Articles de revues sur le sujet « Saint Louis Urban League »

Saint Louis is hyper-segregated, meaning that at least 60 percent of the black-white population would have to relocate to end segregation. This article will use a derived critical juncture framework to analyze the history of segregation in Saint Louis. The complicated geography of Saint Louis is explained. Critical juncture theory and path dependence are explained. Using critical juncture theory, three periods in the history of Saint Louis segregation are analyzed: post-American Civil War, the zoning of Saint Louis City and County, and the suburbanization of whites and dislocation and reconcentration of blacks. These historical moments kept the Saint Louis Region on a path of residential segregation and racial animosity. A discussion is offered that takes into account the normalizing effect that dependent paths can have on attitudes, and a frank consideration of the possibility of desegregation is given.

The 1998 major league baseball season was filled with excitement as Mark McGwire of the Saint Louis Cardinals and Sammy Sosa of the Chicago Cubs battled to break Roger Maris's Major League single-season home-run mark. Maris, while playing for the New York Yankees, hit 61 home runs in 1961. Once McGwire and then Sosa broke Maris's record, the two continued also to score a big hit with fans, as many people tried to predict just how many home runs each would finally hit for the season.

The island of Saint-Louis of Senegal was awarded the status of world heritage site by UNESCO in 2000 as an “outstanding example” of urban heritage. This island city comes with a unique heritage: development planning that combines a strong historical French influence with a gridiron urban morphology and building typology. The island must be interpreted within its total territorial context that includes both the island of Sor (on the mainland) and La Langue de la Barberie, a sandy barrier that separates the mouth of the river from the sea. The city of Saint-Louis itself has grown enormously and haphazardly from the latter part of the 20th century: it is now the fourth most populous city in Senegal. At present, the city is undergoing a serious period of decline and recession due, in part, to the overriding influence of the capital, Dakar, and the centralized political forces in the country. This article looks at the key morphological and functional reasons behind the development and evolution of the island of Saint-Louis and that persist in the present context, with justifications for the deep-rooted heritage values that maintain its prestige as a World Heritage Site.

This article shows how French doctors based in Saint-Louis-du-Sénégal, the capital of colonial Senegal, conceptualised the Senegambian region as a diseased environment and Africans as carriers of infectious agents. It explains how perceptions of the hot tropical climate, combined with outbreaks of epidemic diseases and seasonal allergies, were instrumental in the processes of urban transformation through hygienic measures such as waste removal, the closing of cemeteries, and the imposition of new building codes. The article also shows how the stigmatisation of Africans was implicated in the forced removal of the urban poor – firstly from the city centre, and later from the entire city-island. Colonial medical knowledge in Senegal was initially based on the miasma theory, however, germ theory was adopted in the aftermath of the 1900 yellow fever epidemic. Both theories, in relation with racialism, impacted the urban landscape in Saint-Louis, Senegal.

Coastal erosion at Saint Louis in Senegal is affecting the local population that consists of primarily fishermen communities in their housing and their access to the sea. This paper aims at quantifying urban beach erosion at Saint Louis, Senegal, West Africa which is located on the northern end of the 13 km long Langue de Barbarie sand spit. The coastal evolution is examined quantitatively over a yearly period using Pleiades sub-metric satellite imagery that allows for stereogrammetry to derive Digital Elevation Models (DEMs). The comparison with ground truth data shows sub-metric differences to the satellite DEMs. Despite its interest in remote areas and developing countries that cannot count on regular surveys, the accuracy of the satellite-derived topography is in the same order as the coastal change itself, which emphasizes its current limitations. These 3D data are combined with decades-long regular Landsat and Sentinel-2 imagery derived shorelines. These observations reveal that the sand spit is stretching, narrowing at its Northern part while it is lengthening downdrift Southward, independently from climatological changes in the wave regime. A parametric model based on a stochastic cyclic sand spit behaviour allows for predicting the next northern opening of a breach and the urban erosion at Saint Louis.

With many disasters taking place in urban areas of Africa on a regular basis, affecting millions of people each year, there is an increasing need to understand the processes by which the risks from potential disasters develop in urban areas. To address this, the African Urban Risk Analysis Network (AURAN) has been formed in January 2003 by six African institutions, with support from UNDP and ProVention Consortium. Work is underway in Accra, Algiers, Cape Town, Dar es Salaam, Nairobi and Saint Louis (Senegal) to identify

AbstractLargely denied membership in organized labor and access to basic labor protections, black domestic workers of St. Louis employed the local chapter of the Urban League's Women's Division to carve out a space for themselves in a growing, predominantly white, male labor movement and in the multiple coalitions that configured the New Deal. Domestics used household employment reform codes to lay the groundwork for dignity to manifest itself in their labor and contractual agreements. From the Household Workers Mass Meeting of 1933 to the close of the St. Louis Urban League's first phase in the late 1940s, black working-class women joined forces with progressive black women who led the Urban League's Women's Division to reform domestic employment through negotiation, enforcement, collective action, and everyday resistance. A border city with a large and settled black working class located within its core, St. Louis had acute class, gender, and racial divisions that shaped the terms of black women's economic activism. The Gateway City's mix of urban Midwestern-, northern-, and southern-style geopolitics propelled domestics’ mobilization, offering space for dissident women to call for changes to the social, political, and economic order.

Background: The feasibility of antiretroviral therapy (ART) monitoring remains problematic in decentralized HIV clinic settings of sub-Saharan Africa. We assessed the rates and correlates of HIV-1 virological failure (VF) and drug resistance (DR) in 2 pre-test-and-treat urban clinic settings of Senegal. Methods: Consenting HIV-1-infected adults (⩾18 years) receiving first-line ART for ⩾12 months were cross-sectionally enrolled between January and March 2015, at the referral outpatient treatment center of Dakar (n = 151) and decentralized regional hospital of Saint-Louis (n = 127). In the 12 months preceding plasma specimens’ collection patients at Saint-Louis had no viral load (VL) testing. Significant predictors of VF (VL ⩾ 1000 copies/ml) and DR (clinically relevant mutations) were determined using binomial logistic regression in R software. Results: Of the 278 adults on EFV-/NVP-based regimens, 32 (11.5% [95%CI: 8.0-15.9]) experienced VF. Failing and non-failing patients had comparable median time [interquartile] on ART (69.5 [23.0-89.5] vs 64.0 [34.0-99.0] months; P = .46, Mann–Whitney U-test). Of the 27 viraemic isolates successfully genotyped, 20 (74.1%) carried DR mutations; most frequent were M184VI (55.6%), K103N (37.1%), thymidine analog mutations (29.6%), Y181CY (22.2%). The pattern of mutations did not always correspond to the ongoing treatment. The adjusted odds of VF was significantly associated with the decentralized clinic site ( P < .001) and CD4 < 350 cells/mm3 ( P < .006). Strong correlates of DR also included Saint-Louis ( P < .009), CD4 < 350 cells/mm3 ( P <. 001), and nevirapine-based therapies (comparator: efavirenz-based therapies; P < .027). In stratification analyses by site, higher rate of VF at Saint-Louis (20.5% [95%CI: 13.8-28.5] vs 4.0% [95%CI: 1.5-8.5] in Dakar) was associated with nevirapine-based therapies (OR = 3.34 [1.07-11.75], P = .038), self-reported missing doses (OR = 3.30 [1.13-10.24], P = .029), and medical appointments (OR = 2.91 [1.05-8.47], P = .039) in the last 1 and 12 months(s), respectively. The higher rate of DR at Saint-Louis (12.9% [95%CI: 7.6-20.1] vs 2.7% [95%CI: 0.7-6.7] in Dakar) was associated with nevirapine-based therapies (OR = 5.13 [1.12-37.35], P = .035). Conclusion: At decentralized urban settings, there is need for enhanced virological monitoring and adherence support. HIV programs in Senegal should intensify early HIV diagnosis for effective test-and-treat. These interventions, in addition to the superiority of efavirenz-based therapies provide a favorable framework for transitioning to the recommended potent drug dolutegravir, thereby ensuring its long-term use.

Abstract. The historical city of Saint Louis in Senegal is situated on the Langue de Barbarie sand spit and is particularly prone to erosion: buildings have collapsed and population relocated due to shoreline retreat. At Saint Louis understanding the beach-morphodynamics is essential, and relies on the monitoring of nearshore topography and bathymetry. Remote sensing techniques relying on very high resolution (sub metric) satellites such as the Pleiades constellation and Planet now offer new perspectives in coastal monitoring and engineering. Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) of the emerged part of the beach, topography, and the submerged nearshore bathymetry can be obtained using respectively (tri-)stereogrammetry, and depth inversion through wave kinematics or/and colour based methods. These methods offered promising results (Almeida et al., 2019, Taveneau et al., 2021, Almar et al., 2019a) in previous studies when applied to Pleiades satellite. This work showcases a DEM derived from a 3-images (dT ≃ 9.5s) Pleiades acquisition in March 2020 and covering the key topography/bathymetry morphological continuum. Root mean squared errors of about 5 m for bathymetry and 0.9 m for topography are obtained. To limit erosion at Saint Louis urban beaches, the construction of a protection structure has begun in late 2020. Here, satellite DEM is used to monitor the efficiency of the structure and its downstream impact along the sand spit.

ABSTRACTBased on evidence from a French-Wolof phrase book published in Senegal in 1864, this article makes the case that urban Wolof, a variety of the language characterized by significant lexical borrowing from French, is a much older variety than scholars have generally claimed. Historical evidence suggests that urban Wolof emerged in the 18th and 19th centuries in the coastal island city of Saint-Louis du Sénégal, France's earliest African settlement and future capital of the colonial entity that would be known as French West Africa. The intimate nature of early contact between African and European populations and the later role played by the métis or mixed-race population of the island as linguistic brokers contributed to a unique, urban variety of Wolof that has important links to today's variety of urban Wolof spoken in Dakar and other cities throughout the country.

