Littérature scientifique sur le sujet « Telecommunication – Technological innovations – European Union countries »
Créez une référence correcte selon les styles APA, MLA, Chicago, Harvard et plusieurs autres
Consultez les listes thématiques d’articles de revues, de livres, de thèses, de rapports de conférences et d’autres sources académiques sur le sujet « Telecommunication – Technological innovations – European Union countries ».
À côté de chaque source dans la liste de références il y a un bouton « Ajouter à la bibliographie ». Cliquez sur ce bouton, et nous générerons automatiquement la référence bibliographique pour la source choisie selon votre style de citation préféré : APA, MLA, Harvard, Vancouver, Chicago, etc.
Vous pouvez aussi télécharger le texte intégral de la publication scolaire au format pdf et consulter son résumé en ligne lorsque ces informations sont inclues dans les métadonnées.
Articles de revues sur le sujet "Telecommunication – Technological innovations – European Union countries"
1
Lydeka, Zigmas, et Akvile Karaliute. « Assessment of the Effect of Technological Innovations on Unemployment in the European Union Countries ». Engineering Economics 32, no 2 (29 avril 2021) : 130–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.5755/j01.ee.32.2.24400.
Texte intégralRésumé :
Innovation and unemployment are two economic elements related to each other that have been constantly analyzed in the economic debates from the beginning of the 21st century. A classical question is whether innovation creates or destroys jobs. The conventional approach contemplates innovation as a transformation instrument of an economy, resulting in economic growth and jobs creation. Another approach points out to various mechanisms which can compensate the primary effect of innovations and cause an ultimate effect of innovations on labour demand to be unclear. In view of the fact that there are many different explanations about the impact of innovations on labour demand, this paper, after the analysis of theoretical and empirical scientific literature in this field, provides an empirical analysis with unemployment as the dependent variable. The authors use data from 28 European Union countries for the period of 1992–2016 and pursue to research how technological innovations affect unemployment rate. There are two core independent variables – expenditure on R&D (research and development) and number of patent applications – as the main proxies for technological innovations. Control variables that affect unemployment are included to the model as well. The model was estimated using a dynamic two-step System Generalized Method of Moments (GMM-SYS) of a panel data system. After the composition of 12 different estimations of the model, the results suggest that, in some cases, technological innovations affect unemployment.
2
ÁLVAREZ, Isabel, Debora DI CAPRIO et Francisco Javier SANTOS-ARTEAGA. « TECHNOLOGICAL ASSIMILATION AND DIVERGENCE IN TIMES OF CRISIS ». Technological and Economic Development of Economy 22, no 2 (10 juin 2015) : 254–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.3846/20294913.2015.1033663.
Texte intégralRésumé :
We study an endogenous stochastic growth model whose dynamic evolution is determined by an adaptive learning process defining the accumulation of technological knowledge within countries. Both the assimilation of technological knowledge and the arrival rate of innovations depend on the technological development level of countries. We illustrate how heterogeneous levels of technological development provide laggard countries with insufficient innovation incentives, leading to divergences in total factor productivity and their technological stagnation. The model is simulated numerically using data from the current Innovation Union Scoreboard where the main expected growth patterns of the Baltic States are compared to those of the reference innovators within the European Union area.
3
Bertarelli, Silvia, et Chiara Lodi. « Innovation and Exporting : A Study on Eastern European Union Firms ». Sustainability 10, no 10 (10 octobre 2018) : 3607. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su10103607.
Texte intégralRésumé :
This paper investigates how firm-level innovation and productivity affect the export propensity in manufacturing firms in seven Eastern European Union countries. With respect to innovation activities, we analyze the complementarity between pair-wise product, process and non-technological (organizational and marketing) innovations when the objective function is represented by the exporting probability of a firm. Analyzing CIS2008 data, we find that productivity always has a positive and significant impact on the exporting propensity of firms. Furthermore, complex innovative firms, when large in size and/or from medium high–high technology sectors, can take advantage in terms of a higher attitude to export than non-innovators and simple innovators. By considering these results, governments have to introduce policies that can induce firms, especially small and medium ones, to implement complex innovations. This is fundamental in order to be more productive and more competitive.
