Thèses sur le sujet « Sustainable Land and Water Management »

The provision of water, wastewater and stormwater infrastructure is an essential ingredient of cities. However, questions are being raised about the type and form of urban infrastructure, for economic and environmental reasons. Traditionally these techologies have offered linear solutions, drawing increasing volumes of water into cities and discharging waste at ever increasing levels, causing escalating stress on the environment. In addition the costs of water infrastructure provision and replacement, both in the developing and developed world, is becoming prohibitive. In response, a new paradigm has been called for and new solutions are emerging that have been labelled as Integrated Urban Water Management (IUWM). This concept can be considered to consist of both technical and philosophical dimensions, and represents a new form of professional praxis. However, the adoption of these techniques and concepts is constrained by the inertia of the existing urban water systems. It is therefore argued that the introduction of any change must occur across a number of dimensions of the technoeconomic system of the city. These dimensions-artefacts and technical systems (i.e. the technology and knowledge systems), professional praxis and socio-political context (i.e. institutions, culture and politics) and biophysical realities and world views (i.e. the environment and underlying values) - provide a framework for analysis of the change process - both how it is occurring and how it needs to occur. This framework is used to illustrate the link between environment values and the process of technological innovation, and points to the need for the emerging values and innovations to be institutionalised into the professional praxis and socio-political context of society. Specifically, it is argued that a new form of transdisciplinary professional praxis is emerging and needs to be cultivated. A broad review of the literature, an evaluation of selected emerging technologies and three case studies are used to illustrate and argue this position. These examples show the potential economic, social and environmental benefits of IUWM and provide some insight into the potential which this approach has to influence the form and structure of the city and at the same time highlighting the institutional arrangements required to manage urban water systems.

The thesis explores the role of Catchment Management Planning [CMP] in promoting sustainable water uses within a river catchment and develops a framework and procedures whereby CMP could be implemented in Malaysia. The study links the concepts of sustainable development and the principles underlying the sustainability of water uses, which are explicit throughout the thesis, with land use, water resources, environmental planning and management controls, using the river catchment or basin as the basis of the framework for water resource management. The mismatch between the intended uses of river water and the prevailing water quality condition of rivers arises from conflicts of interest and can be attributed to the lack of land use and water resource management and control. The thesis emphasises the essential elements of integrating the concept of sustainable development into planning and management activities, while advocating the need for a multidisciplinary and integrative approach to catchment water quality management. The thesis describes the research framework and methodologies, and analyses the concept of sustainable development, the environmental policy for Malaysia, and the land use, water resource and environmental planning and management systems within the Malaysian context. The use of GIS in this area of spatial planning has been very promising, and the thesis demonstrates the functional capabilities of GIS in the identification of pollution problems and problematic areas through water quality modelling and approaches to decision making; this forms the basis for recommended actions in the proposed plan. The plan proposals, which are based on a holistic approach towards sustainability, contain: strategies for improving river water quality through source control and minimising impacts of land use development, while sustaining beneficial river uses; components of planning decision making and implementation; the functions, recommended format and framework for the Malaysian CMP; and opportunities and needs for further research.

Sustainable land management (SLM) practices, as conservation agriculture (CA) and conventional tillage with cover crops (CC), aimed at balancing competitive agricultural production and environmental protection, have been encouraged throughout the EU through policy and subsidisation. Adoption of SLM practices that regulate biogeochemical cycles, however, requires further study, especially given the effects of local pedo-climatic variability and because middle and long-term effects are not fully understood and may differ from short-term outcomes. For these reasons, in this work, field experiments were conducted in three farms in the low-lying venetian plain, characterized by loamy soils, where CA and CC were compared to conventional intensive tillage system (CV) on trials established since 2010. The first objective of the thesis was to evaluate, by integrating experimental field results with model predictions, the potential ecosystem services provided by CA and CC practices on SOC dynamic, air quality and climate regulation, nutrition biomass and regulating of water conditions. In this experiment, CA and CC results contrasted according to the soil functions, the ecosystem service category and evaluation time span. The former was more effective in providing regulating services in the short term, and less consistent in the long term, at least for GHG mitigation. GHG control is only one of the numerous ecosystem services provided by conservation practices (e.g. reduction of erosion and P particulate loss). Many of these depend on the C content which are strongly affected by the C stratification processes. Cover crop adoption, on the contrary, showed promise in the long term, whereas short-term outcomes (two-year experiment) were negatively affected by poor cover crop growth. The second objective aimed to assess the SOC stock variation due to the adoption of CA and CC in comparison to CV within a large sample (i.e., 240) of 0-50-cm soil profiles, comparing two expansive soil sampling operations conducted in 2011 and 2017. The study showed that CA enhances SOC stratification rather than SOC accumulation, with high topsoil SOC that may have partly counteracted soil surface compaction. However, a comparison with previous SOC stock quantifications between CA and CV after three years of the experiment suggests that some SOC stock increase occurred, even at 50 cm, despite being not significant. The burial of fresh biomass-C with cover crops in arable systems (CC) enhanced SOC stock depletion most likely due to priming effects, suggesting that C input management is pivotal for its accumulation in agroecosystems with low soil fertility and low SOC protection capacity.

The Buriganga River has dramatically been disrupted due to extreme reduction of its water flow and encroachment of the banks and rigorous pollution due to human waste, industrial garbage and solid waste dumping. Thus Buriganga poses serious environmental threats to the Dhaka city.s sustainable environment. Using GIS tools it is revealed that the first risk to be considered is the amount of decreasing water which is putting a threat on the life of the Buriganga River as well as the whole ecosystem of the surrounding region. The second hazard is considered as decreasing vegetation due to the growing up of built up area and river land conversion to agricultural field. The Buriganga River is now highly polluted and becoming more or less dead due to dumping clinical, industrial and household wastes, industrial effluents, and discharge of oil from river vehicles. Due to the severe pollution and loss of normal flow of water, the Buriganga River effects on the environment, social and economical impacts of the surrounding area. These are the great threat and health hazard risk for the inhabitants of the nearby area. Unfortunately there is no distinct river basin committee yet, even not for all other rivers. In the National Water Policy 1999, the first term river basin management came which only defines some common issues of river problems mainly focusing on the flood. No IWRM implementation policy is practiced in the country. This research work recommends promoting a sustainable environment in the Dhaka city area and healthier life for its inhabitants. It is essential to save the surrounding river system especially the Buriganga River. An integrated river basin organization is highly necessary to implement IWRM approach to save the river. The present study reveals that governmental weak institutional setup and lack of enforcement of existing laws and policy are the main obstruct to save the Buriganga River.

Sustainable development is achieved through the equal promotion of environmental protection, economic development and social equity. Urban planners play a key role in sustainable development through the mediation of tensions inherent between these priorities. Using urban planning theory that focuses on the conflicts between the priorities of sustainable development and lessons learned from planning practice provides a basis from which to evaluate the claims of sustainability present in the Greater New Orleans Urban Water Plan. Outreach initiatives, policy frameworks and ecosystem co-management are suggested to make the planning and implementation processes of the Greater New Orleans Urban Water Plan more feasible in terms of its ability to foster sustainability. Additionally, conceptualizing integrated stormwater management for Greater New Orleans within the context of the Louisiana coastal crisis can help to make the goals of the Urban Water Plan more realistic in the long term and boost institutional capacity to promote regional resilience.

To guarantee protection of our drinking water, water catchment protections are established. These are divided into three different zones and in the first zone it is most likely that an activity, such as agriculture, will contaminate the water resource. Hence the activities are strongly regulated or banned. The EU communion is working towards a sustained water quality through several directives; Nitrate Directive, Waterframwork directives and Sustainable use of pesticide directive. The main purpose is to regulate the diffuse pollution from agriculture.This thesis is about how Denmark, Germany and France are working towards a sustainable agriculture within water protection areas. Sweden is also discussed but mainly about two different methods applied in Linköpings and Ljungbys municipalties.How the different countries work is mainly the same due to the directives. However, there are some interesting water management methods to observe such as voluntary agreements between water companies and farmers. Moreover, the sustainability perspective is approached in a larger scale where you and I as consumers also contribute via consumer-pays-principle. Therefore, we are, by our demand for water, the problem but also the solution and together we can contribute with good social, economic and ecological conditions for ourselves and the farmer.

