stages of succession, stand-stock densities, and characteristics of neighboring trees as well as the interference of typhoons and the inhibition of regeneration by dominant understory species. The short-term dynamics of plots over a period of 10 years revealed that the stand stock of Kawakami fir belonged to a cyclic succession. Overall, the class structure of the Kawakami fir forest was similar between 2008 and 2017 on Mt. Xue; although, most of the reduction in the Kawakami fir forest was caused by typhoons. Moreover, the growth of stock exceeded the death of stock within the 10-year period, which indicated that the stand stock of the Kawakami fir forest was still stable. According to the results of evaluating the stand stock and estimating the biomass on Mt. Xue, the permanent plots of the Kawakami fir forest can offer carbon sequestration of 2.4 ton per hectare per year.

Thesis (M.Tech.: Information Technology)-Durban Institute of Technology, 2005 iii, iii, 85 leaves
Throughout Africa, growing human populations and resulting loss of wildlife habitat is a critical issue for most animal species. It is more and more common for privately owned small or medium sized farms to reintroduce wildlife on their land and such protected areas are fast becoming the only refuges available to wild animals. However a comprehensive understanding of the complex ecological processes taking place is vital for the effective management of restricted areas and the conservation of biodiversity. Due to the enormous complexity of an ecological system and the long periods of the related dynamics, it is very difficult to analyse the interaction between animals and plant populations without suitable computer models. In this thesis, the dynamics between elephant and trees (a major food source) are considered using computer simulations.

Picea rubens(red spruce) populations experienced a synchronous rangewide decline in growth and vigor starting in the 1960’s, which was likely caused by climate change or environmental disturbances (e.g., acid deposition); However, it is yet unknown if populations continue to decline or have recovered. In the context of global warming, red spruce is a species of concern because it is at its southern continuous range margin in Massachusetts. This study uses tree-ring data coupled with population data from permanent plots to quantify the status of red spruce in Massachusetts. Tree cores were extracted from red spruce and used to examine radial growth rates, determine a growth-climate relationship, and document disturbance events. Red spruce at these plots ranged from 90 to 184 years old, and comprised 15 to 29 m2/ha-1 basal area. Over the past 50 years, red spruce has decreased in density, basal area, and relative importance while red maple, yellow birch, and American beech have increased. Red spruce saplings persisted in some plots, but the sapling layer was comprised mostly of American beech or red maple. However, red spruce seedlings were common at red spruce dominant plots indicating that if favorable conditions occur, it could return to its more dominant position in the canopy. Dendroclimatological analyses show that red spruce is sensitive to both temperature and precipitation. Most sites are correlated with temperature, while only twoforests were correlated to precipitation. The general temperature response of the red spruce studied was positively correlated with winter temperatures while the general precipitation response was negatively correlated with precipitation. Temporal analysis of the climate-growth response indicates that red spruce here have not had a temporally-stable, climate-growth relationship. Prior to 1960, radial growth was positively correlated with temperatures from November of the previous growing season to January of the current year. After 1960, all sites showed a shift in growth responses consistent with increased summer temperature stress; narrowed tree rings were formed during warm temperatures in July and August. Precipitation remained relatively constant over the past century, while temperatures have increased up to 2˚C across the study area. Of the two precipitation-sensitive forests, one forest shifted from being positively correlated with current January precipitation to negatively correlated with previous October precipitation while the second forest showed a strong positive relationship with August precipitation. Because the radial growth of red spruce here are mostly constrained by temperatures, there has been negative growth response to regional warming and precipitation has been stable, I suggest the change in climate response is potentially due to warming and a physiological threshold response to increasing temperatures. Interestingly, disturbance frequency and intensity have increased over the same time period, which could be either a trigger or a response to the shift in the growth-climate relationship.

After European settlement, Australian rangelands especially in South Australia underwent significant changes because of the main land use of pastoralism. Many studies have revealed that the plant communities are negatively effected by herbivory mainly by sheep. The main aim of this study is to separate the different effects of sheep, rabbits and kangaroos. This was examined by survey supported by experimental and modelling research. A 32,000 km² area previously surveyed by Tiver and Andrew (1997) in eastern South Australia was re-surveyed to monitor populations of perennial plant species at sites of various intensity of grazing by sheep, rabbits and kangaroos (goats populations are low in the study area), the most important vertebrate herbivores. Plant population data were collected in both sheep paddocks and historically ungrazed by sheep (road reserves) by using the Random Walk method and analyzed using Generalized Linear Modelling (GLM) to separate the effects of sheep and rabbits on plant regeneration and their regeneration in response to grazing. These data were also compared to similar data collected by Tiver and Andrew in 1992 (1997) to ascertain if the reduction in rabbit numbers through introduction of RCV had allowed increased regeneration. Regeneration of many species inside paddocks were negatively affected and species in roadside reserves neither did not significantly increase from 1992 to 2004. However, some species showed increase of populations in spite of sheep grazing, with some species being less susceptible than others. This research also indicates kangaroo grazing impact on some plant species. Reduction in rabbit numbers following the 1995 release of calicivirus has not been effective in restoring regeneration. Another experiment was conducted at Middleback Field Station near Whyalla to identify herbivore grazing pressure on the arid zone plant species Acacia aneura using unfenced, sheep fenced and rabbit fenced grazing exclosures. This experiment was set up with seedlings in exclosures, ten replicates of each treatment, at plots four different distances from the watering point to identify the survivorship of seedlings. Data were collected by recording canopy volumes of seedling over an 18 month period and analyzed by Residual Maximal Likelihood (REML). Seedlings both near and far from the watering point were severely effected by large herbivores, either sheep, kangaroos or both, and in a separate experiment kangaroo grazing effects on the seedling were also identified. Seedlings browsed by the rabbits were recovered better than the seedlings grazed by the large herbivores. Decreasing kangaroo activities has been noticed when the rabbit movements increased. Computer modelling was conducted to predict the future plant population structure over 500 years using a matrix population model developed by Tiver et al. (2006) and using data collected in the survey as a starting point. Extinction probabilities of populations of Acacia aneura near watering points, far from watering points and under pulse grazing scenarios were compared. Sheep grazing was found to cause eventual extinction of populations in all parts of sheep paddocks. Together, the results indicate that sheep are the major herbivore suppressing regeneration of perennial plant species. Kangaroo and rabbits have an identifiable but lesser effect. The results have implications for conservation and pastoral management. To achieve ecological sustainability of arid lands a land-use system including a network of reserves ungrazed by sheep and with control of both rabbit and kangaroo numbers will be required.