4
Burinskienė, Aurelija, et Vita Marytė Janušauskienė. « Innovations in the Practice of Production and Trade Enterprises in EU Countries ». Ekonomia 22, no 1 (3 novembre 2016) : 9–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.19195/2084-4093.22.1.1.
Texte intégralRésumé :
Innovations in the Practice of Production and Trade Enterprises in EU CountriesModern theories are increasingly focusing on innovations. Scientific literature states that the implementation of innovations causes increase in sales volume: enterprises are improving the organization of production and trade methods, reducing production and trade costs, producing and selling competitive products as a result of technological progress. Technological progress also influences the development of production and trade prospects. Although the implementation of innovations is different, the main aspects are related to the novelty of product, production and service R&D intensity and the qualification of employees. Enterprises without the capacity to innovate may invest time and resources in studies of research results but are unable to transform this knowledge into practice Hult et al., 2004. In such sense it is important to create innovative behaviors and related outcomes on country level Koellinger, Thurik, 2009.Production and trade enterprises have a significant impact on the national economy, but the number of enterprises that have excellent understanding about innovations and their results is not sufficient. Sales of the trade enterprises in the European Union amount to 66%, and 74% of gross domestic product GDP in Lithuania. At the same time sales of the production enterprises in the European Union amount to 15.5% of GDP, and in Lithuania — 21% of GDP. Production and trade enterprises play a significant part among business companies. In corporate structure of the European Union 9.8% of companies are production companies which employ 22.6% of EU workers, while in the structure of the European Union 28.6% of companies are trade companies and these companies employ 24.7% of EU workers. However, in the trade sector there are 90% of companies, and in the production — 84% of companies with up to nine employees Euro-stat, 2010. Nevertheless, the European Commission’s 2013 study shows the declining contribution of production enterprises to GDP. Eurostat 2010 statistics show that small and medium-sized manufacturing companies are very slow to improve their operations and labor productivity. The EU companies are anticipated to increase by only 2.4% compared with the US companies, where growth of labor productivity is 3.5%Therefore, innovations are also important for the EU trade and production companies. To sum up the above set out material, it can be said that the application of innovations must be considered as a very complex cognitive subject.The article consists of three parts to fully examine the implementation of innovations in production and trade enterprises.First, literature analysis is carried out and topic related aspects are identified. In the second part the paper presents empirical research methodology. Herein, practices of production and trade enterprises are presented, comparison of production and trade enterprises is carried out, and effects on the activeness of enterprises regarding the opportunities of innovation implementation in this area are analyzed.In the third part the article presents empirical research results, conclusions and recommendations. Literature analysis reveals that the greatest role innovation plays in international companies, however the number of such enterprises is very small in the EU. The results also show that production and trade companies from Luxembourg have higher competitiveness than the enterprises from other countries. Overall the paper glances into whether, to what extent, how companies innovate, and how this differs between production and trade service industries.
5
Pawłowska, Elżbieta, et Marta Penkala. « Innovations in the area of health in selected countries of the European Union on the example of Poland and Germany ». Scientific Papers of Silesian University of Technology. Organization and Management Series 2023, no 166 (2023) : 605–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.29119/1641-3466.2022.166.39.
