Littérature scientifique sur le sujet « Tournaments, 1893 »

Tennis and golf, as well as numerous other sports, found their way to Germany in the era of the Wilhelmine Empire. Hoteliers in German health resorts, operators of private sports grounds or commercial playground companies, among others, played a significant role. Uhlenhorst, a district of Hamburg since 1894, was already the venue for major tennis tournaments with international players in the early 1890s. At that time, the London merchant, tennis player and sports official Walter Howard donated a silver cup to the Ice Rink Club on Uhlenhorst (Eisbahnverein auf der Uhlenhorst), which was used as a prize for the “Championship of Hamburg”. This article goes into Walter Howard’s biography and outlines his commitment to Hamburg tennis, which also gave important impulses to women’s tennis.

ABSTRACTThis article re-evaluates the role and importance of the thirteenth earl of Eglinton as president of the National Association for the Vindication of Scottish Rights (NAVSR). Departing from the established historiography, which depicts his career as a romantic absurdity because of his organization of a medieval tournament in 1839, it shows Eglinton to have been a political figure of substance, who played a significant role in public life during the mid-Victorian era. The article emphasizes the importance of ‘administrative devolution’ as a feature of long-term Conservative political thought and points to activities of Eglinton and his circle as an example of the need to give more weight to the importance of Conservatives in modern Scottish history.

Abstract:This article addresses the question as to how Jane Guyer's seminal explorations of special traits of West African economies in Marginal Gains (2004) can help us understand variations within the region. This question acquires some urgency—for instance in the Cameroonian context, but elsewhere also—since the dimensions she emphasizes (reciprocity, gain, rank) play a crucial role in quite vicious ethnic stereotypes that increasingly dominate people's perceptions of economic developments. The challenge may be, therefore, to determine how an analysis in terms of disjunctures as an asset for marginal gains can steer clear of the ethnic stereotypes through which people themselves perceive discontinuities in everyday life. Starting from the historical example of the wild-rubber boom in southern Cameroon under German rule (1890–1913) and its chaotic effects at the local level, the article considers how Arjun Appadurai's notion of “tournaments of value” might help us understand such variations.

The article analyzes the main stages of the origin and formation of gymnastics events in France since the beginning of the XIX century to 1942 on the basis of the works of leading French scientists. The development of gymnastics in France does not attract much attention of Ukrainian specialists whose scientific interests are related to the study of physical education and sports in European countries, so the practical issues of our research will complement and expand the relevant courses on the history of physical education for students in Ukraine. The purpose of the article is to study the main historical aspects of the development of gymnastics events in France. To achieve it, the following tasks should be performed: to analyze the literature on research issues; to identify key dates in the history of gymnastics in France; to describe the role of personalities who have contributed most to the evolution of the field in this country. According to the results of the study, we conclude that the greatest influence on the development of gymnastics in France since the beginning of the XIX century to 1942 was made by Francisco Amorós, Napoléon Laisné, Eugène Paz, Charles Cazalet, Joseph Sansbœuf, Georges Demenÿ, Philippe Auguste Tissié. In the middle of the XIX century the institutionalization of gymnastics took place at the level of hospitals (1847), military services (1852) and school (1854). In the last quarter of the XIX century, physical education became a compulsory subject in primary and secondary schools for boys and girls. The Union of Gymnastics Societies of France was founded September 28, 1873 by Eugène Paz. In 1942, it was merged with the French Womenʼs Gymnastics and Physical Education Federation, which formed French Gymnastics Federation. French gymnasts since the beginning of Olympic Games in Paris (1900) have always shown consistently high results at competitions and tournaments of various scales, but since the 1930s it has begun to decline. Our further research will focus on a thorough study of the history of womenʼs gymnastics in France as well as the evolution of this sport in the period since 1942 to 2022.

