Articles de revues sur le sujet « Siena (Italy) – History »

ABSTRACT Among the artist’s iron-based natural earth pigments, the so-called terra di Siena (raw sienna), terra di Siena bruciata (burnt sienna) and terra d’ombra (umber) have been among the yellow-brown and reddish-brown earth pigments most widely used by Italian and European painters since the Renaissance. We present the history of discovery, designation, and production of these famous pigments, their geological, lithological, and geochemical characterization, and the recognition of their genesis and places of origin, based on new geological field surveys, and on the critical analysis of textual documents and rock sample collections assembled during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. In particular, the terra di Siena earth pigment exclusively originated at, and was extracted from, late Pleistocene paleo-lake basins surrounding the Monte Amiata volcano. This earth pigment consists of primarily lacustrine sediments composed of hydrated iron oxide (limonite/goethite) produced by biochemical authigenic precipitation from fresh waters rich in metal solutes.

Bernardino of Siena is regarded as one of the most important preachers of Medieval Italy. His sermons addressed strictly spiritual matters as well as other topics, and they offer valuable insights into social affairs and the daily lives of his contemporaries. This article explores the expectations placed on mothers by the Church and society at the time of Bernardino of Siena. Bernardino was a strong advocate of educating and preparing girls for their future role as wives, which suggests that many women neglected their duties and turned a blind eye on their daughters’ idleness and frivolous behavior that did not find favor with the strict preacher of Siena.

Abstract In this article I focus on two of the most prominent female saints: the Franciscan St. Clare of Assisi (1194–1253) and one belonging to the third order of Saint Dominic, St. Catherine of Siena (1347–1380). I analyze a series of visual examples that picture their roles as saviors against epidemics and point out similarities and differences between them. I emphasize the power of the images in providing relief and salvation. St. Clare of Assisi and St. Catherine of Siena offer two distinct models of female sanctity that protect against the plague: the first owing to her symbolic power and her being a kind of a second Mary and the second because of her unique personality and actions in healing the sick and saving the dying in Italian cities.

This article reopens the classic debate about the relationship between the city and the countryside in medieval/Renaissance Italy. It examines city-countryside relations in Siena in the second half of the fourteenth century and compares them with what we know of Siena≈s northern neighbor, Florence. It argues that Sienese policy was moderate and even-handed and, despite similar pressures, less harsh than that of the Florentines. The difference is explained by the fact that Siena was economically far less potent and thus ever mindful that its own fate was intrinsically linked with that of the countryside.

A decision of the Rota of Siena: between leasing and reservation of ownership at the beginning of Modern Times. – Late medieval and early-modern legal developments took place in Italy within the general framework of ius commune and iura propria, original legal constructs which present similar features to leasing in English law. These developments can be traced in the doctrinal corpus of the Italian ius commune tradition, but it may be surmised that they also appeared in sources related to legal practice. Thus, a case decided by the Rota of Siena in 1541–1543 shows that contractual forms similar to the leasing and to the emptio–venditio cum reservatione dominii were known and used in Italian practice, at least from the latter part of the 15th century onwards.

ABSTRACTFramed by consideration of images of treasurers on the books of the treasury in thirteenth-century Siena, this article uses evidence for the employment of men of religion in city offices in central and northern Italy to show how religious status (treated as a subset of ‘clerical culture’) could become an important object of negotiation between city and churchmen, a tool in the repertoire of power relations. It focuses on the employment of men of religion as urban treasurers and takes Florence in the late thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries as a principal case study, but also touches on the other tasks assigned to men of religion and, very briefly, on evidence from other cities (Bologna, Brescia, Como, Milan, Padua, Perugia and Siena). It outlines some of the possible arguments deployed for this use of men of religion in order to demonstrate that religious status was, like gender, more contingent and fluid than the norm-based models often relied on as a shorthand by historians. Despite the powerful rhetoric of lay–clerical separation in this period, the engagement of men of religion in paid, term-bound urban offices inevitably brought them closer to living like the laity.