High morphological variation is often associated with species longevity, and it is hypothesized that urban-dwelling species may require more plasticity in functional traits such as body size in order to maximize fitness in heterogeneous environments. There has been published research regarding the functional trait diversity of urban bee pollinators. However, no two cities are identical, so the implementation of multi-city studies is vital. Therefore, we compared body size variation in female Halicus ligatus sweat bees from May–October 2016 from three distinct Midwestern United States cities: Chicago, Detroit, and Saint Louis. Additionally, to elucidate potentially influential environmental factors, we assessed the relationship between temperature and measured body size. We collected bees in community gardens and urban farms and measured their head width and intertegular distance as a proxy for overall body size. We utilized an ANCOVA to determine whether body size variation differed significantly across the three surveyed cities. Results indicated that H. ligatus females in Chicago, Detroit, and Saint Louis had significantly different body size ranges. These findings highlight the importance of intraspecific body size variation and support our prediction that bees from different urban environments will have distinct ranges in body size due to local ecological factors affecting their populations. Additionally, we found a significant influence of temperature, though this is probably not the only important ecological characteristic impacting bee body size. Therefore, we also provided a list of predictions for the future study of specific variables that are likely to impact functional trait diversity in urban bees.

Abstract The Saint Louis University GWEP partners with a rural Missouri critical access hospital and an urban Federally Qualified Health Center to support their transformations into an Age-Friendly Health System in their community. With an emphasis on the 4Ms, programmatic innovations include development and training of: 1) electronic health records integration of the Rapid Geriatric Assessment (RGA) for patients 65+ years old; 2) RGA-based protocol for Medicare Annual Wellness Visits (MAWV); 3) Interprofessional health care team approach; 4) Evidence-based or Evidence-Informed treatment interventions, including Cognitive Stimulation Therapy (CST), exercise and strengthening program, caregiver support, and Circle of Friends, an intervention for loneliness and social isolation. Outcomes will be presented which suggest increased assessment practices and improvement in functional and cognitive status. Successes and lessons learned regarding strategies to develop an Age-Friendly Health System in two different primary care settings will be discussed.

Abstract The Saint Louis Blues were hot at the end of the 2018–2019 National Hockey League season, winning eleven games in a row in January and February, and eight of their last ten. They parlayed this momentum to their first Stanley Cup Championship in franchise history. Or did they? Did the series of wins at the end of the season give the Blues the momentum needed to reach the pinnacle of the sport on June 12th, or was the Blues’ path to victory the confluence of a series of random events that fell in their favor? In this paper we apply entropy as an unbiased measure to further refute the idea of momentum in sports. We show that game outcomes are not dependent on previous games’ outcomes and conclude that the theory of momentum, across the season, is a fallacy that should not affect behavior.

As part of the seismic hazard–mapping efforts in the St. Louis metropolitan area we determined the compressional and shear-wave velocities (Vp and Vs) to about a 40-m depth at 17 locations in this area. The Vs measurements were made using high-resolution seismic refraction and reflection methods. We find a clear difference in the Vs profiles between sites located on the river floodplains and those located in the upland urban areas of St. Louis. Vs30 (average Vs to 30-m depth) values in floodplain areas range from 200 to 290 m/s (NEHRP category D) and contrast with sites on the upland areas of St. Louis, which have Vs30 values ranging from 410 to 785 m/s (NEHRP categories C and B). The lower Vs30 values and earthquake recordings in the floodplains suggest a greater potential for stronger and more prolonged ground shaking in an earthquake. Spectral analysis of a M3.6 earthquake recorded on the St. Louis–area ANSS seismograph network indicates stronger shaking and potentially damaging S-wave resonant frequencies at NEHRP category D sites compared to ground motions at a rock site located on the Saint Louis University campus.

Universal health coverage (UHC) defines individuals’ timely access to healthcare services without suffering any health-related financial constraints. The Senegalese government has shown commitments towards achievement of UHC as a way of improving access by the population to quality healthcare services. This is very pertinent for promoting some indicators of under-five health in Senegal. Therefore, this study analyzed the factors influencing sick children’s utilization of the nearest healthcare facilities and their wait times in Senegal. The data were from the Service Provision Assessment (SPA) survey, which was conducted in 2018. The instrumental Tobit regression model was used for data analysis. The results showed that 63.50% and 86.01% of the children utilized health posts and publicly owned facilities, respectively. Also, 98.46% of the children utilized urban facilities. The nearest facilities were utilized by 74.55%, and 78.19% spent less than an hour in the facilities. The likelihood of using the nearest healthcare facilities significantly reduced (p < 0.05) with caregivers’ primary education, higher education, residence in some regions (Fatick, Kaokack, Saint Louis, Sediou, and Tambacounda), and use of private/NGO not-for-profit facilities, but increased with not having visited any other providers, residence in the Kaffrie region, vomiting symptoms, use of health centers, and use of health posts. Moreover, treatment wait times significantly increased (p < 0.05) with the use of nearest facilities, residence in some regions (Diourbel, Kaokack, Matam and Saint Louis), use of private for-profit facilities, use of private not-for-profit facilities, and urban residence, but decreased with secondary education, use of health centers, use of health posts, vomiting symptoms, and showing other symptoms. It was concluded that reduction in wait times and utilization of the nearest healthcare facilities are fundamental to achieving UHC in Senegal. Therefore, more efforts should be integrated at promoting regional and sectoral equities through facilitated public and private healthcare investment.

AbstractThe current global increase in prevalence of vector borne diseases, as well as an expansion of tropical infections to more temperate zones, justifies further studies on vector populations. Urban areas may favour viral transmission to humans through close contacts between the vectors and the vertebrate hosts, and also affecting mosquito populations by offering larval habitat, refuges and adequate microclimates to survive the winter. This work analyses the spatial distribution of potential vector mosquitoes in relation to landscape characteristics in an urban environment in a temperate climate region. Mosquitoes were trapped monthly from October 2005 to March 2006 in 25 sites within Córdoba city and suburbs with miniature light traps+CO2. Nine species were collected, and the most abundant were Culex quinquefasciatus (37.1%), C. apicinus (26.6%) and Aedes aegypti (13.9%). Species that may be involved in SLEv transmission were recorded throughout the sampling. C. quinquefasciatus was detected in 92% of the sites; however, only two sites showed consistently larger collections. The site of highest C. quinquefasciatus abundance was located within an area of high Saint Louis Encefalitis virus prevalence and risk of infection, further supporting this species involvement as a vector. Significant correlations were detected between land cover characteristics and abundance of C. apicinus, C. interfor and C. maxi that were consistent with previous knowledge about their larval habitat and domestic preferences, which may be useful for targeting vector control operations.

Los sistemas urbanos que convergen en el frente norte de Basilea (Weil am Rhein, Saint-Louis y Huningue) comparten con aquella y entre sí relativa continuidad espacial y dinámicas funcionales, a pesar de pertenecer a países distintos. La tendencia hacia una mayor permeabilidad fronteriza derivada de su contexto posibilita nuevas formas de cooperación entre estas áreas vecinas, que adquieren nuevos roles como soporte y como escenario clave en la activación de operaciones que encuentran continuidad a uno y otro lado de la frontera.El presente trabajo profundiza en esta cuestión a través del estudio de casos en las ciudades mencionadas. Tras una introducción que permite exponer la singularidad y el papel del sistema urbano de frontera en un marco de creciente permeabilidad, y presentar el contexto del área objeto de análisis, se evalúan prácticas espaciales transfronterizas en el periodo 1985-2010, haciendo especial hincapié en el caso de Basilea. El estudio permite atisbar la capacidad de esta última para construir estrategias que posibilitan armonizar procesos transfronterizos y proyectos locales, a la par que ratifica la importancia de las ciudades, en tanto que ámbitos de relación, para impulsar la imbricación espacial entre áreas vecinas separadas por fronteras.AbstractThe urban systems that converge in the northern border of Basel (Weil am Rhein, Saint-Louis and Huningue) share certain spatial continuity and functional dynamics with the former, despite being located in different countries. The tendency towards an increasing border permeability derived from their context is opening new possibilities for cooperation among these areas, which acquire new roles as a basis and as a key arena for operations that find continuity across the border. Our research delves into these issues through the analysis of specific cases in the above-mentioned areas. It starts with an introduction where both the singularity and the functions of border urban systems in a background of growing permeability are exposed, and where the context of the case under analysis is defined. Then, cross-border spatial practices in the period 1985-2010 are studied. Particular emphasis is placed on the case of Basel. The study reveals the capacity of this latter to build strategies that make it possible to harmonize cross-border processes and local projects. It also confirms the importance of urban systems, as areas of relationship, to promote spatial imbrication between neighbouring areas.

This paper deals with the spatial implications of the French sanitary policies in early colonial urban Senegal. It focuses on the French politics of residential segregation following the outbreak of the bubonic plague in Dakar in 1914, and their precedents in Saint Louis. These policies can be conceived as most dramatic, resulting in a displacement of a considerable portion of the indigenous population, who did not want or could not afford to build à l’européen, to the margins of the colonial city. Aspects of residential segregation are analysed here through the perspective of cultural history and history of colonial planning and architecture, in contrast to the existing literature on this topic. The latter dilates on the statutory policies of the colonial authorities facing the 1914 plague in Dakar, the plague's sociopolitical implications, and the colonial politics of public health there. In the light of relevant historiography, and a variety of secondary and primary sources, this paper exposes the contradictions that were inherent in the French colonial regime in West Africa. These contradictions were wisely used by the African agency, so that such a seemingly urgent segregationist project was actually never accomplished.

This article explores the ways in which French colonial authorities met the life and death challenge represented by the re-emergence of yellow fever epidemics in Saint-Louis-du-Sénégal at a time when physicians knew very little about the etiology, diagnosis, transmission and treatment of most infectious and parasitic diseases. The discussion focuses on changing strategies and policies designed to address yellow fever threats, the attitudes and priorities of the authorities, the limits of ‘colonial medicine’ and the responses of people affected by sanitary measures. The article argues that because of the ignorance of the etiology and epidemiology of yellow fever, policies were misdirected and did not achieve their primary goals. Even after the introduction of germ theory, the gap between medical thinking and practice persisted for another decade. The African urban working class and underclass were the first victims of this state of affairs. The article also examines the conflict between the interests of public health, commerce and privacy rights.