In the 19th century, Russia and the United Kingdom fought one other diplomatically in an attempt to gain more influence in southern Asia. The Russians called it a "shadow tournament," but the British invented the phrase "Great Game." The ascent to prominence of Amir Dost Muhammad Khan was seen by the British as a danger to their interests in India. It was claimed that by using Amir, Russia was intruding on India's borders. Russia's ambitions for regional expansion coincided with the British invasion of Afghanistan. The British redirected their attention to Afghanistan as a result of this development. The British persevered even after they were unable to persuade Amir Dost Muhammad Khan to sign a treaty that would have ended Russian control. Russia continued to communicate with the Amir of Kabul during this time. Consequently, in 1839 the British launched an invasion of Afghanistan, which restored Shah Shuja to his former position. A long-lasting and deadly power battle between the Sadozais and the Barakzais, two sections of the Durrani tribe, took place in Afghanistan in the early 1800s. Dost Mohammad Khan was named the new Emir of Kabul after the Barakzais won the civil war. However, in the midst of the internal strife, Ranjit Singh, the ruler of the Sikh kingdom, took control of Peshawar. This led to a huge and irreversible conflict of interest between Afghanistan and the Sikh state. In addition to identifying the crucial person who made the choice that ultimately sparked hostilities, the essay aims to make clear how these factors interacted and contributed to the start of the conflict. This invasion was a major blow to the British, and it was a turning moment in modern history because it was the first time the Afghans and the British had faced off, which ultimately led to the British's defeat. For its inquiry and study, this article uses a descriptive research approach and technique.

The aim of the study. To systematize factual data on the formation and development of the competition system components in professional tennis before the beginning of the "tennis open era". Material and methods. Facts from the history of the formation of systematicity in professional tennis competitions and the formation of key competitions in the period up to 1968 was the main material of the research. The results. The era of modern tennis begins in the second half of the 19th century. It was found that the game began to be commercialized already in 1894, and this process began with the sale of tennis training equipment and textbooks. The first competitions, which were open to everyone, including professional tennis players, were held in Great Britain (Wimbledon tournament, 1875), but they cannot be called professional, since in British society attention was focused on the development and popularization of amateur sports. Summarizing the facts made it possible to find out that tennis began to develop as a professional sport in the United States, where were favorable economic and geopolitical conditions for this. Here, in 1926, the promoter K. Pyle held exhibition tours exclusively for professional tennis players with whom he concluded contracts. It was found that in the late 20s – early 30s of the XX century, three professional tennis majors of those times were created – U.S. Professional Championship, Wembley Professional Championships and French Pro Championship. These competitions actually set the pace for the development of the direction. It is established that characteristic for that time was a constant change in the number of participants, the format of holding and the surface of the tournament courts. The key barrier (separation between amateur and professional tennis) was overcome in 1968. In addition, the experience gained in the past in organizing professional tennis tournaments gradually received a new level of adaptation in the “Open Era tennis”. However, the period until the 1980s remained difficult to determine a unified attitude of the leading tennis organizations in the world to the process of its further professionalization. Conclusions. Tennis as a type of professional sport began to form in the US at the end of the 19th century and immediately developed dynamically, at the same time separated from the amateur (until 1968). The main tournaments (majors) of that time were the U.S. Professional Championship, Wembley Professional Championships and French Pro Championship, However, others tournaments developed too and they were even a priority for many leading professional tennis players periodically. The competition system was not stable, competition formats often changed, but professional tennis gained popularity and increasingly became a source of income for the athletes themselves and entire organizations.

The purpose of this study was to analyse selected serve characteristics in top-level male volleyball, with a special focus on detecting adaptations of the serve skill among seasons. The indicators examined were type, position, direction and quality of serve. The sample consisted of 5482 serves from three final phases of different top-level tournaments (Olympic Games 2012, N = 1942, World League 2017, N = 1883, World Championship 2018, N = 1657). The interrelationships between variables were analyzed using chi-squared tests, log-linear modelling and multiple correspondence analysis. The results showed that the interaction of all serve indicators are statistically important, but the combination of the variables’ categories that were more responsible for association alternated across the seasons under study. A 3-way association term was revealed for season 2012 (type/position/direction) and 2018 (type/position/quality), while for season 2017 multiple 2-way interactions were found (type/position, type/direction, position/quality, direction/quality). The direction of the serve to the horizontal axis of the court was correlated to the quality of serve and consequently with the advantage of the serving team, while a more tactical perspective for serve skill is formed over periods in top level male volleyball.