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Este trabalho consistiu em avaliar e analisar a gestão dos recursos naturais com foco nos recursos hídricos (demanda, usos, quantidade e qualidade) e da terra (ocupação, plantio, animais) nas sociedades rurais do Semiárido Paraibano com foco nas comunidades do KM 21, em Campina Grande (Agreste paraibano) e Pedra Redonda (Curimataú paraibano) em Pocinhos, buscando-se uma maior compreensão da vivência e convivência das famílias na região Semiárida do Nordeste do Brasil. Os velhos problemas são os efeitos adversos da seca e adimensional da pluviosidade no Semiárido nordestino paraibano e seus efeitos no cotidiano das famílias rurais na gestão da água, usos e das práticas do solo. O objeto de estudo é a gestão dos recursos socioeconômicos e ambientais das famílias rurais nestas comunidades. O objetivo geral é compreender como os sistemas rurais familiares são afetados e respondem as disposições e meios de convívio que estas populações têm como subsídios, a exemplo, os tanques de pedra como sistemas de captação e armazenamento de água da chuva; como a água captada é utilizada no processo de gestão para melhorar a vida das famílias; e como ocorrem os usos do recurso hídrico para as famílias, os animais e as lavouras; todos estes fatores preponderantes para a convivência do homem nas regiões rurais semiáridas. Para isso, foram aplicados 5 questionários na comunidade KM 21, o que corresponde a 50% das famílias desta localidade, e 14 na comunidade Pedra Redonda, o que remete a 21% das famílias desta comunidade. Entrevistas semiestruturadas também foram realizadas com os moradores mais antigos. Para localizar e mapear os corpos hídricos e as áreas de uso e ocupação do solo foi utilizado um aparelho de GPS (Global Position System) – de marca Garmin Etrex. Os resultados mostram que a maioria das famílias das duas comunidades vive da água pluvial que é captada nos tanques de pedra e armazenada nas residências (em cisternas, tonéis e caixas d’água) para os diversos fins. A estação chuvosa dá-se de março a julho nos dois municípios; e, neste período, no município de Campina Grande chove 554 mm (69% do total acumulado anual – T.A.A.), já em Pocinhos chove 285 mm (74% do T.A.A.); os resultados das análises químicas e bacteriológicas mostraram que as águas dos reservatórios - tanques de pedra - encontravam-se contaminadas em suas fontes, sendo impróprias para o consumo humano; podendo apenas ser utilizada após tratamento simplificado de desinfecção; porém, podem ser utilizadas para o manejo em horticulturas, por ser considerada água doce de classe 1 (C1) e possui níveis permitidos de sólidos totais dissolvidos (STD). Observou-se, também, que as culturas mais disseminadas são o milho, feijão, a mandioca e as horticulturas (em geral, divididas entre ervas fitoterápicas, temperos, verduras e legumes), gerando subsistência e renda para as famílias. As conclusões mostram que o processo de gestão ocorre de modo deficitário, devido ao baixo nível de escolarização (conhecimento) das comunidades e a falta de assistência técnica especializada. Como recomendação sugere-se o auxílio do Programa Social P1+2, no qual as famílias são selecionadas a partir dos critérios de convivência, permanência, tipos de solo, cobertura e uso do solo das comunidades, dentre outros atributos de ordem social, econômica e ambiental, e que certamente colaboram para o processo de gestão e seguridade social.
This work consisted in assess and review the management of natural resources with a focus on water resources (demand, uses, quantity and quality) and earth (occupation, planting, animals) in rural societies of Paraíba Semiarid with focus on communities KM 21, in Campina Grande (Agreste Paraibano) and Pedra Redonda (Curimataú Paraibano) in Pocinhos, search for an a greater understanding of living and living together of the families in the Semiarid region of Northeast Brazil. The old problems are the adverse effects of drought and dimensionless rainfall in semiarid northeastern Paraíba and its effects on the daily life of the rural households in the management of water use and soil practices. The object of study is the management of socioeconomic and environmental resources of rural households in these communities. The general objective is to understand how family rural systems are affected and respond the provisions means that these populations have as grants, the example, the stone tanks as systems for capturing and rainwater storage; as the water captured is utilized in the management process to improve the lives of families; and how they occur the uses of water resources for families, animals and plantations; all these preponderant factors living together of man in Semiarid rural areas. To this end, questionnaires were applied in 5 families in the KM 21 community, which corresponds to 50% of households in this locality, and 14 in Pedra Redonda community, which refers to 21% of the families in this community. Semi-structured interviews were also conducted with older residents. To locate and map the watercourses and areas of land use and occupation was used a GPS device (Global Position System) - Garmin Etrex brand. The results show that most of the families of the two communities live rainwater that is captured in stone tanks and stored in homes (with tankertrucks, bucket and water tanks) for various purposes. The rainy season occurs from March to July in both municipalities; and in this period, in Campina Grande it rains 554 mm (69% of total accumulated annual – T.A.A.), already in Pocinhos it rains 285 mm (74% of T.A.A.); the results of chemical and bacteriological analyzes showed that the waters of the reservoirs - stone tanks - found themselves contaminated in their origin, being improper for human consumption; may be used after simplified treatment of disinfection; however, they may be utilized in horticulture for management, for being considered freshwater Class 1 (C1) and possess permitted levels of total dissolved solids (TDS). It was observed also that the most widespread crops are maize, beans, mandioc and horticultural (usually divided between phytotherapic herbs, condiments and vegetables), generating livelihoods and income for families. The conclusions show that the management process occurs in deficit mode, due to the low level of education (knowledge) of the communities and the lack of specialized technical assistance. As recommendations is suggested the aid of the Social Program P1 + 2, in which households are selected from the living together criteria, permanency, types of soil, cover and land use communities, among other attributes of social, economic and environmental, and certainly collaborate to the process management and social security.

The South African coastal and marine environment is an essential ecologic and economic asset. Its associated services and products are substantially contributing to economic growth and sustainable development of the country. However, it is internationally and nationally recognised that land-based marine pollution (LBMP) is the most important single risk to the health and sustainability of coastal and marine waters and the associated ecosystems. The regulation of LBMP at the national level is still difficult and challenging. The issue of LBMP management has only recently been introduced in South Africa with the development of the National Programme of Action to Protect Marine Environment from Land-based Activities, 2008. South Africa is only starting to consider the question of LBMP regulation. This thesis aims to conduct a critical analysis of the South African regulatory framework pertaining to LBMP in comparison to international best practice and the French regulatory framework, in order to identify the key South African challenges in this regard and to make recommendations to address them. In order to do so, this research commences by providing an analysis of LBMP and the theoretical foundations associated with LBMP regulation, as promoted by international best practice. The study identifies and assesses the main regulatory features to be considered in the development, implementation and/or assessment of a regulatory framework pertaining to LBMP. These features will form the methodological framework to conduct the comparative legal assessment between the French and South African regulatory frameworks pertaining to LBMP. This thesis then provides a detailed and thorough legal analysis of the French and South African regulatory frameworks pertaining to LBMP using the methodological framework developed using guidance from international best practice. Finally, based on lessons learnt from the comparative legal study, this study concludes with a set of recommendations for the South African context.
Thesis (LL.D.)--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2011.

This study aims to show the importance of Landslide Susceptibility Map as a tool for land use planning, prevention and risk mitigation. This will be shown through MM evaluation processes affecting high sector of El Paraíso gorge - Villa María del Triunfo (Lima - Peru).The work consisted of two phases: in the first one (field) the intrinsic characteristics of geology and geomorphology were identified. The second one, included the Landslide Susceptibility Map generation, using the multivariate Heuristic Model consisting of overlapping maps variables (Carrara et al. 1995, Lain et al. 2005), developed in a GIS environment through algebra layer (geoprocessing operations).The results of Landslide Susceptibility Map in general, give us geoscience information that will contribute to land management, and in a timely manner, with the development of specific studies, prevention and / or mitigation measures to ensure the physical stability of identified critical areas.
El presente estudio tiene por objetivo mostrar la importancia del Mapa de Susceptibilidad a MM, como herramienta para la planificación territorial, prevención y mitigación de riesgos. Para ello, se muestra como ejemplo la evaluación geodinámica del sector alto de la quebrada El Paraíso – Villa María del Triunfo (Lima – Perú).El trabajo consistió de dos fases: en la primera (campo) se identificaron los características intrínsecas de geología y geomorfología. La segunda (gabinete), comprendió la elaboración del mapa de susceptibilidad aplicando el modelo heurístico multivariado que consiste en la superposición de mapas de variables (Carrara et al. 1995; Laín et al. 2005), desarrollado en un entorno SIG a través del álgebra de capas (operaciones de geoprocesamiento).Los resultados del mapa de susceptibilidad de manera general, nos presentan información geocientífica que contribuirá con el ordenamiento territorial (OT); y de manera puntual, con el desarrollo de estudios específicos, medidas de prevención y/o mitigación para asegurar la estabilidad física de las áreas críticas identificadas.

The return to the customary or integration of customary and statutory tenure systems to continue gain currency in both contemporary policy and academic discourses on land tenure as an alternative pathway towards enhancing security of access and tenure in the sub-Saharan African context. Central to the debates are issues concerning the relevance of customary land tenure arrangements and appropriate pathways to successfully engineer the process of harmonization toward improved tenure security whilst preserving of the communitarian principles of local tenure systems. Using two case studies in rural Ghana, this study investigated the prevailing land tenure arrangements, practices and socio-political dynamics that underpin them, highlighting the challenges and opportunities that need to be addressed for the successful adaptation of customary tenure rules and institutions into the statutory system towards improved tenure security and sustainable land management. The research employed a mixture of qualitative and quantitative methods including interviews, focus group discussions and questionnaires to collate and analyse data from sampled respondents in Kakum and Ankasa in southern Ghana. The results of the investigation revealed that contrary to the mainstream view that customary tenure arrangements are incapable of providing tenure security in the face on ongoing transformations, the perceived tenure security of respondents was generally high in the study areas. This notwithstanding, it was observed that the emerging patterns of access and control (occasioned by increasing land scarcity and commodification) have resulted in social differentiation and inequalities in land access and distribution amongst the poor and vulnerable members of the landholding groups including women and the youth. The research also showed that aside from tenure security, other important contextual factors including access to credit, modernised agricultural inputs and targeted extension service support significantly influence households' investment decisions regarding adoption of sustainable land management practices. These findings have far-reaching implications for current land tenure interventions aimed at harmonising customary and statutory tenure structures for improved tenure security and sustainable land management. Results of the investigation were used to develop a three-phase incremental framework on formalisation of customary land rights which could serve as bespoke framework to guide the design of land tenure intervention strategies and implementation towards addressing local tenure insecurity in the specific context of the study areas and sub-Saharan Africa generally. The major conclusion of the research is that balancing the market efficiency and social equity considerations is necessary and should be pursued under the ongoing land tenure reforms for inclusive and equitable outcomes at the local level. This derives from the fact that the existing tenurial challenges are complex and context-specific, equally requiring well-balanced and nuanced solutions to effectively address them.