Purpose The geographic space of the old Trinational Agglomeration Basel is a complex area where municipalities (and urban systems) belonging to three different countries meet, and part of a paradigmatic scenario where former and recent cross-border cooperation structures and practices are opening opportunities for joint development. The purpose of this paper is to analyse how organisation and spatial relations are being transformed in this context and if there exist barriers, focusing on Weil am Rhein (Germany), Basel (Switzerland) and Saint-Louis and Huningue (France), which converge in the heart of the Agglomeration. Design/methodology/approach The paper is structured in two parts. The first one is a theoretical exploration of the evolution and extent of cross-border cooperation structures and practices affecting the area. The second one focuses on urban transformation and intertwining resulting from this environment, exploring it through analytical work and cartographies for the 1985–2010 period. In this study, three categories are considered: transport networks, morphology and land use. Findings Results suggest that cooperation structures are bringing opportunities for the interweaving of neighbouring border urban spaces. However, significant limitations due to regulatory and spatial inheritances and economic constraints, among others, persist. The analysed space continued evidencing barriers and over-simplified areas at the end of the period studied. Originality/value The research offers a not-so-frequent, but necessary, perspective of border urban systems as complex scenarios: not only nodes of interaction but also inhabited spaces. It provides insights into border urban development and original cross-border cartography, giving clues on planning in singular environments.

Guidelines advocate universal, prompt treatment of hepatitis C (HCV) infection in HIV/HCV co-infected patients, but barriers to uptake of HCV direct-acting antivirals (DAAs) remain unclear in this population. This retrospective study investigated the care cascade from HCV diagnosis to sustained virologic response (SVR) at an urban infectious disease clinic in Saint Louis, Missouri during the first 18 months of interferon-free DAA availability in the United States. Of 1949 HIV patients seen in clinic, 91.9% were screened for HCV and 5.4% (n = 106) had chronic HCV infection with follow-up. Of these 106 co-infected patients, 100 underwent fibrosis testing, 55 were offered DAAs, 38 completed treatment, and 37 achieved SVR. Delayed DAA treatment was associated with no insurance, substance abuse, poor HIV control, and younger age. Providers delayed DAA treatment most commonly for substance abuse, psychiatric disease, and uncontrolled HIV. Mean time to insurance decision from initial prescription was 20.9 ± 29.6 days and mean time to final decision was 29.9 ± 40.1 days. DAAs are highly successful in co-infected patients in this early period but insurance delays and misconceptions from the interferon era can ultimately limit uptake. Addressing these factors in a comprehensive treatment model may bridge disparities and improve real-world SVRs.

Abstract Transforming primary care practice to improve the health of older adults is a major focus of the Geriatric Workforce Enhancement Program (GWEP). Using the 4Ms of an Age-Friendly Health System (What Matters, Mentation, Medication, and Mobility) as a framework, presenters will describe their GWEP’s ongoing development, training, and evaluation initiatives aimed at increasing providers’ knowledge and practice skills, and improving older adult’s health outcomes. These initiatives are creating increased professional competencies in geriatric care that will: 1) help older adults maximize their health and wellbeing, and 2) better support caregivers and families. In this symposium, presenters from three GWEPs, Pennsylvania State University, Rush University Medical Center, and Saint Louis University will describe AFHS initiatives with rural and urban primary care partner sites. Educational and programmatic initiatives and strategies that map onto the 4Ms that will be discussed including geriatric assessment, dementia-focused interventions, falls prevention, opioid assessment, and caregiver well-being and support. Outcomes in older adult’s health and functional status will be discussed. Presenters will highlight the importance of building AFHS in primary care and strategies to bridge this framework into the community.

Abstract Background Anarchic and poorly controlled urbanization led to an increased risk of mosquito-borne diseases (MBD) in many African cities. Here, we evaluate the spatial heterogeneity of human exposure to malaria and arboviral disease vectors in an urban area of northern Senegal, using antibody-based biomarkers of exposure to Anopheles and Aedes mosquito bites. Methods A cross-sectional study was undertaken during the rainy season of 2014 in 4 neighborhoods of Saint-Louis, a city in northern Senegal. Among children aged 6–59 months in each neighborhood, the dried blood spot technique was used to evaluate immunoglobulin G (IgG) responses to both gSG6-P1 (Anopheles) and Nterm–34-kDa (Aedes) salivary peptides as validated biomarkers of respective mosquito bite exposure. Results IgG response levels to gSG6-P1 and Nterm–34-kDa salivary peptides varied significantly between the 4 neighborhoods (P < .0001). The level of exposure to Aedes bites also varied according to household access to sanitation services (P = .027), whereas that of exposure to Anopheles bites varied according to insecticide-treated bed net use (P = .006). In addition, spatial clusters of high contact between humans and mosquitoes were identified inside 3 neighborhoods. Conclusions Antibody-based biomarkers of exposure to Anopheles and Aedes mosquito bites could be helpful tools for evaluating the heterogeneity of exposure to malaria and arboviral disease vectors by national control programs.

Background: Designing effective nutrition interventions for infants and young children requires knowledge about the population to which the intervention is directed, including insights into the cognitive systems and values that inform caregiver feeding practices. Objective: To apply cultural domain analysis techniques in the context of implementation research for the purpose of understanding caregivers’ knowledge frameworks in Northern Senegal with respect to infant and young child (IYC) feeding. This study was intended to inform decisions for interventions to improve infant and young child nutrition. Methods: Modules from the Focused Ethnographic Study for Infant and Young Child Feeding Manual were employed in interviews with a sample of 126 key informants and caregivers from rural and peri-urban sites in the Saint-Louis region of northern Senegal. Descriptive statistics, cluster analysis, and qualitative thematic analysis were used to analyze the data. Results: Cluster analysis showed that caregivers identified 6 food clusters: heavy foods, light foods, snack foods, foraged foods, packaged foods, and foods that are good for the body. The study also revealed similarities and differences between the 2 study sites in caregivers’ knowledge frameworks. Conclusions: The demonstration of differences between biomedical concepts of nutrition and the knowledge frameworks of northern Senegalese women with regard to IYC feeding highlights the value of knowledge about emic perspectives of local communities to help guide decisions about interventions to improve nutrition.

Abstract Introduction Sleep deprivation and stress may affect performance among students. Simulation-based learning (SBL) in undergraduate nursing programs provides the opportunity for students to practice critical decision-making without fear of patient harm; however, students still report experiencing stress during SBL. Current research is unclear on the effect of sleep deprivation combined with stress on performance in SBL. The purpose of this study was to explore the association between stress, functional outcomes of sleep, and performance in SBL. Methods Elements of the Theory of Stress, Appraisal, and Coping and the National League for Nursing Jeffries Nursing Education Simulation Framework guided this study. Baccalaureate nursing students consented to participate in a 1-hour SBL experience that included the collection of one hair and 4 saliva samples for cortisol concentration. Participants completed the Functional Outcomes of Sleep- Short Form and the Perceived Stress Questionnaire. An experienced faculty member evaluated student performance using the Creighton Competency Evaluation Inventory. Results Participants (N=35) were mainly female (n=32, 91.4%), white (n=29, 82.9%), with ages ranging between 18–22 years (n=32, 91.4%), and employed outside of nursing school (n=32, 91.4%). Other ethnicities represented include Asian and African American. Kendall’s Tau correlations revealed a significant relationship between functional outcomes of sleep and perceived stress (r=-.281, p=.020). Although not significant, a small relationship was observed between functional outcomes of sleep and performance (r=.145, p=.236). No significant relationship between performance and perceived stress (r=-.099, p=.423) was identified. Conclusion This study suggests that daytime dysfunction related to sleep is related to perceived stress and performance in undergraduate nursing students during participation in SBL. Due likely to small sample size, the relationship between sleep and performance was unable to achieve significance. These findings support the need for future research exploring the effects of sleep on stress and performance with larger more heterogeneous samples of students. Support This researcher would like to acknowledge and thank the following funding sources for their generous support of this work: Marion Bender Scholarship (Saint Louis University School of Nursing), Dissertation Award from Sigma Theta Tau International-Epsilon Eta Chapter, and Southern Illinois University Edwardsville School of Nursing Faculty Scholar Award.

BackgroundAs an invasive mosquito species in the United States,Aedes albopictusis a potential vector of arboviruses including dengue, chikungunya, and Zika, and may also be involved in occasional transmission of other arboviruses such as West Nile, Saint Louis encephalitis, eastern equine encephalitis, and La Crosse viruses.Aedes albopictusfeeds on a wide variety of vertebrate hosts, wild and domestic, as well as humans.Methodology/Principal findingsIn order to investigate blood feeding patterns ofAe.albopictus, engorged specimens were collected from a variety of habitat types using the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention light traps, Biogents Sentinel 2 traps, and modified Reiter gravid traps in southeast Virginia. Sources of blood meals were determined by the analysis of mitochondrialcytochrome bgene sequences amplified in PCR assays. Our aims were to quantify degrees ofAe.albopictusinteractions with vertebrate hosts as sources of blood meals, investigate arboviral infection status, assess the influence of key socioecological conditions on spatial variability in blood feeding, and investigate temporal differences in blood feeding by season. Analysis of 961 engorged specimens ofAe.albopictussampled between 2017–2019 indicated that 96%, 4%, and less than 1% obtained blood meals from mammalian, reptilian, and avian hosts, respectively. Domestic cats were the most frequently identified (50.5%) hosts followed by Virginia opossums (17.1%), white-tailed deer (12.2%), and humans (7.3%), together representing 87.1% of all identified blood hosts. We found spatial patterns in blood feeding linked to socioecological conditions and seasonal shifts inAe.albopictusblood feeding with implications for understanding human biting and disease risk. In Suffolk Virginia in areas of lower human development, the likelihood of human blood feeding increased as median household income increased and human blood feeding was more likely early in the season (May-June) compared to later (July-October). Screening of the head and thorax of engorgedAe.albopictusmosquitoes by cell culture and RT-PCR resulted in a single isolate of Potosi virus.Conclusion and significanceUnderstanding mosquito-host interactions in nature is vital for evaluating vectorial capacity of mosquitoes. These interactions with competent reservoir hosts support transmission, maintenance, and amplification of zoonotic agents of human diseases. Results of our study in conjunction with abundance in urban/suburban settings, virus isolation from field-collected mosquitoes, and vector competence ofAe.albopictus, highlight the potential involvement of this species in the transmission of a number of arboviruses such as dengue, chikungunya, and Zika to humans. Limited interaction with avian hosts suggests thatAe.albopictusis unlikely to serve as a bridge vector of arboviruses such as West Nile and eastern equine encephalitis in the study region, but that possibility cannot be entirely ruled out.