Lincolnshire, England. The crowd cheer when the ball breaks loose. From one end of the field to the other, the players chase, their snouts hovering just above the grass. It’s not a case of four legs being better, rather a novel way to attract customers to the Woodside Wildlife and Falconry Park. During the matches, volunteers are drawn from the crowd to hold goal posts at either end of the run the pigs usually race on. With five pigs playing, two teams of two and a referee, and a ball designed to leak feed as it rolls (Stevenson) the ten-minute competition is fraught with tension. While the pig’s contributions to “the beautiful game” (Fish and Pele 7) have not always been so obvious, it could be argued that specific parts of the animal have had a significant impact on a sport which, despite calls to fall into line with much of the rest of the world, people in Australia (and the US) are more likely to call soccer. The Football Precursors to the modern football were constructed around an inflated pig’s bladder (Price, Jones and Harland). Animal hide, usually from a cow, was stitched around the bladder to offer some degree of stability, but the bladder’s irregular and uneven form made for unpredictable movement in flight. This added some excitement and affected how ball games such as the often violent, calico matches in Florence, were played. In the early 1970s, the world’s oldest ball was discovered during a renovation in Stirling Castle, Scotland. The ball has a pig’s bladder inside its hand-stitched, deer-hide outer. It was found in the ceiling above the bed in, what was then Mary Queens of Scots’ bedroom. It has since been dated to the 1540s (McGinnes). Neglected and left in storage until the late 1990s, the ball found pride of place in an exhibition in the Smiths Art Gallery and Museum, Stirling, and only gained worldwide recognition (as we will see later) in 2006. Despite confirmed interest in a number of sports, there is no evidence to support Mary’s involvement with football (Springer). The deer-hide ball may have been placed to gather and trap untoward spirits attempting to enter the monarch’s sleep, or simply left by accident and forgotten (McGinnes in Springer). Mary, though, was not so fortunate. She was confined and forgotten, but only until she was put to death in 1587. The Executioner having gripped her hair to hold his prize aloft, realised too late it was a wig and Mary’s head bounced and rolled across the floor. Football Development The pig’s bladder was the central component in the construction of the football for the next three hundred years. However, the issue of the ball’s movement (the bounce and roll), the bladder’s propensity to burst when kicked, and an unfortunate wife’s end, conspired to push the pig from the ball before the close of the nineteenth-century. The game of football began to take its shape in 1848, when JC Thring and a few colleagues devised the Cambridge Rules. This compromised set of guidelines was developed from those used across the different ‘ball’ games played at England’s elite schools. The game involved far more kicking, and the pig’s bladders, prone to bursting under such conditions, soon became impractical. Charles Goodyear’s invention of vulcanisation in 1836 and the death of prestigious rugby and football maker Richard Lindon’s wife in 1870 facilitated the replacement of the animal bladder with a rubber-based alternative. Tragically, Mr Lindon’s chief inflator died as a result of blowing up too many infected pig’s bladders (Hawkesley). Before it closed earlier this year (Rhoads), the US Soccer Hall of Fame displayed a rubber football made in 1863 under the misleading claim that it was the oldest known football. By the late 1800s, professional, predominantly Scottish play-makers had transformed the game from its ‘kick-and-run’ origins into what is now called ‘the passing game’ (Sanders). Football, thanks in no small part to Scottish factory workers (Kay), quickly spread through Europe and consequently the rest of the world. National competitions emerged through the growing need for organisation, and the pig-free mass production of balls began in earnest. Mitre and Thomlinson’s of Glasgow were two of the first to make and sell their much rounder balls. With heavy leather panels sewn together and wrapped around a thick rubber inner, these balls were more likely to retain shape—a claim the pig’s bladder equivalent could not legitimately make. The rubber-bladdered balls bounced more too. Their weight and external stitching made them more painful to header, but also more than useful for kicking and particularly for passing from one player to another. The ball’s relatively quick advancement can thereafter be linked to the growth and success of the World Cup Finals tournament. Before the pig re-enters the fray, it is important to glance, however briefly, at the ball’s development through the international game. World Cup Footballs Pre-tournament favourites, Spain, won the 2010 FIFA World Cup, playing with “an undistorted, perfectly spherical ball” (Ghosh par. 7), the “roundest” ever designed (FIFA par.1). Their victory may speak to notions of predictability in the ball, the tournament and the most lucrative levels of professional endeavour, but this notion is not a new one to football. The ball’s construction has had an influence on the way the game has been played since the days of Mary Queen of Scots. The first World Cup Final, in 1930, featured two heavy, leather, twelve-panelled footballs—not dissimilar to those being produced in Glasgow decades earlier. The players and officials of Uruguay and Argentina could not agree, so they played the first half with an Argentine ball. At half-time, Argentina led by two goals to one. In the second half, Uruguay scored three unanswered goals with their own ball (FIFA). The next Final was won by Italy, the home nation in 1934. Orsi, Italy’s adopted star, poked a wildly swerving shot beyond the outstretched Czech keeper. The next day Orsi, obligated to prove his goal was not luck or miracle, attempted to repeat the feat before an audience of gathered photographers. He failed. More than twenty times. The spin on his shot may have been due to the, not uncommon occurrence, of the ball being knocked out of shape during the match (FIFA). By 1954, the Federation Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) had sought to regulate ball size and structure and, in 1958, rigorously tested balls equal to the demands of world-class competition. The 1950s also marked the innovation of the swerving free kick. The technique, developed in the warm, dry conditions of the South American game, would not become popular elsewhere until ball technology improved. The heavy hand-stitched orb, like its early counterparts, was prone to water absorption, which increased the weight and made it less responsive, particularly for those playing during European winters (Bray). The 1970 World Cup in Mexico saw football progress even further. Pele, arguably the game’s greatest player, found his feet, and his national side, Brazil, cemented their international football prominence when they won the Jules Rimet trophy for the third time. Their innovative and stylish use of the football in curling passes and bending free kicks quickly spread to other teams. The same World Cup saw Adidas, the German sports goods manufacturer, enter into a long-standing partnership with FIFA. Following the competition, they sold an estimated six hundred thousand match and replica tournament footballs (FIFA). The ball, the ‘Telstar’, with its black and white hexagonal panels, became an icon of the modern era as the game itself gained something close to global popularity for the first time in its history. Over the next forty years, the ball became incrementally technologically superior. It became synthetic, water-resistant, and consistent in terms of rebound and flight characteristics. It was constructed to be stronger and more resistant to shape distortion. Internal layers of polyutherane and Syntactic Foam made it lighter, capable of greater velocity and more responsive to touch (FIFA). Adidas spent three years researching and developing the 2006 World Cup ball, the ‘Teamgeist’. Fourteen panels made it rounder and more precise, offering a lower bounce, and making it more difficult to curl due to its accuracy in flight. At the same time, audiences began to see less of players like Roberto Carlos (Brazil and Real Madrid CF) and David Beckham (Manchester United, LA Galaxy and England), who regularly scored goals that challenged the laws of physics (Gill). While Adidas announced the 2006 release of the world’s best performing ball in Berlin, the world’s oldest was on its way to the Museum fur Volkerkunde in Hamburg for the duration of the 2006 FIFA World Cup. The Mary Queen of Scot’s ball took centre spot in an exhibit which also featured a pie stand—though not pork pies—from Hibernian Football Club (Strang). In terms of publicity and raising awareness of the Scots’ role in the game’s historical development, the installation was an unrivalled success for the Scottish Football Museum (McBrearty). It did, however, very little for the pig. Heads, not Tails In 2002, the pig or rather the head of a pig, bounced and rolled back into football’s limelight. For five years Luis Figo, Portugal’s most capped international player, led FC Barcelona to domestic and European success. In 2000, he had been lured to bitter rivals Real Madrid CF for a then-world