Texte intégralRésumé :
Purpose: The aim of the article is to identify and compare various types of product innovations and business processes in the area of health in selected countries of the European Union. The rationale for undertaking research on this subject resulted from the lack of scientific studies on innovation in the health sector. Design/methodology/approach: The analysis was carried out on the basis of two countries, namely Poland and Germany. For this purpose, an analysis of domestic as well as foreign literature was used aimed at proving the originality of the problem undertaken. In addition, the method of comparative analysis aimed at searching for similarities and discrepancies occurring in the phenomena under consideration in the article was used. An analysis of selected indexes and rankings on the implementation of innovations in the field of health globally was also carried out. Findings: The article provides insights into the implemented innovations in the field of health. The results obtained show that innovations in the area of health care are more developed in Germany than in Poland, and also most of them are product innovations. Originality/value: Implementation of innovations in the field of health care is important due to the permanent changes that are taking place on the technological, social and economic levels - not only in a specific country, but all over the world. Most of the findings presented in the article can be used to improve the operation of medical facilities in many areas, as well as to increase the quality of service to patients and improve the comfort of their lives. Keywords: innovation, research and development activities, health care. Category of the paper: A literature review.
6
Santillán-Salgado, Roberto. « Banking concentration in the European Union during the last fifteen years ». Panoeconomicus 58, no 2 (2011) : 245–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/pan1102245s.
Texte intégralRésumé :
The increase in the concentration of the banking industry across European Union countries during the last fifteen years can be explained in terms of: a) global factors, like the comprehensive adoption of technological innovations, the intensification of competition that has resulted from the deregulation of the financial sector and, more recently, as a consequence of the government interventions and forced acquisitions prompted by the 2007-2009 financial crisis; and, b) factors that have been specific to the E.U., in particular, the structural changes that took place in the region as a result of the creation of the Single Financial Market (1993) and the introduction of the euro (1999). This work analyzes the concentration process of the banking industry in the E.U. during the last fifteen years giving preeminence to the strategic choices made by the region?s commercial banks. It also reports the most visible E.U. banks? M&As and government interventions that resulted from the 2007-2009 financial crisis, make a preliminary evaluation of the outcomes, and suggests possible future trends for the banking industry in the region.
7
Ezanoğlu, Zeynep, et Dilek Çetin. « An Evaluation on R&D Incentive Policies in the European Union and Turkey ». Economics Literature 3, no 2 (24 avril 2022) : 34–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.22440/elit.3.2.2.
Texte intégralRésumé :
Economic growth, which is one of the main determinants of social welfare, is among the important issues in economics. It has been a subject emphasized by different schools of economics that technology and technological change are among the main sources of economic growth and development. As a result of R&D and innovation activities, qualified labor employment and production in a country will increase, thus economic growth will occur. As stated in growth theories, technological progress and innovations are considered the driving force of growth. Various economists have argued that public support for R&D through public incentives should be provided, as market failures will prevent firms from reaching the socially optimal level of R&D. Considering the contribution of R&D and innovation practices to national economies, governments provide direct and indirect support to studies in this field. Within the scope of this study, the legal and institutional situation regarding R&D incentives in Turkey has been examined and an evaluation has been made on the current status of innovation activities and R&D incentive policies of the European Union countries.
8
Sobczak, Elżbieta, et Dariusz Głuszczuk. « Diversification of Eco-Innovation and Innovation Activity of Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises in the European Union Countries ». Sustainability 14, no 4 (9 février 2022) : 1970. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su14041970.
Texte intégralRésumé :
The development of eco-innovation activities performed by enterprises remains one of the key challenges of sustainable development. In modern economies, the implementation of innovative technological solutions should also take into account performing eco-innovation activities by enterprises. The aim of the research was to assess the involvement level of small and medium-sized enterprises in eco-innovation activities, regarding the implementation of actions for the effective management of resources and the implementation of sustainable products, against the background of their involvement in innovation activities related to the implementation of product innovations and business processes, as well as the assessment of spatial-temporal diversity and trends for changes in this regard. The spatial scope of the research addresses 27 European Union countries, and the time scope of the research covers the years 2013–2020. The methods of multivariate statistical analysis, with particular emphasis on classification methods, were used in the research. The main finding of the research is the division of the European Union countries into three types of classes, including the countries assessed as: (1) poor eco-innovators and moderate innovators; (2) moderate eco-innovators and poor innovators; and (3) leaders of eco-innovation and innovation. The conducted research shows that SMEs in the European Union countries are much less involved in eco-innovation activities than in innovation ones; the level of involvement in eco-innovation can be divergent from that of involvement in innovation. Moreover, the involvement in eco-innovation does not show an upward trend.