Doctor Legum - LLD
Water is at the very core of sustainable development, critical for a thriving people, planet and prosperity. Water is regarded as a public good which is fundamental for health and life. Water is so important that it was debated as being a basic human right on many international platforms. Water access has plagued many parts of the world for a long period of time. In recent years, there have been increasingly urgent warnings of a global water crisis, as the human species consistently uses more water than is sustainably available. The international community tried to work towards overcoming these water-related issues by establishing the then Millennium Development Goals (hereafter referred to as MDGs), with MDG7.C focusing on access to safe drinking water. Even though MDG7.C was achieved in part, issues still remained regarding water access and quality. Sustainable Development Goal 6 (hereafter referred to as SDG 6) was then introduced and the scope of SDG6 is much wider than its predecessor, since the water access and scarcity problems are still prevalent today. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development includes a dedicated goal on water and sanitation that sets out to ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all. SDG6 expands the MDG focus on drinking water to now cover the entire water cycle, including the management of water, wastewater and ecosystem resources, with water at the very core of sustainable development. The goal has, in essence, extended to include a much broader spectrum of issues that need to be solved which, in essence, unravels even more challenges along the way. As a result, it is imperative to determine whether SDG6 can allow for actual sustainable development in terms of freshwater resources. Thus, this thesis will discuss the advent of the Sustainable Development Goals (hereafter referred to as SDGs), in particular SDG6, as well as analyse how SDG6 impacts on International Environmental Law, with particular emphasis on International Freshwater Law. The main aim of this research is to determine whether the creation and implementation of SDG6 can result in overall freshwater sustainability and whether this can result in the furtherance of sustainable development.

Water is an essential resource for sustainable development, however it is not often taken into account. In order to find effective and lasting solutions to the problems related to water resources, it is required a new form of governance and management paradigm. This new paradigm is included into the concept of Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM), which has been defined by Global Water Partnership GWP , as "a process which promotes the coordinated management and development of water, land and related resources, in order to maximize the resultant economic and social welfare in an equitable manner without compromising the sustainability of ecosystems".

This study evaluated the impacts of shallow and deep open drains on groundwater levels and drain performance under varying climate scenarios and irrigation application rates. The MIKE SHE model used for this study is an advanced and fully spatially distributed hydrological model. Three drain depths, climates and irrigation application rates were considered. The drains depths included 0, 1 and 2 m deep drains. The annual rainfall and meteorological data were collected from study area from 1976 to 2004 and analysed to identify the typical wet, average and dry years within the record. Similarly three irrigation application rates included 0, 10 and 16 ML/ha-annum. All together twenty seven scenarios (3 drains depths, 3 climates and 3 irrigation application rates) were simulated. The observed soil physical and hydrological data were used to calibrate and validate the model. Mean square error (R[superscript]2) of the simulated and observed water table data varied from 0.7 to 0.87. Once validated the MIKE SHE model was used to evaluate the effectiveness of 1 and 2 metre deep drains. The simulated water table depth, unsaturated zone deficit, exchange between unsaturated and saturated zones, drain outflow and overland flow were used to analyse their performance. The modeling results showed that the waterlogging was extensive and prolonged during winter months under the no drainage and no irrigation scenario. In the wet climate scenario, the duration of water logging was longer than in the average climate scenario during the winter months. In the dry climate scenario no waterlogging occurred during the high rainfall period. The water table reached soil surface during the winter season in the case of wet and average climate. For the dry climate, the water table was about 0.9 metres below soil surface during winter.One and 2 metre deep drains lowered the water table up to 0.9 and 1.8 metres in winter for the wet climate when there was no irrigation application. One metre deep drains proved effective in controlling water table during wet and average climate without application of irrigation water. One metre deep drains were more effective in controlling waterlogging a in wet, average and dry years when the irrigation application rate was 10 ML/ha-annum. With 16 ML/ha-annum irrigation application, 1 metre deep drains did not perform as efficiently as 2 metre deep drains in controlling the water table and waterlogging. In the dry climate scenario, without irrigation application, 1 metre deep drains were not required as there was not enough flux from rainfall and irrigation to raise the water table and create waterlogging risks. Two metre deep drains lowered the water table to greater depths in the wet, average and dry climate scenarios respectively when no irrigation was applied. They managed water table better in wet and average climate with 10 and 16 ML/ha-annum irrigation application rate. Again in the dry climate, without irrigation application 2 metre deep drains were not required as there was a minimal risk of waterlogging. The recharge to the groundwater table in the no drainage case was far greater than for the 1 and 2 metre deep drainage scenarios. The recharge was higher in case of 1 metre deep drains than 2 metre deep drains in wet and average climate during winter season.There was no recharge to ground water with 1 and 2 metre deep drains under the dry climate scenarios and summer season without irrigation application as there was not enough water to move from the ground surface to the unsaturated and saturated zones. When 10 ML/ha-annum irrigation rate was applied during wet, average and dry climate respectively, 1 metre deep drains proved enough drainage to manage the recharge into the groundwater table with a dry climate. For the wet and average climate scenarios, given a 10 ML/ha-annum irrigation application rate, 2 metre deep drains managed recharge better than 1 metre deep drains. Two metres deep drains with a 10 ML/ha-annum irrigation application rate led to excessive drainage of water from the saturated zone in the dry climate scenario. Two metres deep drains managed recharge better with a 16 ML/ha-annum irrigation application rate in the wet and average climate scenarios than the 1 metre deep drains. Two metres deep drains again led to excessive drainage of water from the saturated zone in dry climate. In brief, 1 metre deep drains performed efficiently in the wet and average climate scenarios with and without a 10 ML/ha-annum irrigation application rate. One metre deep drains are not required for the dry climate scenario. Two metre deep drains performed efficiently in the wet and average climate scenarios with 16 ML/ha-annum irrigation application rate. Two metre deep drains are not required for the dry climate scenario.

This study evaluated the impacts of shallow and deep open drains on groundwater levels and drain performance under varying climate scenarios and irrigation application rates. The MIKE SHE model used for this study is an advanced and fully spatially distributed hydrological model. Three drain depths, climates and irrigation application rates were considered. The drains depths included 0, 1 and 2 m deep drains. The annual rainfall and meteorological data were collected from study area from 1976 to 2004 and analysed to identify the typical wet, average and dry years within the record. Similarly three irrigation application rates included 0, 10 and 16 ML/ha-annum. All together twenty seven scenarios (3 drains depths, 3 climates and 3 irrigation application rates) were simulated. The observed soil physical and hydrological data were used to calibrate and validate the model. Mean square error (R[superscript]2) of the simulated and observed water table data varied from 0.7 to 0.87. Once validated the MIKE SHE model was used to evaluate the effectiveness of 1 and 2 metre deep drains. The simulated water table depth, unsaturated zone deficit, exchange between unsaturated and saturated zones, drain outflow and overland flow were used to analyse their performance. The modeling results showed that the waterlogging was extensive and prolonged during winter months under the no drainage and no irrigation scenario. In the wet climate scenario, the duration of water logging was longer than in the average climate scenario during the winter months. In the dry climate scenario no waterlogging occurred during the high rainfall period. The water table reached soil surface during the winter season in the case of wet and average climate. For the dry climate, the water table was about 0.9 metres below soil surface during winter.
One and 2 metre deep drains lowered the water table up to 0.9 and 1.8 metres in winter for the wet climate when there was no irrigation application. One metre deep drains proved effective in controlling water table during wet and average climate without application of irrigation water. One metre deep drains were more effective in controlling waterlogging a in wet, average and dry years when the irrigation application rate was 10 ML/ha-annum. With 16 ML/ha-annum irrigation application, 1 metre deep drains did not perform as efficiently as 2 metre deep drains in controlling the water table and waterlogging. In the dry climate scenario, without irrigation application, 1 metre deep drains were not required as there was not enough flux from rainfall and irrigation to raise the water table and create waterlogging risks. Two metre deep drains lowered the water table to greater depths in the wet, average and dry climate scenarios respectively when no irrigation was applied. They managed water table better in wet and average climate with 10 and 16 ML/ha-annum irrigation application rate. Again in the dry climate, without irrigation application 2 metre deep drains were not required as there was a minimal risk of waterlogging. The recharge to the groundwater table in the no drainage case was far greater than for the 1 and 2 metre deep drainage scenarios. The recharge was higher in case of 1 metre deep drains than 2 metre deep drains in wet and average climate during winter season.
There was no recharge to ground water with 1 and 2 metre deep drains under the dry climate scenarios and summer season without irrigation application as there was not enough water to move from the ground surface to the unsaturated and saturated zones. When 10 ML/ha-annum irrigation rate was applied during wet, average and dry climate respectively, 1 metre deep drains proved enough drainage to manage the recharge into the groundwater table with a dry climate. For the wet and average climate scenarios, given a 10 ML/ha-annum irrigation application rate, 2 metre deep drains managed recharge better than 1 metre deep drains. Two metres deep drains with a 10 ML/ha-annum irrigation application rate led to excessive drainage of water from the saturated zone in the dry climate scenario. Two metres deep drains managed recharge better with a 16 ML/ha-annum irrigation application rate in the wet and average climate scenarios than the 1 metre deep drains. Two metres deep drains again led to excessive drainage of water from the saturated zone in dry climate. In brief, 1 metre deep drains performed efficiently in the wet and average climate scenarios with and without a 10 ML/ha-annum irrigation application rate. One metre deep drains are not required for the dry climate scenario. Two metre deep drains performed efficiently in the wet and average climate scenarios with 16 ML/ha-annum irrigation application rate. Two metre deep drains are not required for the dry climate scenario.