record fee of around £37 million (Nash). On his return to the Catalan Camp Nou, wearing the shimmering white of Real Madrid CF, he was showered with beer cans, lighters, bottles and golf balls. Among the objects thrown, a suckling pig’s head chimed a psychological nod to the spear with two sharp ends in William Golding’s story. Play was suspended for sixteen minutes while police tried to quell the commotion (Lowe). In 2009, another pig’s head made its way into football for different reasons. Tightly held in the greasy fingers of an Orlando Pirates fan, it was described as a symbol of the ‘roasting’ his team would give the Kaiser Chiefs. After the game, he and his friend planned to eat their mascot and celebrate victory over their team’s most reviled competitors (Edwards). The game ended in a nil-all draw. Prior to the 2010 FIFA World Cup, it was not uncommon for a range of objects that European fans might find bizarre, to be allowed into South African league matches. They signified luck and good feeling, and in some cases even witchcraft. Cabbages, known locally for their medicinal qualities, were very common—common enough for both sets of fans to take them (Edwards). FIFA, an organisation which has more members than the United Nations (McGregor), impressed their values on the South African Government. The VuVuZela was fine to take to games; indeed, it became a cultural artefact. Very little else would be accepted. Armed with their economy-altering engine, the world’s most watched tournament has a tendency to get what it wants. And the crowd respond accordingly. Incidentally, the ‘Jabulani’—the ball developed for the 2010 tournament—is the most consistent football ever designed. In an exhaustive series of tests, engineers at Loughborough University, England, learned, among other things, the added golf ball-like grooves on its surface made the ball’s flight more symmetrical and more controlled. The Jabulani is more reliable or, if you will, more predictable than any predecessor (Ghosh). Spanish Ham Through support from their Governing body, the Real Federación Española de Fútbol, Spain have built a national side with experience, and an unparalleled number of talented individuals, around the core of the current FC Barcelona club side. Their strength as a team is founded on the bond between those playing on a weekly basis at the Catalan club. Their style has allowed them to create and maintain momentum on the international stage. Victorious in the 2008 UEFA European Football Championship and undefeated in their run through the qualifying stages into the World Cup Finals in South Africa, they were tournament favourites before a Jabulani was rolled into touch. As Tim Parks noted in his New York Review of Books article, “The Shame of the World Cup”, “the Spanish were superior to an extent one rarely sees in the final stages of a major competition” (2010 par. 15). They have a “remarkable ability to control, hold and hide the ball under intense pressure,” and play “a passing game of great subtlety [ ... to] patiently wear down an opposing team” (Parks par. 16). Spain won the tournament having scored fewer goals per game than any previous winner. Perhaps, as Parks suggests, they scored as often as they needed to. They found the net eight times in their seven matches (Fletcher). This was the first time that Spain had won the prestigious trophy, and the first time a European country has won the tournament on a different continent. In this, they have broken the stranglehold of superpowers like Germany, Italy and Brazil. The Spanish brand of passing football is the new benchmark. Beautiful to watch, it has grace, flow and high entertainment value, but seems to lack something of an organic nature: that is, it lacks the chance for things to go wrong. An element of robotic aptitude has crept in. This occurred on a lesser scale across the 2010 FIFA World Cup finals, but it is possible to argue that teams and players, regardless of nation, have become interchangeable, that the world’s best players and the way they play have become identikits, formulas to be followed and manipulated by master tacticians. There was a great deal of concern in early rounds about boring matches. The world’s media focused on an octopus that successfully chose the winner of each of Germany’s matches and the winner of the final. Perhaps, in shaping the ‘most’ perfect ball and the ‘most’ perfect football, the World Cup has become the most predictable of tournaments. In Conclusion The origins of the ball, Orsi’s unrepeatable winner and the swerving free kick, popular for the best part of fifty years, are worth remembering. These issues ask the powers of football to turn back before the game is smothered by the hunt for faultlessness. The unpredictability of the ball goes hand in hand with the game. Its flaws underline its beauty. Football has so much more transformative power than lucrative evolutionary accretion. While the pig’s head was an ugly statement in European football, it is a symbol of hope in its South African counterpart. Either way its removal is a reminder of Golding’s message and the threat of homogeneity; a nod to the absence of the irregular in the modern era. Removing the curve from the free kick echoes the removal of the pig’s bladder from the ball. The fun is in the imperfection. Where will the game go when it becomes indefectible? Where does it go from here? Can there really be any validity in claiming yet another ‘roundest ball ever’? Chip technology will be introduced. The ball’s future replacements will be tracked by satellite and digitally-fed, reassured referees will determine the outcome of difficult decisions. Victory for the passing game underlines the notion that despite technological advancement, the game has changed very little since those pioneering Scotsmen took to the field. Shouldn’t we leave things the way they were? Like the pigs at Woodside Wildlife and Falconry Park, the level of improvement seems determined by the level of incentive. The pigs, at least, are playing to feed themselves. Acknowledgments The author thanks editors, Donna Lee Brien and Adele Wessell, and the two blind peer reviewers, for their constructive feedback and reflective insights. The remaining mistakes are his own. References “Adidas unveils Golden Ball for 2006 FIFA World Cup Final” Adidas. 18 Apr. 2006. 23 Aug. 2010 . Bray, Ken. “The science behind the swerve.” BBC News 5 Jun. 2006. 19 Aug. 2010 http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/5048238.stm>. Edwards, Piers. “Cabbage and Roasted Pig.” BBC Fast Track Soweto, BBC News 3 Nov. 2009. 23 Aug. 2010 . FIFA. “The Footballs during the FIFA World Cup™” FIFA.com. 18 Aug. 2010 .20 Fish, Robert L., and Pele. My Life and the Beautiful Game. New York: Bantam Dell, 1977. Fletcher, Paul. “Match report on 2010 FIFA World Cup Final between Spain and Netherlands”. BBC News—Sports 12 Jul. 2010 . Ghosh, Pallab. “Engineers defend World Cup football amid criticism.” BBC News—Science and Environment 4 Jun. 2010. 19 Aug. 2010 . Gill, Victoria. “Roberto Carlos wonder goal ‘no fluke’, say physicists.” BBC News—Science and Environment 2 Sep. 2010 . Hawkesley, Simon. Richard Lindon 22 Aug. 2010 . “History of Football” FIFA.com. Classic Football. 20 Aug. 2010 . Kay, Billy. The Scottish World: A Journey into the Scottish Diaspora. London: Mainstream, 2008. Lowe, Sid. “Peace for Figo? And pigs might fly ...” The Guardian (London). 25 Nov. 2002. 20 Aug. 2010 . “Mary, Queen of Scots (r.1542-1567)”. The Official Website of the British Monarchy. 20 Jul. 2010 . McBrearty, Richard. Personal Interview. 12 Jul. 2010. McGinnes, Michael. Smiths Art Gallery and Museum. Visited 14 Jul. 2010 . McGregor, Karen. “FIFA—Building a transnational football community. University World News 13 Jun. 2010. 19 Jul. 2010 . Nash, Elizabeth. “Figo defects to Real Madrid for record £36.2m." The Independent (London) 25 Jul. 2000. 20 Aug. 2010 . “Oldest football to take cup trip” 25 Apr. 2006. 20 Jul. 2010 . Parks, Tim. “The Shame of the World Cup”. New York Review of Books 19 Aug. 2010. 23 Aug. 2010 < http://nybooks.com/articles/archives/2010/aug/19/shame-world-cup/>. “Pig football scores a hit at centre.” BBC News 4 Aug. 2009. August 20 2010 . Price, D. S., Jones, R. Harland, A. R. “Computational modelling of manually stitched footballs.” Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part L. Journal of Materials: Design & Applications 220 (2006): 259-268. Rhoads, Christopher. “Forget That Trip You Had Planned to the National Soccer Hall of Fame.” Wall Street Journal 26 Jun. 2010. 22 Sep. 2010 . “Roberto Carlos Impossible Goal”. News coverage posted on You Tube, 27 May 2007. 23 Aug. 2010 . Sanders, Richard. Beastly Fury. London: Bantam, 2009. “Soccer to become football in Australia”. Sydney Morning Herald 17 Dec. 2004. 21 Aug. 2010 . Springer, Will. “World’s oldest football – fit for a Queen.” The Scotsman. 13 Mar. 2006. 19 Aug. 2010 < http://heritage.scotsman.com/willspringer/Worlds-oldest-football-fit.2758469.jp >. Stevenson, R. “Pigs Play Football at Wildlife Centre”. Lincolnshire Echo 3 Aug. 2009. 20 Aug. 2010 . Strang, Kenny. Personal Interview. 12 Jul. 2010. “The Execution of Mary Queen of Scots February 8, 1857”. Tudor History 21 Jul. 2010 http://tudorhistory.org/primary/exmary.html>. “The History of the FA.” The FA. 20 Jul. 2010 “World’s Oldest Ball”. World Cup South Africa 2010 Blog. 22 Jul. 2010 . “World’s Oldest Soccer Ball by Charles Goodyear”. 18 Mar. 2010. 20 Jul. 2010 .