9
Golovina, Svetlana G., Evgeniy V. Rudoy et Lidiya N. Smirnova. « Agricultural cooperatives in Europe : importance for rural development, government support ». Economy of agricultural and processing enterprises, no 9 (2021) : 37–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.31442/0235-2494-2021-0-9-37-44.
Texte intégralRésumé :
The article presents the main research results on the peculiarities of the functioning of agricultural cooperatives and the practices of state regulation of their activities in the countries of the European Union. The high importance of agricultural cooperatives is justified, first of all, by their multifunctionality, and, consequently, by their contribution both to the development of the agricultural economy and to the stability of rural areas. The main trends in the development of agricultural cooperation in Europe are: (1) the enlargement of the cooperative business; (2) the development of vertical integration along the technological chain, (3) all kinds of organizational innovations to expand financial opportunities, (4) strengthening competitiveness through the growth of the scale of activities and all kinds of innovations, (5) socialization of cooperative activities in order to improve the living conditions of rural communities. The specificity of state support for European agricultural cooperatives lies in expanding the range of mechanisms and instruments used by the state, providing financial assistance mainly to small regional cooperatives (performing functions important for rural areas), taking into account the possibilities of cooperative activities under extraordinary conditions (such as the COVID-19 pandemic or emerging natural cataclysms).
10
Білявець, Сергій. « PECULIARITIES OF POLICE PROFESSIONAL TRAINING IN THE EUROPEAN UNION (END OF THE XX - BEGINNING OF THE XXI CENTURY ». Збірник наукових праць Національної академії Державної прикордонної служби України. Серія : педагогічні науки 24, no 1 (26 avril 2021) : 17–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.32453/pedzbirnyk.v24i1.627.
Texte intégralRésumé :
The article presents the results of the analysis of regulatory and scientific sources, which reveal the features of police training for EU countries at the end of the 20th and the beginning of the 21st centuries. It was found that the integration of European states in the second half of the 20th century and the first decade of the 21st century contributed to the fact that the system of police training was changing in accordance with the changes in the political and socio-economic situation in individual EU countries and in the Community as a whole. The police training system itself is part of the integration processes within the framework of the integration of the EU law enforcement and police systems. Features such as the practical orientation of training, its continuous nature, and its close relationship to practice are characteristic of all police training institutions in EU countries. At the same time, EU countries are ambivalent about the innovations proposed by the 1999 Bologna Convention.
States with established educational systems (Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Denmark, France, Germany, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Portugal, Sweden, and the United Kingdom) are more conservative and less inclined to abandon their own educational standards, unlike Eastern European states that pursue radical reform policies, including reforms in police training. In police education programs, a significant number of hours are devoted to the development of skills and abilities to work with scientific and technological means, which are extremely widely used in police work in foreign countries. It was also found that police officers are thoroughly and comprehensively prepared for close interaction of national services, both through Interpol and directly with each other. At conferences, symposiums, seminars, exchanges of experience and delegations, increased attention is certainly given to police training.
Thèses sur le sujet "Telecommunication – Technological innovations – European Union countries"
1
RUIZ, SOLER Javier. « Is Twitter the new coffee house ? : the contribution of the European political Twittersphere to the European public sphere and European demos ». Doctoral thesis, European University Institute, 2019. http://hdl.handle.net/1814/63305.