Evaluation is the systematic determination of the merit, worth and significance of a programme, initiative or intervention. As a young discipline, its empirical study is still limited, especially in Francophone Africa. Building on both the theory and the practice of evaluation in Senegal for the past decades, this study aims to identify strategies to improve evaluation practice and its usefulness for development results. It is focused on the evaluation of Sustainable Land Management (SLM) that presents specific challenges associated with the difficulty of considering simultaneously the different time and space scales of the environment, the economy and the society; and of dealing with the uncertainty and the limited quantity and quality of context data, among others. The study is based on an extensive review of the specialized literature on environment and development issues, the institutional and policy setting, complemented with semi-structured interviews with national authorities, donor representatives and evaluators. Participant observation also helped to ground the analysis and to access key grey literature and evaluation reports. Meta-evaluation (MEv) is proposed as the analytical framework to study the SLM evaluation practice in Senegal to improve evaluative knowledge. MEv is the evaluation of evaluations. The theoretical function of MEv has been developed to assess the role of evaluation in the SLM policy sector, including its adequacy and opportunity. A tailored MEv framework is applied to a set of 40 SLM project evaluation reports published since 2000, and complemented with 3 case studies. The study also analyses a parallel strand of evaluation practice in Senegal: capitalizations, conceived as participatory evaluative exercises focused on stakeholders¿ experiences, practices and learning. Results show that evaluation practice in SLM in Senegal is very heterogeneous and far from ¿sound evaluation standards¿. This is explained by constraints in the enabling environment and the institutional framework and limited capacities of stakeholders at all levels. In spite of some timid advances towards country-led evaluation, serious blockages to national ownership and evaluation utilization still persist. Although the majority of interviewees perceived SLM evaluations to be participative, this study contests their understanding of participation in most cases. SLM capitalization exercises, although far from the ideal features of this learning-oriented approach are able to engage more meaningfully with local-level actors. The set of evaluations and capitalizations analysed does not offer a coherent response to the challenges of evaluating Natural Resources Management interventions identified in the literature. For instance, they do not solve the tensions among different time and space scales or encompass a wide variety of values and perspectives about those interventions. Finally, the findings suggest that SLM evaluation is still much dominated by donor agendas and aid effectiveness concerns (accountability), with very limited efforts to promote their use for improvement or learning, and hardly any to inform national policy making. The study confirms the usefulness of MEv to guide critical reflection about real-world evaluations, surpassing the narrow conception of evaluation quality. It also allows the opening of a debate about evaluation capacities understood as the faculty to choose what, when and how interventions are evaluated. MEv could be used to promote a more active involvement of Senegalese research institutes, public administration and civil society in shaping a new public policy evaluation scenario. A broader national conception of evaluation should also encompass capitalizations and other similar approaches and foster learning organizations and institutions while promoting exchanges between applied research and project and policy-level evaluation.
La evaluación es la investigación sistemática del mérito, valor e importancia de un programa, iniciativa o intervención. Siendo una disciplina nueva, su estudio empírico es todavía limitado, especialmente en el África francófona. En base a la teoría y la práctica de evaluación en Senegal durante las últimas décadas, este estudio pretende identificar estrategias para mejorar la evaluación y su utilidad para alcanzar resultados de desarrollo. Está focalizado en la evaluación de la Gestión Sostenible de la Tierra (GST) que presenta retos específicos asociados a la dificultad de considerar simultáneamente las diferentes escalas de tiempo y espacio del medio ambiente, la economía y la sociedad; de integrar la incertidumbre, así como la limitada cantidad y calidad de la información sobre el contexto, entre otros. El estudio está basado en una revisión extensiva de la literatura especializada en medio ambiente y desarrollo, el contexto institucional y político, complementado con entrevistas semi-estructuras con autoridades nacionales, representantes de la comunidad de donantes y evaluadores. Cuatro años de participación observante también ayudaron a contextualizar el análisis y a acceder a literatura gris y a informes de evaluación claves. El enfoque de Meta-evaluación (MEv) es propuesto como marco analítico para estudiar la práctica de evaluación de GST en Senegal con el fin de mejorar el conocimiento evaluativo. La MEv es la evaluación de evaluaciones. La función teórica de MEv ha sido desarrollada para valorar el rol de la evaluación en el sector de política de la GST, inluyendo su idoneidad y oportunidad. Un marco de MEv adaptado es aplicado a un conjunto de 40 informes de evaluación de proyectos de GST publicados a partir del 2000 y complementados con tres estudios de caso. El estudio también analiza una práctica de evaluación paralela en Senegal: las capitalizaciones, concebidas como ejercicios evaluativos participativos focalizados en las experiencias, prácticas y aprendizaje de los actores. El estudio confirma la utilidad de la MEv para guiar la reflexión crítica sobre un conjunto de evaluaciones reales, más allá de la concepción restrictiva de la calidad en evaluación. También permite propiciar el debate sobre las capacidades de evaluación entendidas como la capacidad de elegir qué intervenciones son evaluadas, cuándo y cómo. La MEv podría ser utilizada para promover una implicación más activa de los institutos de investigación, las administraciones públicas y la sociedad civil senegaleses para dibujar un nuevo escenario de evaluación de políticas públicas. Una concepción amplia de la evaluación debería también incluir las capitalizaciones y otros enfoques similares y fomentar organizaciones e instituciones de conocimiento y el intercambio entre la investigación aplicada y la evaluación a nivel de proyectos, programas y políticas.
L´évaluation est la recherche systématique de la valeur, de la portée et de l’importance d’un programme, d’une initiative ou d’une intervention. Étant une discipline nouvelle, son étude empirique est encore limitée, particulièrement en Afrique francophone. S’appuyant sur la théorie et la pratique de l’évaluation au Sénégal au cours des dernières décennies, cette étude vise à identifier des stratégies pour améliorer l’évaluation et son utilité en vue d’atteindre des résultats de développement. Elle porte sur l’évaluation de la gestion durable des terres (GDT), qui présente des défis spécifiques en raison de la difficulté à considérer en simultané les différentes échelles temporelles et spatiales de l’environnement, de l’économie et de la société, et de prendre en compte, entre autres, l’incertitude ainsi que des informations limitées en quantité et qualité sur le contexte. L’étude est basée sur une ample révision de la littérature spécialisée sur l’environnement et le développement, le contexte institutionnel et politique, complétée par des entretiens semi-structurés avec les autorités nationales et les représentants de la communauté de bailleurs et d’évaluateurs au Sénégal. Quatre années d’observation participante ont également aidé à contextualiser l’analyse et à consulter la littérature grise et les rapports d’évaluation. L’approche de méta-évaluation (MEv) est proposée en tant que cadre analytique pour étudier la pratique d’évaluation de la GDT au Sénégal afin d’améliorer les connaissances évaluatives. La MEv est l’évaluation des évaluations. La fonction théorique de MEv a été développée pour jauger le rôle de l’évaluation dans le secteur des politiques de GDT, y compris son adéquation et sa pertinence. Un cadre de MEv adapté est appliqué à un ensemble de 40 rapports d’évaluation de projets de GDT publiés à partir de l’année 2000 et complétés avec trois études de cas. L’étude analyse également la pratique de l’évaluation parallèle au Sénégal : les capitalisations, conçues comme exercices évaluatifs participatifs portant sur les expériences, les pratiques et les apprentissages des acteurs. Les résultats montrent que la pratique d’évaluation de la GDT au Sénégal est très hétérogène et éloignée des standards d’ "évaluation de qualité". Cette situation est expliquée par les limitations de l’environnement politique et du cadre institutionnel favorables à l’évaluation, ainsi que par les capacités limitées des acteurs à tous les niveaux. En dépit de quelques progrès timides vers l’évaluation menée par le pays, d’importants blocages persistent encore afin de promouvoir l’appropriation nationale et l’utilisation des évaluations au Sénégal. Même si la plupart des interviewés conçoivent l’évaluation de la GDT comme participative, l’étude met en cause leur compréhension du concept de participation, sauf dans quelques exemples isolés d’évaluations inclusives. Les capitalisations de GDT, bien qu’étant loin de reprendre les caractéristiques idéales de cette approche orientée vers l’apprentissage, permettent au moins d’engager de façon plus significative les acteurs au niveau local. Néanmoins, les évaluations de projet et les capitalisations de GDT n’offrent pas une réponse cohérente aux défis inhérents à l’évaluation d’initiatives de gestion durable de ressources naturelles identifiés dans la littérature. Par exemple, elles ne permettent pas de résoudre les tensions entre les différentes échelles temporelles et géographiques ou d’intégrer la diversité des valeurs et des perspectives liées à ces interventions. Finalement, les résultats indiquent que la pratique d’évaluation de la GDT est encore majoritairement dominée par les agendas des bailleurs et les objectifs d’efficacité de l’aide (redevabilité), avec des efforts très limités pour promouvoir leur utilisation orientée vers l´améliorations ou l’apprentissage, et virtuellement inexistants pour élaborer des politiques publiques. L’étude confirme l’utilité de la MEv pour guider la réflexion critique sur un ensemble d’évaluations réelles, au-delà de la conception restrictive de qualité en évaluation. Elle permet aussi de favoriser le débat sur les capacités d’évaluation comprises comme le pouvoir de déterminer quelles interventions à évaluer, le moment choisi pour les évaluations et la façon dont elle sont conduites. La MEv pourrait être utilisée afin de promouvoir une implication plus active des instituts de recherche, des administrations publiques et de la société civile sénégalaise afin de concevoir un nouveau panorama de l’évaluation de politiques publiques. Une conception ample de l´évaluation devrait également inclure les capitalisations et d’autres approches similaires, tout en promouvant des organisations et des institutions productrices de savoir, et en favorisant l’échange entre recherche appliquée et évaluation de projets, programmes et politiques.

The world experiences large-scale ecosystems degradation in an every part of the planet - in rich as well as in and poor parts. Unstable economic conditions together with weak law enforcements make low income countries face more severe forms of natural destruction. This draws the attention on the need to design economic policies that are environmentally sound and while at the same time ensuring the well-being of their inhabitants in economic, social and natural settings. A number of countries in Central and Eastern Europe and Central Asia have experienced a unique historical period of transition from communist regimes to free democratic societies. This has been followed by numerous effects on their financial situations as economic hardships caused by the collapse of economies injected by the assistance from the Soviet and committees of socialist countries mutually aiding each other, opening up of opportunities as private ownership and market liberations. Not all countries succeeded in liberalizing their economic structures and reforming economic and political environments. Simultaneously, the natural environment underwent various effects, both positive and negative, after the Iron Curtain fell and exposed destructing effects of command and control economy. Mongolia has experienced all the hard aspects of the transition and started to climb up on the income ladder from the low income to the lower middle-income list of the World Bank, but also seen many negative price aspects of development. Water resources have been severely degraded in recent years due to anthropogenic impact. However, there are reforms taking place in water sector institutions that have recently attracted wide attention nationwide.This thesis will give detailed picture on current state of water resources in the country and the system that coordinates them. The Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) is used as an approach to highlight the relationship between water resource quality and income per capita in Mongolia. This is followed by a detailed discussion on water institutions development and the coordinating mechanisms badly needed among sectors involved. The research suggests that collaborative actions are important if sustainable water management is to be reached. More generally, I recommend further research issues on the generated topic as my thesis is one of the first discussions coupling the EKC and institutional theory aspects together.