The objective of this thesis is to investigate the initial allocation of pollution permits in a dynamic tradeable market. Tradeable pollution permit markets are an increasingly common method of environmental regulation and it is apparent that future schemes may have a number of repeated compliance periods. It is important to consider how and to what extent the dynamic allocation of pollution permits determines the market efficiency at the equilibrium. This objective is developed in three parts. First, Part I introduces the topic and sets out the current relationships that exist between the initial allocation of permits and market efficiency and finds strong links between the two. It is shown that markets with imperfect competition, transaction costs or multiple periods can result in links between the initial allocation and market efficiency. In Part II, a generalised model is created to investigate the optimality of dynamic permit allocations and finds the dynamic use of grandfathering (free allocation based on emissions information) permits is, in general, sub-optimal. It is argued that alternative dynamic mechanisms should be considered, such as auctions and other relative performance mechanisms. Part II is concluded by an investigation into the link between market efficiency, dynamic initial allocations and firms' lobbying over a permit allocation. Firms have the ability to determine their permit allocation by their choice of emissions and lobbying activity. It is shown that in some circumstances, lobbying activity may alter market efficiency and may result in reductions in social welfare. In Part III, an alternative dynamic allocation mechanism is considered, namely a rank-ordered contest, which can optimally allocate permits and simultaneously accomplish a predetermined secondary policy objective. The thesis concludes with a discussion of the policy implications and future work associated with this research.