AbstractEnvironmental heterogeneity resulting from human-modified landscapes can increase intraspecific trait variation. However, less known is whether such phenotypic variation is driven by plastic or adaptive responses to local environments. Here, we study five bumble bee (Apidae: Bombus) species across an urban gradient in the greater Saint Louis, Missouri region in the North American Midwest and ask: (1) Can urban environments induce intraspecific spatial structuring of body size, an ecologically consequential functional trait? And, if so, (2) is this body size structure the result of plasticity or adaptation? We additionally estimate genetic diversity, inbreeding, and colony density of these species—three factors that affect extinction risk. Using ≥ 10 polymorphic microsatellite loci per species and measurements of body size, we find that two of these species (Bombus impatiens, Bombus pensylvanicus) exhibit body size clines across the urban gradient, despite a lack of population genetic structure. We also reaffirm reports of low genetic diversity in B. pensylvanicus and find evidence that Bombus griseocollis, a species thought to be thriving in North America, is inbred in the greater Saint Louis region. Collectively, our results have implications for conservation in urban environments and suggest that plasticity can cause phenotypic clines across human-modified landscapes.

AbstractThe negative consequences of fragmentation, infrastructure development, and urbanization onbiodiversity are well known. However, careful urban planning can provide viable habitat for some species and communities. Generally, r-selected species are more likely to persist in urbanizing landscapes, while long lived, mobile species, such as turtles, are likely to decline toward extinction. Understanding species responses across urban gradients is important for developing mitigation planning. We used VHF telemetry to quantify ranging behavior of three-toed box turtles in fragmented urban forest patches and a semi-contiguous large rural forest in Saint Louis, Missouri. We then simulated movement trajectories based on empirical data from the two turtles with the largest and smallest home ranges, overlaid on forest cover and road network maps of Missouri, to quantify the state-wide probability of turtles encountering roads. Home range (HR) size varied from 1–250Ha. The mean home range estimate of rural turtles was > 9 times larger than that of urban turtles. Simulations indicated that the least mobile turtle (HR 1Ha) would have a 22% likelihood of encountering a road if placed randomly in suitable habitat anywhere in the state. The likelihood increased to 90% for the most mobile turtle (HR 250Ha), with 10 road crossings per year. High turtle mortality, range restriction and population fragmentation are likely even in rural areas. In urban cityscapes, large, roadless forest patches offer the highest conservation potential for this species.

Innovation districts have gained attention as a fast-spreading urban economic development strategy, raising numerous questions. What are their distinguishing attributes? Are they a substantive policy innovation? Are they likely to succeed in fostering innovation and economic dynamism? We propose a definition of innovation districts based on their characteristic features. Given the ambiguity of the term in practice, this is crucial for understanding and analyzing the strategy. We then evaluate innovation districts by applying theories and current understandings of the spatial and economic development aspects of innovation, entrepreneurship, and human capital, illustrating with examples from Boston, Detroit, Saint Louis, and San Diego. We conclude that the combination of components that comprises innovation districts is both new and valuable. Innovation districts present a potential pathway for advancing regional economic development goals via the pathways of innovation and entrepreneurship. We stress the importance of rigorous empirical evaluation and research regarding a variety of practical and strategic concerns.

This article examines the Parisian Surrealist and Situationist engagement with urban walking as a critical artistic practice. Exploring how the theme of urban wandering, essential to Parisian Surrealism in its early years, is re-elaborated in the Situationist concept of the dérive [drift], the article sheds new light on the relationship between these rival movements. Firstly, it offers a narrative account of Surrealist wandering that closely considers two events, the Dadaist visit to Saint-Julien-le-Pauvre in 1921 and the aimless wandering (déambulation) experiment in Blois in 1924, alongside two landmark Surrealist texts, Louis Aragon's Le Paysan de Paris (1926) and André Breton's Nadja (1928). Secondly, it situates the difficult relationship of Guy Debord to Surrealism in the history of artistic avant-gardes. Thirdly, it highlights the importance of Surrealism to the elaboration of the dérive, by analysing the implicit and explicit references to Surrealism through Debord's writings of the 1950s. Finally, it turns to the literary precursors of the dérive, distinct from but related to the Baudelairean flâneur, to explore the poetic roots of Surrealism and the Situationist International in modern French literature. This article illuminates the importance of Surrealist concepts to the Situationist city, to deepen our understanding of the Parisian avant-garde and their legacies.

AbstractSpecies from the Culex coronator complex are Neotropical species and potential vectors of Saint Louis and West Nile viruses. Culex coronator was first described in Trinidad and Tobago in the early twentieth century and since then it has invaded and has been reported established in most countries of the Americas. Species from the Culex coronator complex were first detected in the United States in the state of Louisiana in 2004 and were subsequently detected in Florida in 2005, reaching Miami-Dade County in 2008. We hypothesize that species from the Cx. coronator complex are adapting to urban environments in Miami-Dade County, Florida, and are becoming more present and abundant in these areas. Therefore, our objective was to investigate the patterns of the presence and abundance of species from the Cx. coronator complex in the urban areas of Miami-Dade County. Here we used weekly data comprised of 32 CDC traps from 2012 to 2020 and 150 BG-Sentinel traps from 2016 to 2020. A total of 34,146 female mosquitoes from the Cx. coronator complex were collected, 26,138 by CDC traps and 8008 by BG-Sentinel traps. While the number of CDC traps that were positive was relatively constant at 26–30 positive traps per year, the number of positive BG-Sentinel traps varied substantially from 50 to 87 positive traps per year. Furthermore, the heat map and logistic general linear model for repeated measures analyses showed a significant increase in both the distribution and abundance of mosquitoes from the Cx. coronator complex, indicating that these species are becoming more common in anthropized habitats being able to thrive in highly urbanized areas. The increase in the distribution and abundance of species from the Cx. coronator complex is a major public health concern. The ability of species from the Cx. coronator complex to benefit from urbanization highlights the need to better understand the mechanisms of how invasive vector mosquito species are adapting and exploiting urban habitats.