Sustainable, robust, and resilient water resources planning and management (WRPM) has emerged as a major concern, not only for decision makers and water utilities but also for academic researchers. A water resources system is very complex since its enormous number and diverse components are connected and interrelated. To establish effective management and planning for the water resources system, decision makers and planners can disaggregate large water resources systems into multiple scales based on geographical boundaries and the management and planning goals. Arizona’s water resources system can be divided into basin, state, planning area, and local planning area scales. Each scale requires a different approach and models depending on the WRPM goals. This dissertation takes a comprehensive view of sustainable, robust, and resilient WRPM for multi-scale Arizona water resources systems (state, planning area, and local planning area scales). This dissertation is composed of three studies with four journal articles that address sustainable, robust, and resilient WRPM. First, for the state and planning area scale, a large food-energy-water system model is developed for Arizona using a system dynamic modeling approach. Using the model, effectiveness of potential alternatives including graywater reuse, rainwater harvesting, demand reduction, and groundwater importation that promise sustainable water use are evaluated. Second, at the regional planning area scale, impacts of various strategies on the robustness and resilience of regional water supply system (RWSS) during major component failure for a region in southwest Tucson, AZ are assessed. The strategies include (1) restricting water demand, (2) constructing pipelines as alternative water supply pathways, (3) building water tanks as backup water storages, and (4) maintaining the Central wellfield as a backup source. Finally, the impact of network topology within water distribution system (WDS)/water distribution network (WDN) on (1) the accuracy of the first-order second-moment (FOSM) approximation when it is employed as a nodal pressure head uncertainty estimation method and (2) WDN robustness and resiliency. To that end, a quantitative WDS classification scheme that classify a WDS based on its function and network topology are developed. Using the classification scheme, network topology within WDS is identified and used for the analyses.

Water supply service delivery has been recognised as a complex challenge facing communities in developing countries. Its particularly serious in sub-Saharan Africa where a significant proportion of the population still lack basic access to safe drinking water supply. Over the years, many externally supported community-managed water facilities have failed to deliver sustainably. This results not only in a loss of financial investment but also constitutes a real threat to people’s health and well-being. Therefore, this study aimed to explore options for innovative water service delivery approach that can support vibrant water supply provision as well as provide a guidance framework for sustainable water service delivery in Nigeria. Due to the socio-technical complexity of the research, the mixed method approach was found to be the most suitable research method after extensive considerations and reviews of other several available research methodologies. The study found that the hand-dug wells (HDW) have enormous potential in sustainable water service delivery to households within the proposed framework arrangement. This research successfully presented a unique model, based on the concept of HDW self-supply, using rope pump technology in conjunction with a community-based water resource management concept. The proposed approach led to the production of a set of Guidance Frameworks that will aid planning and implementation of a proposed solution. This was validated with key stakeholders and it applicability was rated highly relevant in the water sector. The approach did not only address the question of technical and financial sustainability but also make a case for environmental sustainability. Hence, ensuring that meeting present domestic water needs will not jeopardise the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Further research was recommended to ensure wider applicability of the model.

Water management is a global challenge. Important facts of current concern in the water sector are: water scarcity threatened by the increasing consumption, safe drinking water supply resources threatened by climate changes and pollutants discharged from anthropogenic activities; and the accelerated urbanisation demanding adequate water supply together with the increasing wastewater generated by the growing urban population. These issues are becoming an imperative need that could be effectively addressed through adaptive water management strategies for the sustainable development of the societies worldwide. Metropolitan areas exemplify the rapid increase of urban population within a relative small area, which consequently results in the overexploitation of water supplies. Together with this overexploitation, human health could be threatened due to the water-health nexus in terms of water quality and quantity. The specific case study of this research: the Metropolitan Area of Merida (MAM) in Yucatan, Mexico has been analysed in order to exemplify the use of a decision maker’s tool to improve public health through the identification of major water pollutants and correlate them with waterborne diseases documented in epidemiologic statistics. The focus of this research was on two indicator contaminants: Faecal coliforms as microbial indicator of water quality, representing the non-conservative pollutants, and nitrate as chemical indicator of water quality, an example of a conservative pollutant that may persists in the groundwater for decades. Seven engineering interventions have been tested to identify most suitable management strategies through the following steps: 1. Quantify pollutants in the aquifer with the Sustainable Integrated Water Management Model (SIWMM), using a system dynamics approach; 2. Outcomes of the model served to quantify a) Public health risks posed from faecal coliforms through Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment (QMRA), and b) Economic savings associated with pollutants reduction, 3. Develop cost benefit analysis of selected interventions, and 4. Identify the most suitable intervention in order to assist decision makers to cope with a sustainable supply of safe water and an integrated water management. The model framework developed in this thesis identifies the installation of soil absorption systems into septic tanks at household level, and installation of treatment plants for livestock wastewater as the most cost-benefit interventions of substantial positive impacts on groundwater quality and public health and, in addition, economic benefits.

No
This paper reflects on what is meant by interdisciplinary engagement in the context of two integrated urban water management research programmes in the UK and New Zealand. Different extents of interdisciplinary engagement in research teams are conceptualised on a continuum that ranges from rhetorical intentions to joint research. We discuss how interdisciplinary working in research programmes is shaped through the processes of bidding, research management and production of outputs. The paper concludes that if higher levels of interdisciplinarity are desired, they need to be specifically funded and planned for. In particular, funders may need to provide flexibility in relation to interdisciplinary outputs, which may be hard to specify at the start of a research programme.

Khartoum State in Sudan is subject to the erratic and intense rainfall during the short rainy season and dryness and heat throughout the rest of the year. High intensity rainstorms with a short duration have become more frequent in the area during the last two decades resulting in cities inundation and flash floods in the rural parts. On the other hand, the dry season means hot weather in the urban parts and water shortage in the rural part. Rural areas are dependent on the runoff water brought about by the seasonal streams as a source of water. For this study, Khartoum City Center and Seleit area were taken to investigate the application of water harvesting in the urban and rural areas, respectively. Accordingly, the hydrological characteristics and the specification of the potential water harvesting sites and systems were examined. For Khartoum City Center, characteristics of the drainage system were examined using ArcGIS platform. It is found that the drainage system covers 42% of the area with total capacity of 24000 m3. Daily rainfall data for urban meteorological station were used to calculate the probability and the return period of the rainfall, as well as the potential runoff. Rainfall probability of occurrence was calculated applying Gumbel distribution method for extreme events that were arranged according to the Peak-over-Threshold method. The potential runoff that could be generated from a certain rainfall was calculated using the Natural Resources Conservation Services method provided by the United States Department of Agriculture (US-NRCS). Accordingly, the curve number was calculated depending on the land use/land cover and the hydrological soil group. Consequently, the weighted curve number is found to be 94%, indicating dominant imperviousness. 13.1 mm rainfall depth produces runoff volume equal to the drainage system capacity with return period of one year; whereas more than four folds the drainage system capacity is produced by 30 mm rainfall depth that is considered the threshold for raising flood hazard. Six potential sites for roof rainwater harvesting were selected. Accordingly, it is found that, the application of roof water harvesting in 18% and 72% of the commercial and business district buildings can accommodate the runoff resulting from the 13.1 and 30 mm rainfall depth, respectively. Hence, impounding rainstorm water would help managing the urban runoff water, and consequently, the stored water could be used for making more green areas that will enhance the urban environment. Three watersheds of ephemeral streams (wadi), namely Wadi El Kangar, Wadi El Seleit, and Wadi El Kabbashi make up Seleit area. Distinct maps were prepared in ArcMap for the calculation of the potential runoff and the specification of the appropriate water harvesting sites and systems. The Wadis watersheds areas are found to be 540, 344 and 42 km2 for Wadi El Kangar, Wadi El Seleit and Wadi El Kabbashi, respectively. Daily rainfall data of rural meteorological station were classified into three groups representing the soil dry (AMCI), moderate (AMCII), and wet (AMCIII) moisture conditions; the respective CNI, CNII, and CNIII values were calculated accordingly. The weighted CN values indicate high runoff potential within the three soil moisture conditions. Accordingly, the rainfall thresholds for runoff generation for AMCI, AMCII and AMCIII conditions are found to be respectively 18.3 mm, 9.1 mm and 4.4 mm for Wadi El Kabbashi and 22 mm, 11 mm and 5 mm for both Wadi El Seleit and Wadi El Kangar. El Kangar dam subwatershed was used for calibrating the potential runoff calculated by the NRCS method. Since the Wadis are ungauged, Google Earth and GIS platforms were used to calculate geometrically the volume of the dam reservoir water for three years. This volume was compared to the annual runoff calculated by the NRCS method. Consideration to different factors was made to locate the potential water harvesting sites. Accordingly, water harvesting systems for fodder and crop plantation; sand storage surface or subsurface dams; or groundwater recharge, were specified. The socio-economic study revealed that the financial capacity, if any, of the villagers is very limited. Thus, the financial source for the construction of the suggested potential water harvesting or the rehabilitation of the existing ones is questionable. Hence, other potential financial sources are needed to help executing water harvesting projects in the region, e.g. Khartoum State Government. Applying water harvesting in Seleit area is found to be promising. Improving the livelihood of the villagers by applying runoff water harvesting could assure better water accessibility, better income generation from farms production, and allocation of time for other activities, e.g. education. This would be reflected in reduced migration to nearby cities and stabilized market supply of agricultural and animal products. Therefore, the development of the rural part is of great benefit to the development of Khartoum State, as long as the interdependency and mutual benefit between the rural and urban areas, represented by the local food and labor market, remain exist.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--George Mason University, 2009.
Vita: p. 162. Thesis director: Sharon deMonsabert. Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Information Technology. Title from PDF t.p. (viewed Oct. 11, 2009). Includes bibliographical references (p. 153-161). Also issued in print.