碩士
國立臺灣師範大學
體育學系
95
The Historical Research on Taiwan Elementary School Sports Tournaments during the Initial Stage of Japanese Governance(1895-1911) January, 2007 Chin Hsiang-Pin Advisor:Tasi, Jen-Shiung ABSTRACT Developing smoothly, sports tournaments were introduced into Taiwan by the Japanese colonial government a hundred years ago. From colonial and modernistic points of view, this paper intends to investigate the origin and the process of development of Taiwan elementary school sports tournaments during the initial stage of Japanese governance, and to make an inquiry into the activities held by the sports tournaments and how they influence Taiwanese. The findings of the research: During the initial stage of Japanese governance, the first school sports tournament held by the first branch of kukogo school was the “trip on foot” on December, 12th, 1896. As the beginning of Taiwan elementary school sports tournament, the “trip on foot” was merely a rough model. The form of it was not established until 1901. Then, sports tournaments based on gymnastics and various competitions were separated from the “trip on foot.” On November, 23rd, 1897, the first sports tournament named “united sports tournament” was held by the first and the second branch of kukogo school. Since 1905, sports tournaments had become popular among Taiwan elementary schools. As for the goal of sports tournaments, the difference between the Taiwan elementary schools and the Japan elementary schools was that the former put emphasis on hygiene. And one unique purpose of the public elementary schools during this stage was the promotion of entering school. As for the meeting date, the sports tournaments were held on national holidays in order to convey the nationalism of the emperor of Japan. The same concept was also conveyed implicitly through the decoration and the form of the tournaments so as to teach the young colonial citizen loyalty and patriotism. Lastly, the sports tournaments not only played the role of superior checking the gymnastics in school, they also introduced modern sports, enriching the development of physical education indirectly. In short, being regarded as the best display of conveying the concept of sports, Taiwan elementary school sports tournaments had become a routine. And the Japanese colonial government showed the power of doctrines by holding them. From personal points of view, I consider sports tournaments as the first step of educating Taiwanese. Key words: the initial stage of Japanese governance, Taiwan elementary school, sports tournaments.