Texte intégralRésumé :
Defence date: 12 June 2019Examining Board: Prof. Alexander Trechsel, University of Lucerne (Supervisor); Prof. Giovanni Sartor, European University Institute; Prof. Luigi Curini, University of Milan; Prof. Anamaria Dutceac Segesten, Lund University
A Public Sphere and a demos are intrinsic key elements of any democratic society. The literature has pointed out that social media platforms can play an important role in developing direct interactions between users and creating a sense of community. Can Twitter contribute to the emergence of a transnational networked European Public Sphere and European demos? This thesis examines the contribution of the European Political Twittersphere to this question. I divide the question into three articles. In each I use a different theoretical framework and methodological approach to two datasets of two issue publics (the Schengen agreement and the transatlantic trade partnership, TTIP) collected through the public Twitter Streaming API from August 2016 to April 2017. In the first article I explore the actor level of the networks created from the Twitter data. I investigate whether these Twitter networks constitute networked publics where non-elite actors receive attention and play an important role by the number of mentions and retweets. In the second article I explore the question of the constitution of European transnational networks. To do so, I geolocate the accounts involved in the two networks to identify the type of interactions the users establish, whether national or transnational. In the third article I analyse the content of these networks by extracting what sentiments the users express for the topics, and whether they see themselves and the topics as national or European. The three articles capture three features of the European Political Twittersphere. First, the results indicate the presence of transnational European networks. Second, built from the bottom-up where non-elite actors receive most of the attention. And third, composed of a multilingual demoi where the users see themselves and the topics as European. However, although these mapped Twitter networks contribute to some extent to transnational interaction and a sense of community, the deliberative quality of these networks is low.
2
MONTERO-PASCUAL, Juan J. « Public intervention in liberalised markets : from regulation to competition in European Telecoms ? » Doctoral thesis, 2001. http://hdl.handle.net/1814/4714.
Texte intégral
3
IBÁÑEZ, COLOMO Pablo. « European communications law and technological convergence : deregulation, re-gulation and regulatory convergence in television and telecommunications ». Doctoral thesis, 2010. http://hdl.handle.net/1814/14521.
Texte intégralRésumé :
Awarded the Jacques Lassier Prize for the best doctoral thesis in Competition Law by the International League of Competition Law. The Prize is awarded every two years for Ph.D. dissertations written in competition law and related fields (including intellectual property and unfair competition), and was established in memory of Jacques Lassier, a former President of the League and one of the first practitioners in continental Europe to understand the importance of EU competition rules. The ceremony took place at Christ Church College in Oxford during the annual congress of the League.Defence Date: 10 June 2010
Examining Board: Prof. Heike Schweitzer - Supervisor, European University Institute; Prof. Antonio Bavasso - University College London; Prof. Bruno de Witte - Universiteit Maastricht; Prof. Paul Nihoul - Université Catholique de Louvain
PDF of thesis uploaded from the Library digital archive of EUI PhD theses
Technological convergence' is an expression depicting the blurring of boundaries between television and telecommunications. As a consequence of this process, the economic assumptions underlying legacy regulatory regimes no longer reflect market realities. Thus, technological convergence pushes for regulatory change, and this, in three directions: (i) deregulation, i.e. the removal of tools providing for exclusive and special rights; (ii) regulatory convergence, i.e. the creation of a level-playing-field between incumbents and new entrants and (iii) re-regulation, i.e. the introduction of new tools, either to replace legacy ones or to respond to emerging concerns. The first part of the dissertation examines the reaction to technological convergence in television and telecommunications regulation. While deregulation was unavoidable in both sectors, so pressing were technological developments, there are marked differences in other respects between them. Television regulation is an example of a 'defensive' reaction, in the sense that steps towards regulatory convergence and re-regulation have been slow and incremental. As a result, legislation is remarkably unstable and distortions, unavoidable. In addition, competition law has emerged as a source of regulation to deal with some concerns neglected in explicit regulatory regimes. In the telecommunications sector, by contrast, the Regulatory Framework for electronic communications constitutes an attempt to lay down, ex novo, a flexible and lasting regime. The second part examines choices around 'conflict points' between regimes, i.e. those areas of substantive overlap between the three sources of regulation identified above. Two conclusions follow from the analysis. First, it appears that one must differentiate, for normative purposes, between regulatory objectives (pluralism, effective competition, harmonisation...) and the specific tools through which these are implemented. In this sense, it seems feasible and justified to reconcile conflicting objectives across the value chain along the lines of tools that are more suited to apply in a changing environment. Secondly, it is noted that television and telecommunications activities are so inextricably linked that any attempt to regulate one of the two sectors in isolation from the other, as is currently the case, is artificial and unsustainable.