Cape Town is experiencing its worst drought in recorded history. Notwithstanding that the Western Cape has always been a water scarce region, it is this current drought that has brought home the area’s inherent vulnerability and highlighted the governance issues. The world wherein South Africa’s water governance was created is very different to the world we find ourselves in today. It is a world of uncertainty and unpredictability not contemplated in water governance comprised of legislation, policy, guidelines and practice. The current water governance constructs a conventional approach based upon predictability and certainty and is no longer appropriate to meet today’s new challenges. Consistent with this conventional approach, Cape Town’s municipal water supply is almost completely dependent upon surface water which makes it even more vulnerable to drought than if its supply was comprised of a variety of water supply options. With surface water sources fully exploited and storage opportunities within the urban edge limited alternative water supply options must be more seriously considered and the water governance reformed to accommodate its use. Water governance is the focus of reform because it is the framework for infrastructure planning and therefore controls the resultant system, infrastructure and management. This thesis interrogates the current water governance as the starting point before firstly discussing the proposed incremental approach towards a decentralised, hybrid system for water infrastructure and secondly, identifying specific areas where intervention is necessary for implementation.

Miami-Dade County implemented a series of water conservation programs, which included rebate/exchange incentives to encourage the use of high efficiency aerators (AR), showerheads (SH), toilets (HET) and clothes washers (HEW), to respond to the environmental sustainability issue in urban areas. This study first used panel data analysis of water consumption to evaluate the performance and actual water savings of individual programs. Integrated water demand model has also been developed for incorporating property’s physical characteristics into the water consumption profiles. Life cycle assessment (with emphasis on end-use stage in water system) of water intense appliances was conducted to determine the environmental impacts brought by each practice. Approximately 6 to 10 % of water has been saved in the first and second year of implementation of high efficiency appliances, and with continuing savings in the third and fourth years. Water savings (gallons per household per day) for water efficiency appliances were observed at 28 (11.1%) for SH, 34.7 (13.3%) for HET, and 39.7 (14.5%) for HEW. Furthermore, the estimated contributions of high efficiency appliances for reducing water demand in the integrated water demand model were between 5 and 19% (highest in the AR program). Results indicated that adoption of more than one type of water efficiency appliance could significantly reduce residential water demand. For the sustainable water management strategies, the appropriate water conservation rate was projected to be 1 to 2 million gallons per day (MGD) through 2030. With 2 MGD of water savings, the estimated per capita water use (GPCD) could be reduced from approximately 140 to 122 GPCD. Additional efforts are needed to reduce the water demand to US EPA’s “Water Sense” conservation levels of 70 GPCD by 2030. Life cycle assessment results showed that environmental impacts (water and energy demands and greenhouse gas emissions) from end-use and demand phases are most significant within the water system, particularly due to water heating (73% for clothes washer and 93% for showerhead). Estimations of optimal lifespan for appliances (8 to 21 years) implied that earlier replacement with efficiency models is encouraged in order to minimize the environmental impacts brought by current practice.

Ecologically sustainable development has become a major feature of legal systems at the international, national and local levels throughout the world. In Australia, governments have responded to environmental crises by enacting legislation imposing obligations and restrictions over privately-owned land. Whilst these obligations and restrictions may well be necessary to achieve sustainability, the approach to management of information concerning these instruments is problematic. For example, management of information concerning obligations and restrictions in Queensland is fragmented, with some instruments registered or recorded on the land title register, some on external registers, and some information only available in the legislation itself. This approach is used in most Australian jurisdictions. This fragmented approach has led to two separate but interconnected problems. First, the Torrens system is no longer meeting its goal of providing a complete and accurate picture of title. Second, this uncoordinated approach to the management of land titles, and obligations and restrictions on land use, has created a barrier to sustainable management of natural resources. This is because compliance with environmental laws is impaired in the absence of easily accessible and accurate information. These problems demonstrate a clear need for reform in this area. To determine how information concerning these obligations and restrictions may be most effectively managed, this thesis will apply a comparative methodology and consider three case studies, which each utilise different models for management of this information. These jurisdictions will be assessed according to a set of guidelines for comparison to identify which features of their systems provide for effective management of information concerning obligations and restrictions on title and use. Based on this comparison, this thesis will devise a series of recommendations for an effective system for the management of information concerning obligations and restrictions on land title and use, taking into account any potential legal issues and barriers to implementation. This series of recommendations for reform will be supplemented by suggested draft legislative provisions.

A strategic management of water is integral for any society aiming at moving towards sustainability. This thesis aims to provide a common understanding of how water management should be considered within sustainability constraints, using ‘backcasting’ from basic sustainability principles as a compass. With a common language, a constructive dialogue is then possible to unify all stakeholders to move together towards sustainability. To answer the research question “How can an interaction with water stakeholders be strategically developed to progress toward the service of water in a sustainable society”, a methodology based on Sustainability Life Cycle Assessment, the Template for Sustainable Product Development and Multi-Stakeholder Platforms has been utilised within one domestic and one industrial water user case study in Blekinge, Southern Sweden. In this locality, water is regarded as abundant in volume. Yet it was revealed that what is consumed by society is not water as such; but the purity of water. Within this context, opportunities to move towards sustainability have arisen and the case study organizations were able to utilise improvements in reporting and operations. Economic activity such as new infrastructure, pollutant trading schemes and product accreditation are amongst the many concepts identified as potential steps towards the service of water in a sustainable society.

Indigenous peoples in North America have a long history of understanding their societies as having an intimate relationship with their physical environments. Their cultures, traditions, and identities are based on the ecosystems and sacred places that shape their world. Their respect for their ancestors and 'Mother Earth' speaks of unique value and knowledge systems different than the value and knowledge systems of the dominant United States settler society. The value and knowledge systems of each indigenous and non-indigenous community are different but collide when water resources are endangered. One of the challenges that face indigenous people regarding the management of water relates to their opposition to the commodification of water for availability to select individuals. External researchers seeking to work with indigenous peoples on water research or management must learn how to design research or water management projects that respect indigenous cultural contexts, histories of interactions with settler governments and researchers, and the current socio-economic and political situations in which indigenous peoples are embedded. They should pay particular attention to the process of collaborating on water resource topics and management with and among indigenous communities while integratingWestern and indigenous sciences in ways that are beneficial to both knowledge systems. The objectives of this paper are to (1) to provide an overview of the context of current indigenous water management issues, especially for the U.S. federally recognized tribes in the Southwestern United States; (2) to synthesize approaches to engage indigenous persons, communities, and governments on water resources topics and management; and (3) to compare the successes of engaging Southwestern tribes in five examples to highlight some significant activities for collaborating with tribes on water resources research and management. In discussing the engagement approaches of these five selected cases, we considered the four "simple rules" of tribal research, which are to ask about ethics, do more listening, follow tribal research protocols, and give back to the community. For the five select cases of collaboration involving Southwestern tribes, the success of external researchers with the tribes involved comprehensive engagement of diverse tribal audience from grassroots level to central tribal government, tribal oversight, on-going dialogue, transparency of data, and reporting back. There is a strong recognition of the importance of engaging tribal participants in water management discussions particularly with pressing impacts of drought, climate change, and mining and defining water rights.

The exponential growth of the world population led by the geographic expansion of urban areas in developing countries has put massive pressure on natural resources especially land and water. Water supply and water scarcity remain one of the major challenges facing the industrializing world. The United Nations forecast further increase in population which, in the absence of management and policies, will inevitably put more resources at risk. Changing climatic conditions causing more frequent and intense rainfall will also affect water management systems in the vulnerable urban areas of developing countries. The goal of this study was twofold; first analyze the patterns of water consumption in the rapidly growing city of Lagos, Nigeria and use them in a System Dynamics (SD) model to make projections about future demand. The second part used remote sensing to quantify the contribution of extensive land use/cover change to urban flooding. Land use/cover dynamics over the past decade was analyzed using satellite imagery provided by Landsat Thematic Mapping (TM). Unsupervised classification was performed with false color composite using the Iterative Self-Organizing Data Analysis (ISODATA) technique in a Geographic Information Systems (GIS). The study area was divided into four different land use types during image classification: bare land, built-up area, water bodies, and vegetation. For water demand, two different scenarios of population growth including 5.5% and 2.75 % annual increase were considered. The results showed that water demand dropped by 67% of its current value when losses in distribution were reduced by 20% and population annual growth rate kept at 2.75% over the study period. Bare land and water bodies lost 1.31% and 1.61% of their current area respectively while built-up area grew by 1.11%. These changes in land use/cover changes led to a 64% increase in average surface runoff, mostly attributable to increasing surface imperviousness and the absence of an adequate urban drainage system. This paper intends to assist the authorities of the city of Lagos who adopted a master plan in 2010 as a road map to reduce to city’s vulnerability to flooding and close the gap between water demand and water supply by 2050.

