Littérature scientifique sur le sujet « Tibetan School verse »

Данная статья посвящена анализу процесса взаимного проникновения архитектурных традиций Китая и Тибета. Этот неоднородный процесс активно шел с XIII по XIX в. С одной стороны, привнесение китайских черт в тибетскую архитектуру и наоборот было тесно связано с политическим контекстом. Неслучайно первые попытки соединения двух стилистик на территории Тибета начали возникать именно во время правления династии Юань, когда глава школы Сакья стал официальным духовным наставником Хубилая. Схожие процессы происходили и при проникновении тибетских черт в китайскую архитектуру, когда по велению императорского двора династии Цин около дворцов в Пекине и Чэндэ возвели целый ряд ламаистских монастырей, в архитектуре которых были напрямую заимствованы композиционные и объемные решения тибетских построек. В то же время шел процесс и естественного проникновения тибетской архитектурной традиции в близлежащие регионы провинций Сычуань, Ганьсу, Внутренняя Монголия и Цинхай, что привело к появлению новых форм монастырских построек, где китайские черты проявились гораздо четче, чем в Тибете. На территории Тибета в архитектуре шли схожие процессы постепенного проникновения китайских традиций, что выразилось как в планировке отдельных монастырей, так и в применении деревянных конструкций и элементов отделки и декора. В данном исследовании сделана попытка обобщить обширный и разнородный архитектурный материал с целью более глубокого понимания стилистического развития архитектуры Тибета и Китая. Анализ взаимодействия тибетской и китайской архитектурных традиций на протяжении XIII-XIX вв. позволяет выявить то, как проходили процессы поиска новых форм и образов, стилизации и переосмысления устоявшихся приемов в новых культурных и географических условиях. This article focuses on the analysis of the process of interaction between the architectural traditions of China and Tibet. This complex process began in the 13th century and lasted until the 19th century. On one side, penetration of Chinese features into Tibetan architecture and vice versa was closely connected with the political context. It is no coincidence that the first attempts of combining two different styles in Tibet started to appear during the reign of Yuan dynasty, when the head of the Sakya Buddhist school became an official spiritual advisor of the Kublai Khan. Similar processes led to Tibetan influence affecting Chinese architecture, when several Lamaist temples and monasteries were built around emperor palaces in Beijing and Chengde by order of the Qing Dynasty court. The compositional and volumetric structure of those buildings was directly borrowed from Tibetan architecture. On the other side, Tibetan architectural traditions were naturally spreading into nearby regions, such as Sichuan, Gansu, Qinghai and Inner Mongolia with the expansion of Tibetan Buddhism. It led to the creation of new forms of monastery buildings, where Chinese features exhibited themselves much more clearly than in Tibet. Meanwhile, Chinese architectural traditions in the same time period were equally influencing Tibetan architecture. It may be seen in the evolution of plans, constructions and decorations of buildings. The present article attempts to summarize broad and disparate material with the purpose to better understand the evolution of Tibetan and Chinese architecture. Analysis of interactions between architectural traditions of Tibet and China throughout the 13th-19th centuries allows us to highlight the manner in which the processes of searching for new forms and architectural images in different cultural and geographical conditions have been unfolded..

The Dalai Lama is fond of quoting a verse attributed to the Buddha to the effect that as the wise examine carefully gold by burning, cutting and polishing it, so the Buddha's followers should embrace his words after examining them critically and not just out of respect for the Master. A role for critical thought has been accepted by all Buddhists, although during two and a half millennia of sophisticated doctrinal development the exact nature, role and range of critical thought has been extensively debated. In general doctrinal difference in Buddhism has been seen as perfectly acceptable, reflecting different levels of understanding and therefore different stages on the path to enlightenment. Buddhism has tended not to look to or expect doctrinal orthodoxy, although there has always been a much stronger impetus towards orthopraxy, and common (largely monastic) code and behaviour has perhaps played a comparable role in Buddhism to common belief and creed in some other religions. Nevertheless an acceptability of doctrinal divergence has not lessened the energy and vigour devoted to lengthy and sometimes fiercely polemical debate between teachers and schools. This was nowhere more so than in Tibet, where doctrinal debates—sometimes lasting all night—to the present day form the central part of a monastic education in most of the largest Tibetan monastic universities.