4
CITI, Manuele. « Patterns of policy evolution in the EU : the case of research and technology development policy ». Doctoral thesis, 2009. http://hdl.handle.net/1814/12046.
Texte intégralRésumé :
Defence Date: 26/06/2009Examining Board: Frank Baumgartner (Penn State University); Susana Borrás (Copenhagen Business School); Adrienne Héritier (EUI/RSCAS) (Co-Supervisor); Rikard Stankiewicz (Lund University (emeritus), formerly EUI) (Supervisor)
PDF of thesis uploaded from the Library digital archive of EUI PhD theses
The literature on the policy-making of the European Union (EU) has trouble understanding the long-term evolution of EU policies. While numerous accounts exist that analyze EU policies from a historical, analytical-descriptive and normative perspective, no existing account has studied the evolution of EU policy output from a positive perspective. This thesis wants to start filling this gap in the literature by studying the patterns of policy evolution in the European Union’s research and technology development (RTD) policy. This policy is studied at three different levels of analysis. The first level is that of budgetary dynamics; here I test two alternative hypotheses on the pattern of budgetary change, both derived from the American literature: the classical incrementalist hypothesis, and the punctuated-equilibrium hypothesis of Bryan Jones and Frank Baumgartner. The second level of analysis is that of agenda dynamics, where I study the pattern of issue expansion/contraction on the fragmented agenda of the EU, and test two alternative hypotheses on the allocation of agenda space to RTD policy. The third level of analysis is that of institutional dynamics; here I test the hypothesis that institutional stability is associated with phases of incremental changes, whereas institutional developments occur in correspondence with budgetary punctuations. The empirical results show that both the budgetary and agenda dynamics of this policy are fully compatible with the punctuated-equilibrium hypothesis. However, the hypothesis on the correspondence between budgetary punctuations and institutional change is to be rejected. The final part of this work investigates the mechanism and the necessary conditions for the emergence of new policy priorities, by focusing on the recent emergence of security RTD as a new priority of the Framework Programme. This dissertation is the first work to empirically test the punctuated-equilibrium model on the EU, with an extensive and original dataset composed of budgetary, agenda and institutional delegation data.
Livres sur le sujet "Telecommunication – Technological innovations – European Union countries"
1
Banse, Gerhard. Towards the Information Society : The Case of Central and Eastern European Countries. Berlin, Heidelberg : Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2000.
Trouver le texte intégral
2
William, Cannell, Dankbaar Ben 1948- et European Commission, dir. Technology management and public policy in the European Union. Luxembourg : Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 1996.
Trouver le texte intégral
3
Technocracy in the European Union. New York : Longman, 1999.
Trouver le texte intégral
4
1957-, Blättel-Mink Birgit, et Ebner Alexander, dir. Innovationssysteme : Technologie, Institutionen und die Dynamik der Wettbewerbsfähigkeit. Wiesbaden : VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, 2009.
Trouver le texte intégral
5
1957-, Blättel-Mink Birgit, et Ebner Alexander, dir. Innovationssysteme : Technologie, Institutionen und die Dynamik der Wettbewerbsfähigkeit. Wiesbaden : VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, 2009.
Trouver le texte intégral
6
Pedro, Conceição, Heitor M. V. 1957- et Lundvall Bengt-Åke 1941-, dir. Innovation, competence building, and social cohesion in Europe : Towards a learning society. Cheltenham, UK : Edward Elgar, 2003.
Trouver le texte intégral
7
Europe's digital revolution : Broadcasting regulation, the EU and the nation state. London : Routledge, 2001.
Trouver le texte intégral
8
Governance and knowledge : The politics of foreign investment, technology and ideas. New York : Routledge, 2012.