In the spring of 1376, Catherine, the uneducated daughter of a Sienese dyer, a simple lay Tertiary, traveled to Avignon in southern France. She wanted to speak directly with Pope Gregory XI about organizing a crusade, reforming the Catholic church, ending his war with Florence, and moving his court back to Rome. Her reputation for holiness and her orthodoxy gave her a hearing with the pope, and so her words had a measure of influence on him. Gregory did move to Rome in the fall of 1376, and he paid for her trip back to Italy. In 1377 he allowed her to lead a mission in the Sienese countryside: he wanted her presence there to help save souls and perhaps stimulate interest in a crusade. In 1378 he sent her to Florence as a peacemaker for the war between the Tuscan cities and the papacy. In late 1378 Gregory's successor Urban VI asked her to come to Rome to support his claim to the papacy against the schismatic Pope Clement VII. Finally in 1380, Catherine died in Rome, exhausted by all these endeavors.

Abstract This afterword reflects on how the concept of mobility offers a valuable framework for the analysis of individuals and groups moving into and within early modern urban environments, of the privileged sites of encounter and exchange for such movements, and of the physical trajectories of particular objects as they traverse and connect urban spaces of encounter. Particular attention is given to the material life of objects and how these both enabled and reveal the mobilities of the people and places they interacted with. Illustrated by a few examples drawn from Siena (Italy) in the early modern era, this contribution suggests that mobility can be said to be defined by the triangulation between objects, people, and places, where one or more element is subject to movement.

Fabrizio Nevola considers the form, function, and significance of shops and the other commercial spaces contained in the ground floors of the Renaissance palaces of Siena, Florence, and Rome. Home Shopping: Urbanism, Commerce, and Palace Design in Renaissance Italy also investigates the social interaction between the private environment of the home and the public space of the street. Contrary to much that has been written about the palaces of the fifteenth century, their designers did not abandon botteghe (shops), nor more broadly construed commercial functions. The resulting buildings are hybrid structures in which the proud individual façades of private patrons' palaces were configured to serve the needs of trade. Today, urban space is largely experienced as a succession of shop fronts, and commercial activities overwhelm all other functions. Early modern Italy was not much different.

ABSTRACT:In Renaissance Italy clothing, particularly of women, was strictly regulated; individuals were regularly denounced when walking through the city. Modesty was a virtue in a republican state and dress played a major part in urban identity, reflecting social values and those of the political regime. Sumptuary laws were a major mode of control, particularly of patrician women, whose dress reflected both their own and their family's wealth and status. Despite increased availability of luxurious fabrics encouraged by urban policies, legislation was used to prohibit new forms of dress and raise money for state coffers. At the end of the fifteenth century Pandolfo Petrucci (1452–1512) took control of Siena. The inner elite of his regime, particularly its female members, were given exemptions from the strict legislation and were able to flaunt their elevated status and the new social order.

ABSTRACT:Historians of early modern Italy have traditionally viewed the city's public spaces, such as streets, quarters, taverns and marketplaces, as the chief locations in which claims to identity were launched into the broader urban community. Recent studies on the domestic interior, however, have shown that the distinction between ‘public’ and ‘private’ in the fifteenth- and sixteenth-century urban space was much more complex. In this period, private urban houses became sites for an increasing range of social acitvities that varied from informal evening gatherings to large wedding banquets. Focusing on this ‘public’ dimension of the private urban house, this article explores how the middling classes of artisans and shopkeepers used the domestic space to construct identities and to facilitate social relations in sixteenth-century Siena. The aim is to show that in providing a setting for differing forms of economic and social activity, the urban home together with its objects and furnishings may have provided an increasingly important physical location for craftsmen, shop-owners and traders to negotaite individual and collective identities within the broader communities of the city.

In 1776, the Sienese botanist Biagio Bartalini (1750–1822) published a catalogue of wild plants growing around Siena, adding an appendix on fossils found in the same area, that is the first monograph on Sienese fossils and one of the first works of its kind in Italy. This paper provides tentative identifications of the species and an analysis of the value and meaning of Bartalini's work.The catalogue reports 72 species, each denoted by a list of names applied to analogous living taxa. Identification of single entities is extremely problematical because it can only be attempted through analysis of the literature, since the original material cannot be traced.The most interesting report is the first record of a Euro-Mediterranean Pliocene species of Sthenorytis (Gastropoda, Epitoniidae). Though important, the catalogue is incomplete, with oversights and mistakes, suggesting little familiarity with the subject. Shortcomings include some inconsistencies in the species sequence, the report of giant clams and the absence of molluscs ubiquitous in the Sienese Pliocene and sharks. Nor is it true that it is the first Italian palaeontological work in which binomial nomenclature was used, as sometimes claimed.