This short essay is an introduction to the study of the Mahāmudrātilaka (‘An Ornament of the Great Seal’), an important Buddhist tantric scripture of the Hevajra cycle. The text is a so-called uttaratantra (ancillary scripture) of the Hevajratantra. This cult emerged around ca. 900 CE in Eastern India and quickly rose to a position of prominence. In order to illustrate this point, first I discuss some historical references to the Hevajra cult: a lexicographical work, inscriptions, and testimony in Śaiva exegesis. I then contextualise the Mahāmudrātilaka among the Hevajra ancillary scriptures and share some notes on the purpose of such texts. I argue that such scriptures were meant to update a cult’s ritual and doctrinal palette in order to keep up with developments seen (and thought desirable to have) in rival schools. In the next section, I present the only known Sanskrit manuscript of the Mahāmudrātilaka, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin, Preußischer Kulturbesitz Orientabteilung Hs. or. 8711, a late Nepalese copy dated 1827 CE, which can be shown to be a copy of a Vorlage dating to 1204 CE. Next, I compare the text transmitted therein to the Tibetan translation, Tōh. 420, and identify them as two recensions. I then proceed to discussing exegesis on the Mahāmudrātilaka, the works of *Gambhīravajra and *Prajñāśrīgupta; these texts are for now available only in their Tibetan translation. I also identify some testimonia of the Mahāmudrātilaka. Using all this evidence, I argue that the text cannot be much earlier than the late 11th century. Next, I present an overview of the text by means of examining selected passages and their most significant features, with special focus on the differences and similarities with the Hevajratantra, the internal references to other scriptures, and the text’s significant parallels with the Vajramālābhidhāna. I argue that the text is unapologetically antinomian and gnostic. In the second half of the paper, styled as an appendix, I select five blocks of verses, which I edit and translate: the first deals with the relationship between initiating master and disciple, the second provides some insights into the attitudes of tantric practitioners towards orthodox Buddhists, the third contains detailed instructions on how to gather the antinomian substances known as ‘nectars’, the fourth deals with communal worship in a rite known as the gaṇacakra, and the final one describes a somewhat rare and rather gruesome ritual meant to bestow the power of flight.

Abstract Nāgārjuna’, who lived in South India in approximately the second century C.E., is undoubtedly the most important, influential, and widely studied Mahayana Buddhist philosopher. He is the founder of the Madhyamika, or Middle Path schools of Mahayana Buddhism. His considerable corpus includes texts addressed to lay audiences, letters of advice to kings, and the set of penetrating metaphysical and epistemological treatises that represent the foundation of the highly sceptical and dialectical analytic philosophical school known as Madhyamika. Most important of these is his largest and best known text, Mūlamadhyamakakārikiāliterally Fundamental Verses on the Middle Way). This text in turn inspires a huge commentarial literature in Sanskrit, Tibetan, Chinese, Korean and Japanese. Divergences on interpretation of Mūlamadhyamakakārikiāoften determine the splits between major philosophical schools. So, for instance, the distinction between two of the three major Mahayana philosophical schools, Svatantrika-Madhyamika and Prasangika-Madhyamika reflect, inter alia, distinct readings of this text, itself taken as fundamental by scholars within each of these schools.1

Abstract Among the encyclopedic texts that dominate the landscape in the later history of Indian Buddhist philosophy, Jñānagarbha’s Verses on the Distinction between the Two Truths can seem slight, almost to the point of insignificance. But the importance of the text is not measured simply by its size. In just a few condensed and difficult verses, it gives a compelling account of the relationship between the two dominant schools of Mahāyāna philosophy (Madhyamaka and Yogācāra) and sets the stage intellectually for the introduction of Buddhist philosophy to Tibet.