Trouver le texte intégral
9
Competition for Technological Leadership : Eu Policy for High Technology. Edward Elgar Pub, 2003.
Trouver le texte intégral
10
Lembke, Johan. Competition for Technological Leadership : EU Policy for High Technology. Elgar Publishing Limited, Edward, 2002.
Trouver le texte intégralChapitres de livres sur le sujet "Telecommunication – Technological innovations – European Union countries"
1
Hardman, Lynda. « Cultural Influences on Artificial Intelligence : Along the New Silk Road ». Dans Perspectives on Digital Humanism, 233–39. Cham : Springer International Publishing, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-86144-5_31.
Texte intégralRésumé :
AbstractApplications of AI, in particular data-driven decision-making, concern citizens, governments, and corporations. China was one of the first countries to have identified AI as a key technology in which to invest heavily and develop a national strategy. This in turn has led to many other countries and the European Union (EU) to develop their own strategies. The societal investments and applications of AI are so far-reaching that looking only at the resulting technological innovations is insufficient. Instead, we need to be aware of the societal implications of AI applications—of which there are many—as well as the geopolitical role of business and academic players.
2
Kern, Josipa. « Standardization in Health and Medical Informatics ». Dans Medical Informatics in Obstetrics and Gynecology, 323–29. IGI Global, 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.4018/978-1-60566-078-3.ch017.
Texte intégralRésumé :
When things go well then often it is because they conform to standards (ISO, 2005). According to the Oxford Dictionary of Modern English, there is a lot of explanation of what standard means, but, in context of the first sentence, the best meaning is «standard is a thing or quality or specification by which something may be tested or measured». Personal computer is a standardized computer. It means that any of its components is made according to strictly defined specification. Consequently, it does not matter who produces components and where they are produced. Industry put the first demand for standards. Especially standardization is extremely important for electronics, for information and communication technology (ICT), and its application in different areas. Nowadays developing of standards is organized on global, international level, but it exists also on national level, well harmonized with international one. Developers of standards are organizations and groups working on this matter. The leading standard developer in the world is International Standards Organization (ISO). ISO is a nongovernmental organization established on 23 February 1947. Its mission is to promote the development of standardization and related activities in the world with a view to facilitating the international exchange of goods and services, and to developing cooperation in the spheres of intellectual, scientific, technological and economic activity (ISO, 2005). ISO collaborates with its partners in international standardization, the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), a non-governmental body, whose scope of activities complements ISO’s. The ISO and the IEC cooperate on a joint basis with the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), part of the United Nations Organization and its members are governments. The ISO standard can be recognized by the ISO logo, ISO prefix and the designation, “International Standard”. European developer of standards is the European Committee for Standardisation (Comité Européen de Normalisation – CEN). It was founded in 1961 by the national standards bodies in the European Economic Community and EFTA countries. CEN promotes voluntary technical harmonization in Europe in conjunction with worldwide bodies and its partners in Europe and the conformity assessment of products and their certification (CEN, 2005). CEN cooperates with the European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization (CENELEC), and the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI). Product of this cooperation is the European standard which can be recognized by the prefix EN. Any added prefix to the existing one, for both ISO and CEN standard, means that this standard is result of cooperation with other standardization group or organization. The prefix ENV in European standardization means that this standard is not yet a full standard (it is under development by CEN). ISO and CEN have Technical Committees working in the specific areas. ISO/TC215, established in 1998, and CEN/TC251, established in 1991, are corresponding technical committees working on standardization in health and medical informatics in ISO and CEN. Both standardization bodies, the ISO and CEN cooperate, and they mutually exchange their standards. There are also a variety of organizations and groups developing standards, cooperating with ISO and CEN or acting as administer and coordinator in standardization. For example, there are Health Level 7 (HL7), Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine (DICOM), American National Standards Institute (ANSI), non-profit organization that administers and coordinates the U.S. voluntary standardization and conformity assessment system, etc.