Purpose A series of 205 retinoblastoma (RB) patients referred to the Department of Ophthalmology at the University of Siena (Italy) was evaluated in order to assess the proportion of unilateral cases later developing tumors in the companion eye (“metachronous” bilateral retinobastoma) (MBRB). Methods The total number of unilaterally affected patients developing tumors in the fellow eye was recorded and the risk factors assessed for the development of asynchronous bilateral retinoblastoma, i.e., family history, tumor multifocality and early age at diagnosis. Results Only two out of 133 (1.5%) unilateral retinoblastoma patients in our series could be considered affected by MBRB. Conclusions The incidence of MBRB in our series was negligible (1.5% of all unilateral cases) compared to other reports. None of the reported risk factors for the development of tumors in the fellow eye was relevant in the present series. Although close follow-up of some unilateral cases is still recommended, thorough examination of the fellow eye, to search for lesions in the peripheral retina, is essential in all cases of unilateral RB. MBRB may be a distinctive clinical entity with specific clinical, genetic and prognostic features. However, all these aspects need to be better investigated in larger series.

History permits us to trace so-called Polish Inflanty, in the territoryof the former Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania, to the contemporaryRepublic of Latvia. In this case we are particularly interested in theestate of Warkland (Warklany, Varakļāni). The ensemble of manorand park is typical for large estates in Eastern Europe, including avillage and its infrastructure and a separate manor and park as aspatial, architectural, botanical and social entity.Originating from Baltic-German nobility, ‘Polonised’ countMichael Johann von der Borch-Lubeschitz und Borchhoff (1753–1810) was the son of a Chancellor of Poland and Lithuania. He wasa member of several academies of science, in Siena, Dijon and Lion,and penfriend of Voltaire and academicians in Russia and France.After researching the mineralogy of Italy, Sicily, France, Germany,England, the Netherlands and Switzerland M. J. von der Borch leftfor his estate in Varakļāni, the Polonised part of eastern Livonia,called Polish Inflanty. At this time he also composed literary worksand poems, among which is one remarkable piece of didactic andemblematic content “The Sentimental Park of Varakļāni Palace” (Jardinsentimental du château de Warkland dans le Comté de Borch en RussieBlanche, 1795). This poem illustrates in a passionate and classicalway an emblematic approach to contemporary political structures,and the goals of education in general. In Jardin sentimental, whichis a theoretical and didactic manual, Borsch describes, through themetaphor of the estate park of Warkland, the route of an imaginativehero, full of expectation and temptation.The main subject of the report is an analysis of the text of thepoem contextualised by history and contrasted with evidence fromcontemporary Warkland.