Abstract A Steiner triple system is simply a block design with k = 3 and λ= 1. This choice of parameters is one of the simplest which could be made, and the corresponding designs form one of the first families of designs for which existence was established. Without knowing of Kirkman’s work. Steiner came across the problem of the existence of such designs in a geometrical context in 1853, and publicized the problem. The designs were therefore to become known as Steiner triple systems. This is particularly unfair on Kirkman, since not only did Kirkman provide an existence proof, but Steiner did not. Reiss published a proof shortly afterwards which is essentially identical to Kirkman’s, and later on many other mathematicians, beginning with Moore in 1893, gave a variety of different proofs. Kirkman’s own proof has been undeservedly neglected.

Abstract The main aim of this chapter is to present an account of the work of Bose, Shrikhande, Parker and others which culminated in the 1960 proof that two mutually orthogonal Latin squares (MOLS) of order n exist whenever n ≠2 or 6. Since this has been established indirectly via Theorems 1.3.5 and 3.4.1, there is strictly no need for a further proof. However, a particularly elegant constructive one is readily available. This proof was published independently by Bose (1938) and Stevens (1939), but, remarkably, the construction is present in E.H. Moore’s long 1896 paper.

Abstract Unlike all other major American team sports, professional major-league baseball gained cultural primacy in the United States long before the amateur and semiprofessional games. Although amateur and semiprofessional play sustained the game as the national pastime for more than a century, professional baseball fundamentally shaped the way that most Americans have played and thought about the sport. The creation of the National League in 1876 spawned the key elements-league structure; territorial franchise monopolies; annual championship tournaments; the “reserve clause”; assignment of game officials; and revenue sharing-that dominated commercialized American sports for more than a century. Given the fact that basketball was not invented until 1891 and that professional football only materialized in institutional form in the 1920s, baseball was the only leading American professional sport until after World War I. Despite the ascendancy of amateurism during the late nineteenth century, professional baseball, although an anomaly for its time, provided a model for Americans in understanding big-time commercialized sports.