Denna fältstudie kommer att undersöka betydelsen av regnvattenanvändning som vattenförsörjnings alternativ. Hur kan hållbara innovativa lösningar tas fram för att lösa vattenförsörjningen på Sri Lanka? Efter lidandet av mer än 30 års inbördeskrig och efter de omfattande skadorna från tsunamin 2004, står nu Sri Lanka inför många utmaningar rörande landets återuppbyggnad. Tillgången till vatten är den viktigaste grundläggande förutsättningen för ett fungerande samhälle. I landets torra zon är det långa perioder av torka då vattenkällor sinar och inget naturligt vatten finns att tillgå. Detta trots att det under monsunen kommer tillräckligt med regn för att täcka vattenbehovet om det skulle samlas på ett optimalt sätt. Avrinningskoefficienten är här mer än 60% outnyttjat regnvatten. I ett flertal lyckade projekt har man samlat regnvatten i RWH system för senare användning. Människor i dessa områden saknar kranvatten eftersom detta område ej är täckt av vattenförsörjningsnätet. Detta gör att dessa människor har en positiv inställning till att ha RWH system..I den våta zonen, och då speciellt i Colombos stadsmiljö som denna studie handlar om, är situationen annorlunda. Här har de flesta invånare kranvatten. Det kommunala kranvattnet är högt subventionerat av regeringen vilket gör att kostnaden är låg för användarna samt ökar vattenkonsumtionen. Invånarna känner inget ansvar för vattenresurserna eftersom den gemena uppfattningen är att det är en evig källa. Majoriteten av hushållen ser inget skäl till att installera RWH på grund av den låga lönsamheten. Trots att det finns ett förordnande att det ska ingå ett RWH system, så följs inte detta. Saknande av uppföljningsplikt anges som orsak av vatten styrelsen. Kostnaden för att behandla och leverera vatten till invånarna är väldigt hög och är mycket energi krävande. Det finns ett behov av enorma investeringar för att rusta upp och bygga ut både vattenverken och vattennätet för att klara av att möta det växande invånarantalet i Colombo området. Ett annat problem är att 40% av hushållen i Colombo saknar avloppsanslutning. De leder sitt avloppsvatten direkt eller efter en septi-tank ut i jorden eller havet.Om medvetenheten kring dessa frågor ökar, samt att förhållandet mellan kranvattnets kostnad och RWH justeras med ändringar i subventionerna, kunde en hållbar lösning på vattensituationen med såväl ekonomiska som miljövinster ske.Resultatet av denna studie är att RWH får ses som ett komplement när det gäller vattenförsörjningen för hushållens del. Fokus bör istället ligga på industrier, sjukhus, skolor, kommunala byggnader och andra byggnader med stora vattenbehov och med de största möjligheterna att uppnå optimalt resultat.Studien visar också på en hållbar lösning på avloppshanteringen. Den visar DWWT och dess fördelar.
The field study will investigate the importance of Rain Water Harvesting (RWH) as a water supply option. How can sustainable innovative solutions be developed to solve the water problem of Sri Lanka? Suffering from more than 30 years of civil war and damages after being struck by the tsunami 2004, Sri Lanka faces many challenges to recover and rebuilt the country. The access to water is the most important need for a civilization´s existence. In the dry zones of the island people suffer from long drought periods with dried up wells and no natural sources for water. However the rainfall during the monsoon, even in these areas, is more than enough to provide the water needs if properly collected, thus the run-off coefficient is more than 60%. Several projects with rain water harvesting in so called RWH systems have been implemented with success. Because these areas are not covered by the water supply net and therefore have no tap water, the people are very positive to having the RWH system. In the wet zones and especially in the urban environment of Colombo the situation is different. Here most of the people have treated pipe-borne tap water. The metered tap water is highly subsidized by the government which makes the cost low for the users and increases the water consumption. The citizens do not feel a responsibility to be careful with resources since the common opinion is that water is a never ending source. The majority of the households find no reasons for installing a RWH system because it´s low economic profits. Even if there is a legislation that demands all new buildings should have a RWH system not many households have installed these systems. However the cost to deliver and treat this water is very expensive for the government and demands a lot of energy. Huge investments need to be done in both the treatment plants and the pipe-line net to meet the growing population in Colombo area. Another problem is that 40% of the households today in Colombo have no sewage connection but lead their wastewater directly or after a septic tank into the ground or the sea. If the awareness regarding these concerns could be improved and the conditions between tap water costs and RWH be adjusted with changes in the subsidized system, a sustainable solution to the water situation in Colombo with both economic and environmental benefits could be found. The result from the case study is a recommendation about installing RWH as a complimentary source of water for the households. And investments in RWH systems should be focused to industries, hospitals, schools, municipal buildings and other public buildings with a high water demand and with the best possibilities for optimal results. Further the case study treats a sustainable solution to the sewage situation. It shows the Decentralized waste water treatment plant (DWWT) and its advantages.

In September 2015 UN announced 17 Sustainable Development goals (SDG) where achieving food security, ensure availability of water for all, access to modern energy for all and combat climate change are four of the 17 goals. In Kenya only 23% of the population have electricity access and in the rural areas 93% lack access to electricity and the improved water availability only reaches 59% of the population. In Kenya 72% of the agricultural land is rain fed which makes the food availability sensitive to droughts, which happened in 2009, and in 2012-2014 22% of the population was undernourished. The main objective for this master thesis is to analyse how to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals aforementioned for Kenya with an integrated resources planning following the CLEWs framework. The toolset used for this analysis is ONSSET, OSeMOSYS and WEAP which, where possible, are interlinked to see how the resources in Kenya can be allocated to reach the SDG. The universal access to electricity by 2030 was modelled for two levels of demand where the grid demand, modelled in OSeMOSYS, found the least cost electricity mix for Kenya to be mainly geothermal and natural gas. The off-grid analysis showed that for the low electricityconsumption the stand-alone solutions of PV and diesel was most cost effective. When theres idential demand increased the mini-grid solutions was preferred. The pressure points that the modelling showed were in the water access and irrigation plans for the Tana catchment where the irrigation scheme in the upstream parts of the river, which represents 25% of the irrigated area, would have months of unmet demand. The CO2 emissions for both scenarios was found to be less (6 resp. 9 MtCO2eq) than the projected BAU emissions, 18.4 MtCO2eq, in the National Climate Change Action plan.
I September 2015 kungjorde FN de 17 globala målen där ingen hunger, tillgänglighet till vatten för alla, ren och modern energi för alla samt bekämpande av klimatförändringar var fyra av de 17 målen. I Kenya har endast 23% av befolkningen tillgång till elektricitet och i landsbygdsområden så har endast 7% av befolkningen tillgång. Även tillgång till rent vatten är en brist där i Kenya endast 59% av befolkningen har tillgång. Sett till jordbruket så är 72% av åkrarna regnbevattnade vilket leder till dåliga skördar vid torra år så som i 2009 vilket slog hårt mot Kenya. Under 2012-2014 så uppskattades 22% av Kenyas befolkning vara undernärda.Det huvudsakliga syftet med detta examensarbete är att analysera hur FNs globala mål, som nämnts ovan, kan nås för Kenya genom en CLEWs metod där klimat, land, energi och vatten modelleras och sammanlänkas där det är möjligt för att se hur de gemensamma resurserna kan användas på bästa sätt. De modelleringsverktyg som används är OSeMOSYS, ONSSET och WEAP.Modelleringen visade att universal access till elektricitet till 2030 kan uppnås, där två olika nivåer av behov modellerades. För elektricitetsnätet så optimerades det billigaste alternativet för Kenya där gasturbiner och geotermisk energi var de bästa alternativen. Vidare för de områden som inte är kostnadseffektiva att nätansluta visade analysen att solpaneler och diesel var billigaste alternativen vid låg energiförbrukning medans vid högre så var det mer kostnadseffektivt med s.k. ”mini-grid” där fler hushåll kan ansluta sig. Sett ur vattentillgången för Tana åns uppsamlingsområde så påverkade Kenyas stora planer på bevattningssystem för jordbruket uppströms de urbana områdenas vattenbehov. Sett ur klimatperspektivet så släpper de föreslagna energimodellerna (6 resp. 9 MtCO2eq) ut mindre än vad the nationella klimatplanen estimerat för 2030 på 18.4 MtCO2eq.