The historical research of the illustrated Nuremberg Chronicle [Schedelsche Weltchronik (English: Schedel’s World Chronicle)] of Hartmann Schedel com­prises the complex historical knowledge about numerous woodcuts which pre­sent views of various cities important in the world’s history, e.g. Jerusalem, Constantinople, or the European ones such as: Rome, some Italian, German or Polish cities e.g. Wrocław and Cracow; some Hungarian and some Czech Republic cities. Researchers have made a serious study to recognize certain constructions in the woodcuts; they indicated the conservative and contractual architecture, the existing places and the unrealistic (non-existent) places. The results show that there is a common detail in all the views – the defensive wall round each of the described cities. However, in reality, it may not have existed in some cities during the lifetime of the authors of the woodcuts. As for some further details: behind the walls we can see feudal castles on the hills shown as strongholds. Within the defensive walls there are numerous buildings with many towers typical for the Middle Ages and true-to-life in certain ways of building the cities. Schematically drawn buildings surrounded by the ring of defensive walls indicate that the author used certain patterns based on the previously created panoramic views. This article is an attempt of making analogical comparisons of the cities in medieval painting. The Author of the article presents Roman mosaics and the miniature painting e.g. the ones created in the scriptorium in Reichenau. Since the beginning of 14th century Italian painters such as: Duccio di Buoninsegna, Giotto di Bondone, Simone Martini and Ambrogio Lorenzetti painted parts of the cities or the entire monumental panoramas in various compositions and with various meanings. One defining rule in this painting concerned the definitions of the cities given by Saint Isidore of Seville, based on the rules which he knew from the antique tradition. These are: urbs – the cities full of architecture and buildings but uninhabited or civita – the city, the living space of the human life, build-up space, engaged according to the law, kind of work and social hierarchy. The tra­dition of both ways of describing the city is rooted in Italy. This article indicates the particular meaning of Italian painting in distributing the image of the city – as the votive offering. The research conducted by Chiara Frugoni and others indica­ted the meaning of the city images in the painting of various forms of panegyrics created in high praise of cities, known as laude (Lat.). We can find the examples of them rooted in the Roman tradition of mosaics, e.g. in San Apollinare Nuovo in Ravenna. They present both palatium and civitas. The medieval Italian painting, especially the panel painting, presents the city structure models which are uninha­bited and deprived of any signs of everyday life. The models of cities – urbs, are presented as votive offerings devoted to their patron saints, especially to Virgin Mary. The city shaped as oval or sinusoidal rings surrounded by the defensive walls resembled a container filled with buildings. Only few of them reflected the existing cities and could mainly be identified thanks to the inscriptions. The most characteristic examples were: the fresco of Taddeo di Bartolo in Palazzo Publico in Siena, which presented the Dominican Order friar Ambrogio Sansedoni holding the model of his city – Siena, with its most recognizable building - the Cathedral dedicated to the Assumption of Mary. The same painter, referred to as the master painter of the views of the cities as the votive offerings, painted the Saint Antilla with the model of Montepulciano in the painting from 1401 for the Cathedral devoted to the Assumption of Mary in Montepulciano. In the painting made by T. di Bartolo, the bishop of the city of Gimignano, Saint Gimignano, presents the city in the shape of a round lens surrounded by defence walls with numerous church towers and the feudal headquarters characteristic for the city. His dummer of the city is pyramidally-structured, the hills are mounted on the steep slopes reflecting the analogy to the topography of the city. We can also find the texts of songs, laude (Lat.) and panegyrics created in honour of the cities and their rulers, e.g. the texts in honour of Milan, Bonvesin for La Riva, known in Europe at that time. The city – Arcadia (utopia) in the modern style. Hartman Schedel, as a bibliophile and a scholar, knew the texts of medieval writers and Italian art but, as an ambitious humanist, he could not disregard the latest, contemporary trends of Renaissance which were coming from Nuremberg and from Italian ci­ties. The views of Arcadia – the utopian city, were rapidly developing, as they were of great importance for the rich recipient in the beginning of the modern era overwhelmed by the early capitalism. It was then when the two opposites were combined – the shepherd and the knight, the Greek Arcadia with the medie­val city. The reception of Virgil’s Arcadia in the medieval literature and art was being developed again in the elite circles at the end of 15th century. The cultural meaning of the historical loci, the Greek places of the ancient history and the memory of Christianity constituted the essence of historicism in the Renaissance at the courts of the Comnenos and of the Palaiologos dynasty, which inspired the Renaissance of the Latin culture circle. The pastoral idleness concept came from Venice where Virgil’s books were published in print in 1470, the books of Ovid: Fasti and Metamorphoses were published in 1497 and Sannazaro’s Arcadia was published in 1502, previously distributed in his handwriting since 1480. Literature topics presented the historical works as memoria, both ancient and Christian, composed into the images. The city maps drawn by Hartmann Schedel, the doctor and humanist from Nurnberg, refer to the medieval images of urbs, the woodcuts with the cities, known to the author from the Italian painting of the greatest masters of the Trecenta period. As a humanist he knew the literature of the Renaissance of Florence and Venice with the Arcadian themes of both the Greek and the Roman tradition. The view of Constantinople in the context of the contemporary political situation, is presented in a series of monuments of architecture, with columns and defensive walls, which reminded of the history of the city from its greatest time of Constantine the Great, Justinian I and the Comnenus dynasty. Schedel’s work of art is the sum of the knowledge written down or painted. It is also the result of the experiments of new technology. It is possible that Schedel was inspired by the hymns, laude, written by Psellos in honour of Constantinople in his elaborate ecphrases as the panegyrics for the rulers of the Greek dynasty – the Macedonians. Already in that time, the Greek ideal of beauty was reborn, both in literature and in fine arts. The illustrated History of the World presented in Schedel’s woodcuts is given to the recipients who are educated and to those who are anonymous, in the spirit of the new anthropology. It results from the nature of the woodcut reproduc­tion, that is from the way of copying the same images. The artist must have strived to gain the recipients for his works as the woodcuts were created both in Latin and in German. The collected views were supposed to transfer historical, biblical and mythological knowledge in the new way of communication.