This paper argues that artist Dope Saint Jude is transforming South African hip-hop by queering a genre that has predominantly been male and heteronormative. Specifically, I analyse the opening skit of her music video “Keep in Touch” in order to unpack the ways which she revives Gayle, a gay language that adopted double-coded forms of speech during the apartheid era—a context in which homosexuals were criminalised. The use of Gayle and spaces close to the city centre of Cape Town (such as Salt River and Woodstock) speaks to the city as it was before it was transformed by the decline of industries due to the country’s adoption of neoliberal economics and, more recently, by the gentrification of these spaces. Dope Saint Jude therefore reclaims these city spaces through her use of gay modes of speech that have a long history in Cape Town and by positioning her work as hip-hop, which has been popular in the city for well over two decades. Her inclusion of transgender MC and DJ Angel Ho pushes the boundaries of hegemonic and binary conceptions of gender identity even further. In essence, Dope Saint Jude is transforming local hip-hop in a context that is shaped significantly by US cultural imperialism. The artist is also transforming our perspective of spaces that have been altered by neoliberal economics.Setting the SceneDope Saint Jude (DSJ) is a queer MC from Elsies River, a working class township located on Cape Town's Cape Flats in South Africa. Elsies River was defined as a “coloured” neighbourhood under the apartheid state's Group Areas Act, which segregated South Africans racially. With the aid of the Population Registration Act, citizens were classified, not merely along the lines of white, Asian, or black—black subjects were also divided into further categories. The apartheid state also distinguished between black and “coloured” subjects. Michael MacDonald contends that segregation “ordained blacks to be inferior to whites; apartheid cast them to be indelibly different” (11). Apartheid declared “African claims in South Africa to be inferior to white claims” and effectively claimed that black subjects “belonged elsewhere, in societies of their own, because their race was different” (ibid). The term “coloured” defined people as “mixed race” to separate communities that might otherwise have identified as black in the broad and inclusive sense (Erasmus 16). Racial categorisation was used to create a racial hierarchy with white subjects at the top of that hierarchy and those classified as black receiving the least resources and benefits. This frustrated attempts to establish broad alliances of black struggles against apartheid. It is in this sense that race is socially and politically constructed and continues to have currency, despite the fact that biologically essentialist understandings of race have been discredited (Yudell 13–14). Thanks to apartheid town planning and resource allocation, many townships on the Cape Flats were poverty-stricken and plagued by gang violence (Salo 363). This continues to be the case because post-apartheid South Africa's embrace of neoliberal economics failed to address racialised class inequalities significantly (Haupt, Static 6–8). This is the '90s context in which socially conscious hip-hop crews, such as Prophets of da City or Black Noise, came together. They drew inspiration from Black Consciousness philosophy via their exposure to US hip-hop crews such as Public Enemy in order to challenge apartheid policies, including their racial interpellation as “coloured” as distinct from the more inclusive category, black (Haupt, “Black Thing” 178). Prophets of da City—whose co-founding member, Shaheen Ariefdien, also lived in Elsies River—was the first South African hip-hop outfit to record an album. Whilst much of their work was performed in English, they quickly transformed the genre by rapping in non-standard varieties of Afrikaans and by including MCs who rap in African languages (ibid). They therefore succeeded in addressing key issues related to race, language, and class disparities in relation to South Africa's transition to democracy (Haupt, “Black Thing”; Haupt, Stealing Empire). However, as is the case with mainstream US hip-hop, specifically gangsta rap (Clay 149), South African hip-hop has been largely dominated by heterosexual men. This includes the more commercial hip-hop scene, which is largely perceived to be located in Johannesburg, where male MCs like AKA and Cassper Nyovest became celebrities. However, certain female MCs have claimed the genre, notably EJ von Lyrik and Burni Aman who are formerly of Godessa, the first female hip-hop crew to record and perform locally and internationally (Haupt, Stealing Empire 166; Haupt, “Can a Woman in Hip-Hop”). DSJ therefore presents the exception to a largely heteronormative and male-dominated South African music industry and hip-hop scene as she transforms it with her queer politics. While queer hip-hop is not new in the US (Pabón and Smalls), this is new territory for South Africa. Writing about the US MC Jean Grae in the context of a “male-dominated music industry and genre,” Shanté Paradigm Smalls contends,Heteronormativity blocks the materiality of the experiences of Black people. Yet, many Black people strive for a heteronormative effect if not “reality”. In hip hop, there is a particular emphasis on maintaining the rigidity of categories, even if those categories fail [sic]. (87) DSJ challenges these rigid categories. Keep in TouchDSJ's most visible entry onto the media landscape to date has been her appearance in an H&M recycling campaign with British Sri Lankan artist MIA (H&M), some fashion shoots, her new EP—Reimagine (Dope Saint Jude)—and recent Finnish, US and French tours as well as her YouTube channel, which features her music videos. As the characters’ theatrical costumes suggest, “Keep in Touch” is possibly the most camp and playful music video she has produced. It commences somewhat comically with Dope Saint Jude walking down Salt River main road to a public telephone, where she and a young woman in pig tails exchange dirty looks. Salt River is located at the foot of Devil's Peak not far from Cape Town's CBD. Many factories were located there, but the area is also surrounded by low-income housing, which was designated a “coloured” area under apartheid. After apartheid, neighbourhoods such as Salt River, Woodstock, and the Bo-Kaap became increasingly gentrified and, instead of becoming more inclusive, many parts of Cape Town continued to be influenced by policies that enable racialised inequalities. Dope Saint Jude calls Angel Ho: DSJ: Awêh, Angie! Yoh, you must check this kak sturvy girl here by the pay phone. [Turns to the girl, who walks away as she bursts a chewing gum bubble.] Ja, you better keep in touch. Anyway, listen here, what are you wys?Angel Ho: Ah, just at the salon getting my hair did. What's good? DSJ: Wanna catch on kak today?Angel Ho: Yes, honey. But, first, let me Gayle you this. By the jol by the art gallery, this Wendy, nuh. This Wendy tapped me on the shoulder and wys me, “This is a place of decorum.”DSJ: What did she wys?Angel Ho: De-corum. She basically told me this is not your house. DSJ: I know you told that girl to keep in touch!Angel Ho: Yes, Mama! I'm Paula, I told that bitch, “Keep in touch!” [Points index finger in the air.](Saint Jude, Dope, “Keep in Touch”)Angel Ho's name is a play on the male name Angelo and refers to the trope of the ho (whore) in gangsta rap lyrics and in music videos that present objectified women as secondary to male, heterosexual narratives (Sharpley-Whiting 23; Collins 27). The queering of Angelo, along with Angel Ho’s non-binary styling in terms of hair, make-up, and attire, appropriates a heterosexist, sexualised stereotype of women in order to create room for a gender identity that operates beyond heteronormative male-female binaries. Angel Ho’s location in a hair salon also speaks to stereotypical associations of salons with women and gay subjects. In a discussion of gender stereotypes about hair salons, Kristen Barber argues that beauty work has traditionally been “associated with women and with gay men” and that “the body beautiful has been tightly linked to the concept of femininity” (455–56). During the telephonic exchange, Angel Ho and Dope Saint Jude code-switch between standard and non-standard varieties of English and Afrikaans, as the opening appellation, “Awêh,” suggests. In this context, the term is a friendly greeting, which intimates solidarity. “Sturvy” means pretentious, whilst “kak” means shit, but here it is used to qualify “sturvy” and means that the girl at the pay phone is very pretentious or “full of airs.” To be “wys” means to be wise, but it can also mean that you are showing someone something or educating them. The meanings of these terms shift, depending on the context. The language practices in this skit are in line with the work of earlier hip-hop crews, such as Prophets of da City and Brasse vannie Kaap, to validate black, multilingual forms of speech and expression that challenge the linguistic imperialism of standard English and Afrikaans in South Africa, which has eleven official languages (Haupt, “Black Thing”; Haupt, Stealing Empire; Williams). Henry Louis Gates’s research on African American speech varieties and literary practices emerging from the repressive context of slavery is essential to understanding hip-hop’s language politics. Hip-hop artists' multilingual wordplay creates parallel discursive universes that operate both on the syntagmatic axis of meaning-making and the paradigmatic axis (Gates 49; Haupt, “Stealing Empire” 76–77). Historically, these discursive universes were those of the slave masters and the slaves, respectively. While white hegemonic meanings are produced on the syntagmatic axis (which is ordered and linear), black modes of speech as seen in hip-hop word play operate on the paradigmatic axis, which is connotative and non-linear (ibid). Distinguishing between Signifyin(g) / Signification (upper case, meaning black expression) and signification (lower case, meaning white dominant expression), he argues that “the signifier ‘Signification’ has remained identical in spelling to its white counterpart to demonstrate [. . .] that a simultaneous, but negated, parallel discursive (ontological, political) universe exists within the larger white discursive universe” (Gates 49). The meanings of terms and expressions can change, depending on the context and manner in which they are used. It is therefore the shared experiences of speech communities (such as slavery or racist/sexist oppression) that determine the negotiated meanings of certain forms of expression. Gayle as a Parallel Discursive UniverseDSJ and Angel Ho's performance of Gayle takes these linguistic practices further. Viewers are offered points of entry into Gayle via the music video’s subtitles. We learn that Wendy is code for a white person and that to keep in touch means exactly the opposite. Saint Jude explains that Gayle is a very fun queer language that was used to kind of mask what people were saying [. . .] It hides meanings and it makes use of women's names [. . . .] But the thing about Gayle is it's constantly changing [. . .] So everywhere you go, you kind of have to pick it up according to the context that you're in. (Ovens, Saint Jude and Haupt)According to Kathryn Luyt, “Gayle originated as Moffietaal [gay language] in the coloured gay drag culture of the Western Cape as a form of slang amongst Afrikaans-speakers which over time, grew into a stylect used by gay English and Afrikaans-speakers across South Africa” (Luyt 8; Cage 4). Given that the apartheid state criminalised homosexuals, Gayle was coded to evade detection and to seek out other members of this speech community (Luyt 8). Luyt qualifies the term “language” by arguing, “The term ‘language’ here, is used not as a constructed language with its own grammar, syntax, morphology and phonology, but in the same way as linguists would discuss women’s language, as a way of speaking, a kind of sociolect” (Luyt 8; Cage 1). However, the double-coded nature of Gayle allows one to think of it as creating a parallel discursive universe as Gates describes it (49). Whereas African American and Cape Flats discursive practices function parallel to white, hegemonic discourses, gay modes of speech run parallel to heteronormative communication. Exclusion and MicroaggressionsThe skit brings both discursive practices into play by creating room for one to consider that DSJ queers a male-dominated genre that is shaped by US cultural imperialism (Haupt, Stealing Empire 166) as a way of speaking back to intersectional forms of marginalisation (Crenshaw 1244), which are created by “white supremacist capitalist patriarchy” (hooks 116). This is significant in South Africa where “curative rape” of lesbians and other forms of homophobic violence are prominent (cf. Gqola; Hames; Msibi). Angel Ho's anecdote conveys a sense of the extent to which black individuals are subject to scrutiny. Ho's interpretation of the claim that the gallery “is a place of decorum” is correct: it is not Ho's house. Black queer subjects are not meant to feel at home or feel a sense of ownership. This functions as a racial microaggression: “subtle insults (verbal, nonverbal, and/or visual) directed toward people of color, often automatically or unconsciously” (Solorzano, Ceja, and Yosso 60). This speaks to DSJ's use of Salt River, Woodstock, and Bo-Kaap for the music video, which features black queer bodies in performance—all of these spaces are being gentrified, effectively pushing working class people of colour out of the city (cf. Didier, Morange, and Peyroux; Lemanski). Gustav Visser explains that gentrification has come to mean a unit-by-unit acquisition of housing which replaces low-income residents with high-income residents, and which occurs independent of the structural condition, architecture, tenure or original cost level of the housing (although it is usually renovated for or by the new occupiers). (81–82) In South Africa this inequity plays out along racial lines because its neoliberal economic policies created a small black elite without improving the lives of the black working class. Instead, the “new African bourgeoisie, because it shares racial identities with the bulk of the poor and class interests with white economic elites, is in position to mediate the reinforcing cleavages between rich whites and poor blacks without having to make more radical changes” (MacDonald 158). In a news article about a working class Salt River family of colour’s battle against an eviction, Christine Hogg explains, “Gentrification often means the poor are displaced as the rich move in or buildings are upgraded by new businesses. In Woodstock and Salt River both are happening at a pace.” Angel Ho’s anecdote, as told from a Woodstock hair salon, conveys a sense of what Woodstock’s transformation from a coloured, working class Group Area to an upmarket, trendy, and arty space would mean for people of colour, including black, queer subjects. One could argue that this reading of the video is undermined by DSJ’s work with global brand H&M. Was she was snared by neoliberal economics? Perhaps, but one response is that the seeds of any subculture’s commercial co-option lie in the fact it speaks through commodities (for example clothing, make-up, CDs, vinyl, or iTunes / mp3 downloads (Hebdige 95; Haupt, Stealing Empire 144–45). Subcultures have a window period in which to challenge hegemonic ideologies before they are delegitimated or commercially co-opted. Hardt and Negri contend that the means that extend the reach of corporate globalisation could be used to challenge it from within it (44–46; Haupt, Stealing Empire 26). DSJ utilises her H&M work, social media, the hip-hop genre, and international networks to exploit that window period to help mainstream black queer identity politics.ConclusionDSJ speaks back to processes of exclusion from the city, which was transformed by apartheid and, more recently, gentrification, by claiming it as a creative and playful space for queer subjects of colour. She uses Gayle to lay claim to the city as it has a long history in Cape Town. In fact, she says that she is not reviving Gayle, but is simply “putting it on a bigger platform” (Ovens, Saint Jude, and Haupt). The use of subtitles in the video suggests that she wants to mainstream queer identity politics. Saint Jude also transforms hip-hop heteronormativity by queering the genre and by locating her work within the history of Cape hip-hop’s multilingual wordplay. ReferencesBarber, Kristin. “The Well-Coiffed Man: Class, Race, and Heterosexual Masculinity in the Hair Salon.” Gender and Society 22.4 (2008): 455–76.Cage, Ken. “An Investigation into the Form and Function of Language Used by Gay Men in South Africa.” Rand Afrikaans University: MA thesis, 1999.Clay, Andreana. “‘I Used to Be Scared of the Dick’: Queer Women of Color and Hip-Hop Masculinity.” Home Girls Make Some Noise: Hip Hop Feminism Anthology. Ed. Gwendolyn D. Pough, Elain Richardson, Aisha Durham, and Rachel Raimist. California: Sojourns, 2007.Collins, Patricia Hill. Black Sexual Politics: African Americans, Gender, and the New Racism. New York: Routledge, 2005. Crenshaw, Kimberle. “Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence against Women of Color”. Stanford Law Review 43.6 (1991): 1241–299.Didier, Sophie, Marianne Morange, and Elisabeth Peyroux. “The Adaptative Nature of Neoliberalism at the Local Scale: Fifteen Years of City Improvement Districts in Cape Town and Johannesburg.” Antipode 45.1 (2012): 121–39.Erasmus, Zimitri. “Introduction.” Coloured by History, Shaped by Place. Ed. Zimitri Erasmus. Cape Town: Kwela Books & SA History Online, 2001. Gates, Henry Louis. The Signifying Monkey: A Theory of Afro-American Literary Criticism. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1988.Gqola, Pumla Dineo. Rape: A South African Nightmare. Johannesburg: Jacana, 2015.Hames, Mary. “Violence against Black Lesbians: Minding Our Language.” Agenda 25.4 (2011): 87–91.Hardt, Michael, and Antonio Negri. Empire. London: Harvard UP, 2000.Haupt, Adam. “Can a Woman in Hip Hop Speak on Her Own Terms?” Africa Is a Country. 23 Mar. 2015. <http://africasacountry.com/2015/03/the-double-consciousness-of-burni-aman-can-a-woman-in-hip-hop-speak-on-her-own-terms/>.Haupt, Adam. Static: Race & Representation in Post-Apartheid Music, Media & Film. Cape Town: HSRC Press, 2012. Haupt, Adam. Stealing Empire: P2P, Intellectual Property and Hip-Hop Subversion. Cape Town: HSRC Press, 2008. Haupt, Adam. “Black Thing: Hip-Hop Nationalism, ‘Race’ and Gender in Prophets of da City and Brasse vannie Kaap.” Coloured by History, Shaped by Place. Ed. Zimitri Erasmus. Cape Town: Kwela Books & SA History Online, 2001. Hebdige, Dick. Subculture: The Meaning of Style. London: Routledge, 1979.Hogg, Christine. “In Salt River Gentrification Often Means Eviction: Family Set to Lose Their Home of 11 Years.” Ground Up. 15 June 2016. <http://www.groundup.org.za/article/salt-river-gentrification-often-means-eviction/>.hooks, bell. Outlaw: Culture: Resisting Representations. New York: Routledge, 1994.Lemanski, Charlotte. “Hybrid Gentrification in South Africa: Theorising across Southern and Northern Cities.” Urban Studies 51.14 (2014): 2943–60.Luyt, Kathryn. “Gay Language in Cape Town: A Study of Gayle – Attitudes, History and Usage.” University of Cape Town: MA thesis, 2014.MacDonald, Michael. Why Race Matters in South Africa. University of Kwazulu-Natal Press: Scottsville, 2006.Msibi, Thabo. “Not Crossing the Line: Masculinities and Homophobic Violence in South Africa”. Agenda. 23.80 (2009): 50–54.Pabón, Jessica N., and Shanté Paradigm Smalls. “Critical Intimacies: Hip Hop as Queer Feminist Pedagogy.” Women & Performance: A Journal of Feminist Theory (2014): 1–7.Salo, Elaine. “Negotiating Gender and Personhood in the New South Africa: Adolescent Women and Gangsters in Manenberg Township on the Cape Flats.” Journal of European Cultural Studies 6.3 (2003): 345–65.Solórzano, Daniel, Miguel Ceja, and Tara Yosso. “Critical Race Theory, Racial Microaggressions, and Campus Racial Climate: The Experiences of African American College Students.” Journal of Negro Education 69.1/2 (2000): 60–73.Sharpley-Whiting, T. Denean. Pimps Up, Ho’s Down: Hip Hop’s Hold on Young Black Women. New York: New York UP, 2007.Smalls, Shanté Paradigm. “‘The Rain Comes Down’: Jean Grae and Hip Hop Heteronormativity.” American Behavioral Scientist 55.1 (2011): 86–95.Visser, Gustav. “Gentrification: Prospects for Urban South African Society?” Acta Academica Supplementum 1 (2003): 79–104.Williams, Quentin E. “Youth Multilingualism in South Africa’s Hip-Hop Culture: a Metapragmatic Analysis.” Sociolinguistic Studies 10.1 (2016): 109–33.Yudell, Michael. “A Short History of the Race Concept.” Race and the Genetic Revolution: Science, Myth, and Culture. Ed. Sheldon Krimsky and Kathleen Sloan. New York: Columbia UP, 2011.InterviewsOvens, Neil, Dope Saint Jude, and Adam Haupt. One FM Radio interview. Cape Town. 21 Apr. 2016.VideosSaint Jude, Dope. “Keep in Touch.” YouTube. 23 Feb. 2015. <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w2ux9R839lE>. H&M. “H&M World Recycle Week Featuring M.I.A.” YouTube. 11 Apr. 2016. <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f7MskKkn2Jg>. MusicSaint Jude, Dope. Reimagine. 15 June 2016. <https://dopesaintjude.bandcamp.com/album/reimagine>.