Drylands cover about 40% of the earth’s land surface and provide the basis for the livelihoods of 38% of the global human population. Worldwide, these ecosystems are prone to heavy degradation. Increasing levels of dryland degradation result a strong decline of ecosystem services. In addition, in highly variable semi-arid environments changing future environmental conditions will potentially have severe consequences for productivity and ecosystem dynamics. Hence, global efforts have to be made to understand the particular causes and consequences of dryland degradation and to promote sustainable management options for semi-arid and arid ecosystems in a changing world. Here I particularly address the problem of semi-arid savanna degradation, which mostly occurs in form of woody plant encroachment. At this, I aim at finding viable sustainable management strategies and improving the general understanding of semi-arid savanna vegetation dynamics under conditions of extensive livestock production. Moreover, the influence of external forces, i.e. environmental change and land reform, on the use of savanna vegetation and on the ecosystem response to this land use is assessed. Based on this I identify conditions and strategies that facilitate a sustainable use of semi-arid savanna rangelands in a changing world. I extended an eco-hydrological model to simulate rangeland vegetation dynamics for a typical semi-arid savanna in eastern Namibia. In particular, I identified the response of semi-arid savanna vegetation to different land use strategies (including fire management) also with regard to different predicted precipitation, temperature and CO2 regimes. Not only environmental but also economic and political constraints like e.g. land reform programmes are shaping rangeland management strategies. Hence, I aimed at understanding the effects of the ongoing process of land reform in southern Africa on land use and the semi-arid savanna vegetation. Therefore, I developed and implemented an agent-based ecological-economic modelling tool for interactive role plays with land users. This tool was applied in an interdisciplinary empirical study to identify general patterns of management decisions and the between-farm cooperation of land reform beneficiaries in eastern Namibia. The eco-hydrological simulations revealed that the future dynamics of semi-arid savanna vegetation strongly depend on the respective climate change scenario. In particular, I found that the capacity of the system to sustain domestic livestock production will strongly depend on changes in the amount and temporal distribution of precipitation. In addition, my simulations revealed that shrub encroachment will become less likely under future climatic conditions although positive effects of CO2 on woody plant growth and transpiration have been considered. While earlier studies predicted a further increase in shrub encroachment due to increased levels of atmospheric CO2, my contrary finding is based on the negative impacts of temperature increase on the drought sensitive seedling germination and establishment of woody plant species. Further simulation experiments revealed that prescribed fires are an efficient tool for semi-arid rangeland management, since they suppress woody plant seedling establishment. The strategies tested have increased the long term productivity of the savanna in terms of livestock production and decreased the risk for shrub encroachment (i.e. savanna degradation). This finding refutes the views promoted by existing studies, which state that fires are of minor importance for the vegetation dynamics of semi-arid and arid savannas. Again, the difference in predictions is related to the bottleneck at the seedling establishment stage of woody plants, which has not been sufficiently considered in earlier studies. The ecological-economic role plays with Namibian land reform beneficiaries showed that the farmers made their decisions with regard to herd size adjustments according to economic but not according to environmental variables. Hence, they do not manage opportunistically by tracking grass biomass availability but rather apply conservative management strategies with low stocking rates. This implies that under the given circumstances the management of these farmers will not per se cause (or further worsen) the problem of savanna degradation and shrub encroachment due to overgrazing. However, as my results indicate that this management strategy is rather based on high financial pressure, it is not an indicator for successful rangeland management. Rather, farmers struggle hard to make any positive revenue from their farming business and the success of the Namibian land reform is currently disputable. The role-plays also revealed that cooperation between farmers is difficult even though obligatory due to the often small farm sizes. I thus propose that cooperation needs to be facilitated to improve the success of land reform beneficiaries.
Semiaride (halbtrockene) Savannen bedecken große Teile der Erdoberfläche und sichern die Lebensgrundlage von vielen Millionen Menschen. Die häufigste Form der Landnutzung in diesen Trockengebieten ist die Produktion von Vieh in extensiver Weidelandbewirtschaftung. In Folge klimatischer Veränderungen und als Konsequenz aus der teils intensiven Beweidung dieser Trockengebiete kommt es häufig zur Degradierung derselben in Form einer Zunahme von ‚unerwünschter‘ holziger Vegetation auf Kosten von futterverwertbaren Gräsern. Dieser als Verbuschung bezeichnete Prozess hat schwere negative Auswirkungen auf die betroffenen Ökosysteme und ist die Ursache für einen zunehmenden Rückgang der ökonomischen Leistungsfähigkeit der betroffenen Betriebe. In meiner Dissertation befasse ich mich mit den Auswirkungen von Klimawandel und politischen Veränderungen auf die Savannenvegetation im südlichen Afrika und auf die Möglichkeiten für die Nutzung dieser Ökosysteme in Form von Viehwirtschaft. Hierbei möchte ich sowohl das allgemeine Verständnis der ökologischen Zusammenhänge verbessern, als auch Strategien für die nachhaltige Nutzung der Savannen identifizieren und bewerten. Da nicht nur ökologische, sondern auch ökonomische und politische Einflussfaktoren, wie zum Beispiel die umfangreichen Landumverteilungen im Rahmen der Bodenreform im südlichen Afrika auf die tatsächliche Landnutzung wirken, habe ich im Rahmen der Dissertation zudem untersucht, nach welchen Umwelt und Kapitalvariablen sich die Farmer, welche Ihr Land im Rahmen der Bodenreform zugeteilt bekommen haben, bei Ihren Entscheidungen richten. Methodisch verwende ich verschiedene Simulationsmodelle, welche zur Untersuchung der langfristigen Veränderungen von verschiedensten Szenarien (Klimawandel, Landnutzung) geeignet sind. Hierbei habe ich teilweise bestehende Modelle angepasst, aber auch ein neues Modell, welches zur Befragung von Farmern in Namibia verwendet wurde, entwickelt. Meine Dissertation führt im Wesentlichen zu vier Erkenntnissen: Erstens, zeigen meine Ergebnisse, welche große Bedeutung die spezifischen ökologischen Eigenschaften der Bäume und Sträucher in semiariden Savannen für die Vorhersage der Entwicklung dieser Systeme unter Klimawandel hat. Hierbei zeigte sich, dass insbesondere die Sensitivität der Keimlinge gegenüber Trockenheit und Feuer eine entscheidende Rolle spielt. Daraus folgt die zweite wesentliche Erkenntnis: Feuer eignet sich in herausragender Weise, um halbtrockene Savannen vor der Verbuschung zu bewahren. Drittens haben die Rollenspiele mit Farmern in Namibia gezeigt, dass deren Entscheidungen im Wesentlichen von finanziellen Schwierigkeiten und nicht von Umwelteinflüssen getrieben werden. Dennoch zeigten meine Ergebnisse, dass diese Farmer mit Ihrem derzeitigen Verhalten wahrscheinlich nicht zur weiteren Degradierung der Savannenvegetation beitragen. Die vierte, und mit am bedeutendste Erkenntnis aus meiner Arbeit ist, dass konservative Beweidungsstrategien mit geringen und konstanten Viehdichten notwendig sind um semiaride Savannen dauerhaft in ökologisch und ökonomisch nachhaltiger Weise zu Nutzen.

The Lake Urmia positioned in a closed basin in north-west Iran, positioned at altitude 1250 m above the sea level, and has been rapidly drying since 1990. The lake water level has declined to 1271.58 m in 2008 from the last highest record 1277.80 m in 1994. The lake water volume has fluctuated during the observation period and shows a drop from of 32 to 14.5 million cubic meters, while the lake salinity has increased from 205 to 338 g/l due to the evaporation and water inflow reduction. In the Lake Urmia basin, there has been an increase in public awareness of the possible environmental threat and the unpleasant socio-economical consequences on the region’s inhabitants.  The main aim of this study is to assess the current water use pattern in the Urmia Lake basin system with emphasis on the agricultural sub-system, and to propose adaptive measures and sustainable water management scenarios. The study shows that the main cause for these changes are the diversion of rivers and streams for agricultural irrigation; agriculture is a sector with one of the highest water demands, and frequent drought in early 2000s exacerbated the situation. In addition, a growing population and the increased development of agricultural land has led to an increase in unsustainable practices which have an unpredictable impact on the Lake Urmia ecosystem. This study investigates sustainable water use strategies for Lake Urmia basin, and considers economic and environmental factors, including the loss of valuable ecosystems that highlights social and ethical issues for the current and coming generations.

Delivering improved water services in small towns in low-income countries encompasses particular challenges. Often considered too large to be effectively community managed , small towns may also be too small, with too limited economies, to benefit from utility style professionalism and economies of scale. The most recent paradigm, that financially sustainable water services will be best achieved through the Demand Responsive Approach , has been complemented in Ghana, the focus of this study, through the development of a variety of management models, community, local government, national utility and private providers, to deliver DRA. Taking advantage of this unusual situation, in having a wide range of different functioning models in one country at the same time, this research has sought to investigate these management models with respect to effectiveness, equity, financial sustainability and efficiency of services delivery. However, the context in which all of these models operate relates to consumers effective demand, key to delivering a demand responsive approach. A second objective, necessary to validate any results relating to management models, has therefore been to investigate households actual demand for improved and alternative sources of water. Data for the research was gathered from examples of the four management models in use in Ghana, from eight small towns spread across the length and breadth of the country. The methodology incorporated key-informant interviews, user observations, household surveys and an analysis of relevant documents of operators and policy makers. The fieldwork was undertaken in two separate periods, designed to ensure that any effects of dry and wet season variations, which influence water supply delivery as well as demand, were adequately captured. The research found that none of the management models in use in small towns in Ghana could be considered to be significantly more effective than any other; overall, households demonstrated a limited demand for water supply with even this demand distributed among a number of sources, both formal, improved and alternative, traditional sources; this demand was not so much a function of affordability, rather a clear choice as to where to use limited resources mobile phone access absorbing three times the amount spent on water. Whilst certain management characteristics were found to make a difference, leadership in particular, no one model was able to influence the overarching water source effect, that is the cost of formal supply (surface water costing approximately three times more than ground water), relative to access to alternative, free supplies in the context of limited overall demand for water.

Water management is a challenge in the Middle East today because of increasing population, decreasing water quality, political instability and security concerns. Israel and the Palestinian Authority share the three major freshwater sources in an inequitable and unsustainable manner. This study details the hydro-geological, political, cultural and legal challenges to equitable and sustainable water resource management in the region.

The handbook presented in this paper summarises the results of the research initiative “International Water Research Alliance Saxony” (IWAS). The subproject “IWAS Vietnam” (Phase I, October 2008 – December 2010) focuses on the model region “South-East Asia” with emphasis on Vietnam. The project started as a joint research initiative between German and Vietnamese organisations and included contributions from academic, private and public sector in both countries. The handbook was compiled by the Technische Universität Dresden (project coordination), the Institute for Technical and Scientific Hydrology and Dresden Drainage and Sewerage Company, with substantial contributions from Vietnamese partners
Sổ tay hướng dẫn trong bài viết này tóm lược các kết quả của sáng kiến nghiên cứu từ “Liên minh Nghiên cứu ngành nước quốc tế bang Saxony” (IWAS). Dự án nhánh “IWAS Việt Nam” (giai đoạn 1, 10/2008 - 12/2010) tập trung vào khu vực Đông Nam Á với trọng tâm là Việt Nam. Dự án khởi động như một sáng kiến liên kết nghiên cứu giữa các tổ chức của CHLB Đức và Việt Nam với sự đóng góp từ các đơn vị tư nhân, nhà nước và trường đại học của cả hai quốc gia. Quyển sổ tay này được biên soạn bởi Đại học Kỹ thuật Dresden (cơ quan điều phối dự án), Viện Công nghệ và Khoa học Thủy văn, và Công ty Thoát nước Dresden, cùng với sự đóng góp quan trọng của các đối tác Việt Nam