AbstractA short astrological treatise about the properties of the planets in the zodiac, called De motibus / iudiciis planetarum and attributed to Ptolemy (inc. Sub Saturno sunt hec signa Capricornus et Aquarius et sunt eius domus), appears from the thirteenth century onwards in two distinct traditions: in the encyclopedias of Bartholomew the Englishman and Arnold of Saxony, both written around 1230–1240, and in astronomical miscellanies copied in the fifteenth century either in or around Basel and in Northern Italy. These fifteenth-century manuscripts fall into two distinct groups of astronomical texts: the first is copied together with the De signis of Michael Scot, the second together with a part of the third book of Hyginus' De astronomia. The present article aims to describe the characteristics of the distinct textual filiations of De m. / iud. pl. and gives the first critical edition of the text.

Настоящая работа является первым общим описанием на русском языке двух некрополей Кампокиаро (Кампобассо, Италия) – Виченне и Морионе, датируемых последней третью VII в. – началом VIII в. Культурное содержание некрополей показывает прочные связи с населением центральноазиатского происхождения. Важнейшим признаком некрополей являются захоронения с конем, соответствующие евразийскому кочевому погребальному обряду. Автор поддержал выводы европейских исследователей о том, что с большой долей вероятности некрополи оставлены булгарами дукса–гаштальда Алзеко, зафиксированными Павлом Диаконом в VIII в. на территориях Бояно, Сепино и Изернии. Аналогии некрополей Кампокиаро с погребениями Аварского каганата показывают присутствие в аварском обществе булгар со схожим погребальным обрядом. Из тысяч погребений с конем, оставленных аварским населением, булгарам могла принадлежать большая часть. Авары и булгары составляли основу и правящую верхушку каганата. 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Over more than two thousands years the Italian Jews have produced an impressive quantity of documentary materials. To spot the data of the seismical events. therefore, has not been easy, and the results can still be supplemented, though the research has been carried out on a quite large and rich material both manuscript and printed in the Hebrew language. The crop was large and interesting, since documents about eleven different earthquakes in Italy have been found. They are texts of various kinds. sornetilnes just short notes, but very often long liturgical poems or whole writings. through which the Jewish minority traces its own historical memory and its own understanding of these exceptional tragic events. From the Middle Ages till the first half of the XIX century. Italian literature in the Hebrew language records the earthquakes of Ancona (1279), Norcia (1328). Ravenna (1468). Ferrara 11570). Lugo (1688), Ancona (1690), Mantua (1693), Leghorn (1742), Lugo (1781). Siena (1798) and Alessandria (1829). Naturally. in the towns that had a major Jewish community the data are richer and give more detailed inforn~ation:th is is the case, for instance, of the earthquake of Ferrara, in the second half of the fifteenth century. Here Azaryah de' Rossi gives us not only a vivid account of the reactions of his fellow Jews, but also the fullest and most organic essay on the causes and the meaning of the earthquakes. We also possess a remarkable abundance of Hebrew sources on the earthquake that struck Leghon~ in January 1742: among other very interesting documents. there is also a true daily diary, in which the strength and the nature of the shakes are recorded, during the quite long period the earthquake lasted, that is till the end of March of the same year.