Probably, you are enjoying the wonderful summer by reading books, books, and more books. We, too, are busy reading and enjoying summer so the news this time around is brief.In June, Barbro Lindgren was awarded the Astrid Lindgren Memorial award at the Stockholm Concert Hall. This award, founded in 2002 by the Swedish Arts Council, is the world’s largest award for children’s and young adult literature at 5 million SEK (about $700,000 CAD). If it sounds suspicious that a Swedish writer with the same surname as the Swedish award’s Swedish namesake has won, rest assured that it truly is open to the world. In fact, Barbro is the first Swede among the 14 recipients (12 other countries represented). The selection process begins 15 months before the award with nominations coming from very select nominating bodies in various countries.ALMA: http://www.alma.se/en/Nominating bodies: http://www.alma.se/en/Nominations/Nominating-bodies/Did you know about Ireland’s Laureate na nÓg (Children’s Literature Laureate)? Eoin Colfer, best known for his Artemis Fowl books, is the third laureate to hold the 2-year term. He will continue the project’s aims of introducing and raising the profile of high quality children’s literature in Ireland. According to Wikipedia, the only other Children’s Laureate equivalents are in the UK and the USA but it does look like Australia has one as well as Sweden in the non-English world (somebody should update wikipedia entry …).See: http://childrenslaureate.ie/Previous Laureate na nÓg: http://childrenslaureate.ie/laureate-na-nog/We are proud that our very own Coutts Education Library at the University of Alberta recently launched their newly renovated Canadian Children’s Book Centre (CCBC) collection. It is “one of 5 regional collections of Canadian children’s and young adult materials” with the others in Toronto, Vancouver (UBC), Winnipeg (UManitoba), and Halifax (Mt. Saint Vincent Univ.).Launch Photos and Blog post: http://blogs.library.ualberta.ca/ednews/index.php/2014/07/02/2765/CCBC collections: http://www.bookcentre.ca/library/regional_collections/Also in the Coutts education library’s CCBC, Deakin editor Robert Desmarais had an opportunity to interview Jill Bryant during the 2014 TD Canadian Children’s Book Week. See the interview here (6:53 duration): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NtdX4fj-CB4And yet one more CCBC-related note, the call for submissions for the Spring 2015 edition of “Best Books for Kids & Teens (BBKT) is out. The deadline is October 1, 2014. http://www.bookcentre.ca/news/call_for_submissions_best_books_kids_teens_spring_2015It struck me recently that a main source of summer reading for many Canadians is the biannual Cross Country Checkup Book List episode on CBC radio. So, I wondered if there were suggestions this summer for our readers. While most of the recommendations are for adults, there are a few that recall childhood reads (e.g. “Anne of Green Gables,” and “Who has seen the wind”) and a few suggestions:- "I think every high school student should be given a copy of Chester Brown's Louis Riel" (recommended by guest Craig Taylor)- “Anything by Charles De Lint ...pretty much the creator of Urban fantasy and intertwines stories of street kids with Gaelic and Aboriginal mythology” (from listener D. Price)http://www.cbc.ca/checkup/book-lists/2014/07/03/june-29-2014-summer-book-list/Have a great summer reading in the yard, on the couch, at the beach, in the family car, on a hammock, or wherever your summer reading finds you.David SulzDavid is a Public Services Librarian at University of Alberta and liaison librarian to Economics, Religious Studies, and Social Work. He has university studies in Library Studies, History, Elementary Education, Japanese, and Economics; he formerly taught in schools and museums. His interests include physical activity, music, home improvements, and above all, things Japanese.

Introduction In the wake of the disaster of World War I, the Surrealists formulated a hostile critique of the novel that identified its limitations in expressing the depth of the mind's faculties and the fragmentation of the psyche after catastrophic events. From this position of crisis, the Surrealists undertook a series of experimental innovations in form, structure, and style in an attempt to renew the genre. This article examines how the praxis of shock is deployed in a number of Surrealist city novels as a conduit for revolt against a society that grew increasingly mechanised in the climate of post-war regeneration. It seeks to counter the contemporary view that Surrealist city dérives (drifts) represent an intriguing yet ultimately benign method of urban research. By reconsidering its origins in response to a world catastrophe, this article emphasises the Surrealist novel’s binding of the affective properties of shock to the dream-awakening dialectic at the heart of the political position of Surrealism. The Surrealist City Novel Today it has almost become a truism to assert that there is a causal link between the catastrophic devastation wrought by the events of the two World Wars and the ideology of rupture that characterised the iconoclasms of the Modernist avant-gardes. Yet, as we progress into the twenty-first century, it is timely to recognise that new generations are rediscovering canonical and peripheral texts of this era and refracting them through a prism of contemporary preoccupations. In many ways, the revisions of today’s encounters with that past era suggest we have travelled some distance from the rawness of such catastrophic events. One post-war body of work recently subjected to view via an unexpected route is the remarkable array of Surrealist city novels set in Paris in the 1920s and 1930s, representing a spectrum of experimental texts by such authors as André Breton, Louis Aragon, Robert Desnos, Philippe Soupault, and Michel Leiris. Over the past decade, these works have become recuperated in the Anglophone context as exemplary instances of ludic engagement with the city. This is due in large part to the growing surge of interest in psychogeography, an urban research method concerned with the influence that geographical environments exert over the emotions and behaviours of individuals, and a concern for tracing the literary genealogies of walking and writing in broad sweeping encyclopaedic histories and guidebook style accounts (for prominent examples see Rebecca Solnit’s Wanderlust and Merlin Coverley’s Psychogeography). Yet as Surrealist novels continue to garner renewed interest for their erotic intrigue, their strolling encounters with the unconscious or hidden facets of the city, and as precursors to the apparently more radical practice of Situationist psychogeography, this article suggests that something vital is missing. By neglecting the revolutionary significance that the Surrealists placed upon the street and its inextricable connection to the shock of the marvellous, I suggest that we have arrived at a point of diminished appreciation of the praxis of the dream-awakening dialectic at the heart of Surrealist politics. With the movement firmly lodged in the popular imagination as concerned merely with the art of play and surprise, the Surrealists’ sensorial conception of the city as embedded within a much larger critique of the creators of “a sterile and dead world” (Rasmussen 372) is lost. This calls into question to what extent we can now relate to the urgency with which avant-gardes like the Surrealists responded to the disaster of war in their call for “the revolution of the subject, a revolution that destroyed identity and released the fantastic” (372). At the same time, a re-evaluation of the Surrealist city novel as a significant precursor to the psychogeograhical dérive (drift) can prove instructive in locating the potential of walking, in order to function as a form of praxis (defined here as lived practice in opposition to theory) that goes beyond its more benign construction as the “gentle art” of getting lost. The Great Shock To return to the origins of Surrealism is to illuminate the radical intentions of the movement. The enormous shock that followed the Great War represented, according to Roger Shattuck, “a profound organic reaction that convulsed the entire system with vomiting, manic attacks, and semi-collapse” (9). David Gascoyne considers 1919, the inaugural year of Surrealist activity, as “a year of liquidation, the end of everything but also of paroxysmic death-birth, incubating seeds of renewal” (17). It was at this time that André Breton and his collaborator Philippe Soupault came together at the Hôtel des Grands Hommes in Paris to conduct their early experimental research. As the authors took poetic license with the psychoanalytical method of automatic writing, their desire to unsettle the latent content of the unconscious as it manifests in the spontaneous outpourings of dream-like recollections resulted in the first collection of Surrealist texts, The Magnetic Fields (1920). As Breton recalls: Completely occupied as I still was with Freud at that time, and familiar with his methods of examination which I had had some slight occasion to use on some patients during the war, I resolved to obtain from myself what we were trying to obtain from them, namely, a monologue spoken as rapidly as possible without any intervention on the part of critical faculties, a monologue consequently unencumbered by the slightest inhibition and which was, as closely as possible, akin to spoken thought. (Breton, Manifesto 22–23) Despite their debts to psychoanalytical methods, the Surrealists sought radically different ends from therapeutic goals in their application. Rather than using analysis to mitigate the pathologies of the psyche, Breton argued that such methods should instead be employed to liberate consciousness in ways that released the individual from “the reign of logic” (Breton, Manifesto 11) and the alienating forces of a mechanised society. In the same manifesto, Breton links his critique to a denunciation of the novel, principally the realist novel which dominated the literary landscape of the nineteenth-century, for its limitations in conveying the power of the imagination and the depths of the mind’s faculties. Despite these protestations, the Surrealists were unable to completely jettison the novel and instead launched a series of innovations in form, structure, and style in an attempt to renew the genre. As J.H. Matthews suggests, “Being then, as all creative surrealism must be, the expression of a mood of experimentation, the Surrealist novel probes not only the potentialities of feeling and imagination, but also those of novelistic form” (Matthews 6). When Nadja appeared in 1928, Breton was not the first Surrealist to publish a novel. However, this work remains the most well-known example of its type in the Anglophone context. Largely drawn from the author’s autobiographical experiences, it recounts the narrator’s (André’s) obsessive infatuation with a mysterious, impoverished and unstable young woman who goes by the name of Nadja. The pair’s haunted and uncanny romance unfolds during their undirected walks, or dérives, through the streets of Paris, the city acting as an affective register of their encounters. The “intellectual seduction” comes to an abrupt halt (Breton, Nadja 108), however, when Nadja does in fact go truly mad, disappearing from the narrator’s life when she is committed to an asylum. André makes no effort to seek her out and after launching into a diatribe vehemently attacking the institutions that administer psychiatric treatment, nonchalantly resumes the usual concerns of his everyday life. At a formal level, Breton’s unconventional prose indeed stirs many minor shocks and tremors in the reader. The insertion of temporally off-kilter photographs and surreal drawings are intended to supersede naturalistic description. However, their effect is to create a form of “negative indexicality” (Masschelein) that subtly undermines the truth claims of the novel. Random coincidences charged through with the attractive force of desire determine the plot while the compressed dream-like narrative strives to recount only those facts of “violently fortuitous character” (Breton, Nadja 19). Strikingly candid revelations perpetually catch the reader off guard. But it is in the novel’s treatment of the city, most specifically, in which we can recognise the evolution of Surrealism’s initial concern for the radically subversive and liberatory potential of the dream into a form of praxis that binds the shock of the marvellous to the historical materialism of Marx and Engels. This praxis unfolds in the novel on a number of levels. By placing its events firmly at the level of the street, Breton privileges the anti-heroic realm of everyday life over the socially hierarchical domain of the bourgeois domestic interior favoured in realist literature. More significantly, the sites of the city encountered in the novel act as repositories of collective memory with the power to rupture the present. As Margaret Cohen comprehensively demonstrates in her impressive study Profane Illumination, the great majority of sites that the narrator traverses in Nadja reveal connections in previous centuries to instances of bohemian activity, violent insurrection or revolutionary events. The enigmatic statue of Étienne Dolet, for example, to which André is inexplicably drawn on his city walks and which produces a sensation of “unbearable discomfort” (25), commemorates a sixteenth-century scholar and writer of love poetry condemned as a heretic and burned at the Place Maubert for his non-conformist attitudes. When Nadja is suddenly gripped by hallucinations and imagines herself among the entourage of Marie-Antoinette, “multiple ghosts of revolutionary violence descend on the Place Dauphine from all sides” (Cohen 101). Similarly, a critique of capitalism emerges in the traversal of those marginal and derelict zones of the city, such as the Saint-Ouen flea market, which become revelatory of the historical cycles of decay and ruination that modernity seeks to repress through its faith in progress. It was this poetic intuition of the machinations of historical materialism, in particular, that captured the attention of Walter Benjamin in his 1929 “Surrealism” essay, in which he says of Breton that: He can boast an extraordinary discovery: he was the first to perceive the revolutionary energies that appear in the “outmoded”—in the first iron constructions, the first factory buildings, the earliest photos, objects that have begun to be extinct, grand pianos, the dresses of five years ago, fashionable restaurants when the vogue has begun to ebb from them. The relation of these things to revolution—no one can have a more exact concept of it than these authors. (210) In the same passage, Benjamin makes passing reference to the Passage de l’Opéra, the nineteenth-century Parisian arcade threatened with demolition and eulogised by Louis Aragon in his Surrealist anti-novel Paris Peasant (published in 1926, two years earlier than Nadja). Loosely structured around a series of walks, Aragon’s book subverts the popular guidebook literature of the period by inventorying the arcade’s quotidian attractions in highly lyrical and imagistic prose. As in Nadja, a concern for the “outmoded” underpins the praxis which informs the politics of the novel although here it functions somewhat differently. As transitional zones on the cusp of redevelopment, the disappearing arcades attract Aragon for their liminal status, becoming malleable dreamscapes where an ontological instability renders them ripe for eruptions of the marvellous. Such sites emerge as “secret repositories of several modern myths,” and “the true sanctuaries of a cult of the ephemeral”. (Aragon 14) City as Dreamscape Contemporary literature increasingly reads Paris Peasant through the lens of psychogeography, and not unproblematically. In his brief guide to psychogeography, British writer Merlin Coverley stresses Aragon’s apparent documentary or ethnographical intentions in describing the arcades. He suggests that the author “rails against the destruction of the city” (75), positing the novel as “a handbook for today’s breed of psychogeographer” (76). The nuances of Aragon’s dream-awakening dialectic, however, are too easily effaced in such an assessment which overlooks the novel’s vertiginous and hyperbolic prose as it consistently approaches an unreality in its ambivalent treatment of the arcades. What is arguably more significant than any documentary concern is Aragon’s commitment to the broader Surrealist quest to transform reality by undermining binary oppositions between waking life and the realm of dreams. As Hal Foster’s reading of the arcades in Surrealism insists: This gaze is not melancholic; the surrealists do not cling obsessively to the relics of the nineteenth-century. Rather it uncovers them for the purposes of resistance through re-enchantment. If we can grasp this dialectic of ruination, recovery, and resistance, we will grasp the intimated ambition of the surrealist practice of history. (166) Unlike Aragon, Breton defended the political position of Surrealism throughout the ebbs and flows of the movement. This notion of “resistance through re-enchantment” retained its significance for Breton as he clung to the radical importance of dreams and the imagination, creative autonomy, and individual freedom over blind obedience to revolutionary parties. Aragon’s allegiance to communism led him to surrender the poetic intoxications of Surrealist prose in favour of the more sombre and austere tone of social realism. By contrast, other early Surrealists like Philippe Soupault contributed novels which deployed the praxis of shock in a less explicitly dialectical fashion. Soupault’s Last Nights of Paris (1928), in particular, responds to the influence of the war in producing a crisis of identity among a generation of young men, a crisis projected or transferred onto the city streets in ways that are revelatory of the author’s attunement to how “places and environment have a profound influence on memory and imagination” (Soupault 91). All the early Surrealists served in the war in varying capacities. In Soupault’s case, the writer “was called up in 1916, used as a guinea pig for a new typhoid vaccine, and spent the rest of the war in and out of hospital. His close friend and cousin, René Deschamps, was killed in action” (Read 22). Memories of the disaster of war assume a submerged presence in Soupault’s novel, buried deep in the psyche of the narrator. Typically, it is the places and sites of the city that act as revenants, stimulating disturbing memories to drift back to the surface which then suffuse the narrator in an atmosphere of melancholy. During the novel’s numerous dérives, the narrator’s detective-like pursuit of his elusive love-object, the young streetwalker Georgette, the tracking of her near-mute artist brother Octave, and the following of the ringleader of a criminal gang, all appear as instances of compensation. Each chase invokes a desire to recover a more significant earlier loss that persistently eludes the narrator. When Soupault’s narrator shadows Octave on a walk that ventures into the city’s industrial zone, recollections of the disaster of war gradually impinge upon his aleatory perambulations. His description evokes two men moving through the trenches together: The least noise was a catastrophe, the least breath a great terror. We walked in the eternal mud. Step by step we sank into the thickness of night, lost as if forever. I turned around several times to look at the way we had come but night alone was behind us. (80) In an article published in 2012, Catherine Howell identifies Last Nights of Paris as “a lyric celebration of the city as spectacle” (67). At times, the narrator indeed surrenders himself to the ocular pleasures of modernity. Observing the Eiffel Tower, he finds delight in “indefinitely varying her silhouette as if I were examining her through a kaleidoscope” (Soupault 30). Yet it is important to stress the role that shock plays in fissuring this veneer of spectacle, especially those evocations of the city that reveal an unnerving desensitisation to the more violent manifestations of the metropolis. Reading a newspaper, the narrator remarks that “the discovery of bags full of limbs, carefully sawed and chopped up” (23) signifies little more than “a commonplace crime” (22). Passing the banks of the Seine provokes “recollection of an evening I had spent lying on the parapet of the Pont Marie watching several lifesavers trying in vain to recover the body of an unfortunate suicide” (10). In his sensitivity to the unassimilable nature of trauma, Soupault intuits a phenomenon which literary trauma theory argues profoundly limits the text’s claim to representation, knowledge, and an autonomous subject. In this sense, Soupault appears less committed than Breton to the idea that the after-effects of shock might be consciously distilled into a form of praxis. Yet this prolongation of an unintegrated trauma still posits shock as a powerful vehicle to critique a society attempting to heal its wounds without addressing their underlying causes. This is typical of Surrealism’s efforts to “dramatize the physical and psychological trauma of a war that everyone wanted to forget so that it would not be swept away too quickly” (Lyford 4). Woman and Radical Madness In her 2007 study, Surrealist Masculinities, Amy Lyford focuses upon the regeneration and nation building project that characterised post-war France and argues that Surrealist tactics sought to dismantle an official discourse that promoted ideals of “robust manhood and female maternity” (4). Viewed against this backdrop, the trope of madness in Surrealism is central to the movement’s disruptive strategies. In Last Nights of Paris, a lingering madness simmers beneath the surface of the text like an undertow, while in other Surrealist texts the lauding of madness, specifically female hysteria, is much more explicit. Indeed, the objectification of the madwoman in Surrealism is among the most problematic aspects of its praxis of shock and one that raises questions over to what extent, if at all, Surrealism and feminism can be reconciled, leading some critics to define the movement as inherently misogynistic. While certainly not unfounded, this critique fails to answer why a broad spectrum of women artists have been drawn to the movement. By contrast, a growing body of work nuances the complexities of the “blinds spots” (Lusty 2) in Surrealism’s relationship with women. Contemporary studies like Natalya Lusty’s Surrealism, Feminism, Psychoanalysis and Katharine Conley’s earlier Automatic Woman both afford greater credit to Surrealism’s female practitioners in redefining their subject position in ways that trouble and unsettle the conventional understanding of women’s role in the movement. The creative and self-reflexive manipulation of madness, for example, proved pivotal to the achievements of Surrealist women. In her short autobiographical novella, Down Below (1944), Leonora Carrington recounts the disturbing true experience of her voyage into madness sparked by the internment of her partner and muse, fellow Surrealist Max Ernst, in a concentration camp in 1940. Committed to a sanatorium in Santander, Spain, Carrington was treated with the seizure inducing drug Cardiazol. Her text presents a startling case study of therapeutic maltreatment that is consistent with Bretonian Surrealism’s critique of the use of psycho-medical methods for the purposes of regulating and disciplining the individual. As well as vividly recalling her intense and frightening hallucinations, Down Below details the author’s descent into a highly paranoid state which, somewhat perversely, heightens her sense of agency and control over her environment. Unable to discern boundaries between her internal reality and that of the external world, Carrington develops a delusional and inflated sense of her ability to influence the city of Madrid: In the political confusion and the torrid heat, I convinced myself that Madrid was the world’s stomach and that I had been chosen for the task of restoring that digestive organ to health […] I believed that I was capable of bearing that dreadful weight and of drawing from it a solution for the world. The dysentery I suffered from later was nothing but the illness of Madrid taking shape in my intestinal tract. (12–13) In this way, Carrington’s extraordinarily visceral memoir embodies what can be described as the Surrealist woman’s “double allegiance” (Suleiman 5) to the praxis of shock. On the one hand, Down Below subversively harnesses the affective qualities of madness in order to manifest textual disturbances and to convey the author’s fierce rebellion against societal constraints. At the same time, the work reveals a more complex and often painful representational struggle inherent in occupying the position of both the subject experiencing madness and the narrator objectively recalling its events, displaying a tension not present in the work of the male Surrealists. The memoir concludes on an ambivalent note as Carrington describes finally becoming “disoccultized” of her madness, awakening to “the mystery with which I was surrounded and which they all seemed to take pleasure in deepening around me” (53). Notwithstanding its ambivalence, Down Below typifies the political and historical dimensions of Surrealism’s struggle against internal and external limits. Yet as early as 1966, Surrealist scholar J.H. Matthews was already cautioning against reaching that point where the term Surrealist “loses any meaning and becomes, as it is for too many, synonymous with ‘strange,’ ‘weird,’ or even ‘fanciful’” (5–6). To re-evaluate the praxis of shock in the Surrealist novel, then, is to seek to reinstate Surrealism as a movement that cannot be reduced to vague adjectives or to mere aesthetic principles. It is to view it as an active force passionately engaged with the pressing social, cultural, and political problems of its time. While the frequent nods to Surrealist methods in contemporary literary genealogies and creative urban research practices such as psychogeography are a testament to its continued allure, the growing failure to read Surrealism as political is one of the more contradictory symptoms of the expanding temporal distance from the catastrophic events from which the movement emerged. As it becomes increasingly common to draw links between disaster, creativity, and renewal, the shifting sands of the reception of Surrealism are a reminder of the need to resist domesticating movements born from such circumstances in ways that blunt their critical faculties and dull the awakening power of their praxis of shock. To do otherwise is to be left with little more than cheap thrills. References Aragon, Louis. Paris Peasant (1926). Trans. Simon Watson Taylor. Boston: Exact Change, 1994. Benjamin, Walter. “Surrealism: The Last Snapshot of the European Intelligentsia” (1929). Trans. Edmund Jephcott. Walter Benjamin Selected Writings, Volume 2, Part I, 1927–1930. Eds. Michael W. Jennings, Howard Eiland, and Gary Smith. Cambridge, MA: The Belknap P, 2005. Breton, André. “Manifesto of Surrealism” (1924). Manifestoes of Surrealism. Trans. Richard Seaver and Helen R. Lane. Ann Arbor, MI: U of Michigan P, 1990. ———. Nadja (1928). Trans. Richard Howard. New York: Grove P, 1960. Breton, André, and Philippe Soupault. The Magnetic Fields (1920). Trans. David Gascoyne. London: Atlas P, 1985. Carrington, Leonora. Down Below (1944). Chicago: Black Swan P, 1983. Cohen, Margaret. Profane Illumination: Walter Benjamin and the Paris of Surrealist Revolution. Berkeley, CA: U of California P, 1993. Conley, Katharine. Automatic Woman: The Representation of Woman in Surrealism. Lincoln, NE: U of Nebraska P, 1996. Coverley, Merlin. Psychogeography. Harpenden: Pocket Essentials, 2010. Foster, Hal. Compulsive Beauty. Cambridge, MA: MIT P, 1993. Gascoyne, David. “Introduction.” The Magnetic Fields (1920) by André Breton and Philippe Soupault. Trans. David Gascoyne. London: Atlas P, 1985. Howell, Catherine. “City of Night: Parisian Explorations.” Public: Civic Spectacle 45 (2012): 64–77. Lusty, Natalya. Surrealism, Feminism, Psychoanalysis. Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2007. Lyford, Amy. Surrealist Masculinities: Gender Anxiety and the Aesthetics of Post-World War I Reconstruction in France. Berkeley, CA: U of California P, 2007. Masschelein, Anneleen. “Hand in Glove: Negative Indexicality in André Breton’s Nadja and W.G. Sebald’s Austerlitz.” Searching for Sebald: Photography after W.G. Sebald. Ed. Lise Patt. Los Angeles, CA: ICI P, 2007. 360–87. Matthews, J.H. Surrealism and the Novel. Ann Arbor, MI: U of Michigan P, 1996. Rasmussen, Mikkel Bolt. “The Situationist International, Surrealism and the Difficult Fusion of Art and Politics.” Oxford Art Journal 27.3 (2004): 365–87. Read, Peter. “Poets out of Uniform.” Book Review. The Times Literary Supplement. 15 Mar. 2002: 22. Shattuck, Roger. “Love and Laughter: Surrealism Reappraised.” The History of Surrealism. Ed. Maurice Nadeau. Trans. Richard Howard. New York: Penguin Books, 1978. 11–34. Solnit, Rebecca. Wanderlust: A History of Walking. London: Verso, 2002. Soupault, Philippe. Last Nights of Paris (1928). Trans. William Carlos Williams. Boston: Exact Change, 1992. Suleiman, Susan Robin. “Surrealist Black Humour: Masculine/Feminine.” Papers of Surrealism 1 (2003): 1–11. 20 Feb. 2013 ‹http://www.surrealismcentre.ac.uk/papersofsurrealism/journal1›.