Littérature scientifique sur le sujet « Royal Land Company of Virginia »

SUMMARYThe 150th anniversary of the Royal Aeronautical Society has seen Rolls-Royce become a global player in aerospace and a champion of British industry. Its products vary from the nimble RR300, powering two-seater helicopters, all the way to the 97,000-pound thrust Trent XWB, powering future variants of the Airbus A350, and the MT30, which provides the propulsion for the Royal Navy's new Queen Elizabeth class aircraft carriers. It has built this range of products derived from the vision and innovation of its talented engineers, spurred on by the guiding principles provided by Henry Royce. This has seen it through times of war, hardship, bankruptcy and fierce competition to emerge as the leading manufacturer of aircraft engines and a provider of power across land and sea. Alongside its products, it has developed pioneering services to support its customers, analysing real-time data to improve the reliability and efficiency of its engines. In keeping with its tradition of innovation, the company is continuing to develop new products and services for the next generation of power systems for land, sea and air.

The article is devoted to the study of a number of local geopolitical consequences of the French and Indian War of 1754-1763, as a result of which the territory of the Ohio River Valley was included in projects to expand the zone of influence of the Virginian colonial elites. The study of local political and legal practices associated with the execution of royal land grants shows the peculiarities of building relationships between American colonists and the indigenous peoples of the region. The period of the early 1770s, when the economic and financial expansion of the planters provoked a number of local armed conflicts between the armed forces of Virginia and numerous Indian tribes, deserves special attention. An analysis of these issues makes it possible to better study the legal foundations of the stay of the Virginian settlers on the lands of indigenous peoples, which are often poorly studied in relation to the specifics of the historical context of each of the local conflicts.

Em 2019, Um teto todo seu celebrou seus 90 anos de publicação e Três guinéus foi traduzido e publicado no Brasil pela primeira vez. Esses dois eventos, mais a participação na palestra A room of my own (Um teto todo meu) organizado pelo Durham Book Festival (Festival do Livro de Durham), onde os participantes discutiram os desafios que as escritoras ainda enfrentam nos dias atuais, nos inspirou a publicar o presente artigo, para analisar o papel de Virginia Woolf como crítica e apresentar algumas de suas teorias mais relevantes. Palavras-chave: Virginia Woolf. Autoria feminina. Crítica feminista. Um teto todo seu. Três guinéus. Referências ALMEIDA, Márcia de. Cosima: à procura de um lugar de afirmação da autoria feminina. 2009. Juiz de Fora. Disponível em: http://www.ufjf.br/ppgletras/files/2009/11/COSIMA-%C3%80-PROCURA-DE-UM-LUGAR-DE-AFIRMA%C3%87%C3%83O-DA-AUTORIA-FEMININA-Marcia.pdf. Acesso em: 11 set. 2015. COMPAGNON, Antoine. O demônio da teoria: literatura e senso comum. Tradução Cleonice Paes Barreto Mourão e Consuelo Fortes Santiago. 2. ed. Belo Horizonte: UFMG, 2010. DERRIDA, Jacques. Essa estranha instituição chamada literatura: uma entrevista com Jacques Derrida. Tradução Marileide Dias Esqueda. Belo Horizonte: UFMG, 2014. GILBERT, Sandra M.; GUBAR, Susan. No man’s land: the word of wars. New Haven: Yale University, 1988. v. 1. GOLDMAN, Jane. The Cambridge introduction to Virginia Woolf. Cambridge: Cambridge University, 2008. LEE, Hermione. Virginia Woolf. New York: Vintage Books, 1999. LEHMANN, John. Vidas literárias: Virginia Woolf. Rio de Janeiro: Jorge Zahar, 1989. MARSH, Nicholas. Virginia Woolf: the novels. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 1998. MOI, Toril. Introduction: Who’s afraid of Virginia Woolf? Feminist readings of Woolf. In: ______. Sexual/Textual Politics. 2. ed. London: Routledge, 2002. p. 1-18. NEVES, Caroline R. Virginia Woolf e o espaço autobiográfico em Os anos. Orientadora: Nícea Helena Nogueira. 2018. 117 f. Dissertação (Mestrado em Letras: Estudos Literários) – Faculdade de Letras, Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora, 2018. OLIVEIRA, Maria Aparecida de. A representação feminina na obra de Virginia Woolf: um diálogo entre o projeto político e o estético. Orientadora: Maria Clara Bonetti Paro. 2013. 253 f. Tese (Doutorado em Estudos Literários) – Faculdade de Ciências e Letras, Universidade Estadual Paulista Júlio Mesquita Filho (Unesp), Araraquara, 2013. ROSEMBERG, Molly. Foreword. In: WOOLF, Virginia. A room of my own. London: The Royal Society of Literature, 2019. p. 2-3. SHOWALTER, Elaine. A literature of their own: British women novelists from Brontë to Lessing. Princeton: Princeton University, 1999. SHOWALTER, Elaine. Criticism in the wilderness. Critical Inquiry, Chicago, v. 8, n, 2, p. 179-205, 1981. WOOLF, Virginia. A room of one’s own and Three Guineas. Oxford: Oxford University, 2015. ______. O valor do riso e outros ensaios. Tradução e organização Leonardo Froés. São Paulo: Cosac Naify, 2014. ______. Um teto todo seu. Tradução Vera Ribeiro. Rio de Janeiro: Nova Fronteira, 2004. ______. Women & writing. London: The Women’s Press, 1979.

The architectural expression of the commercial historical centre of Bucharest is no exception among European parallel forms, the spread of a multitude of historicist stylistic alternatives, Art Nouveau, was assimilated under the cultural interconnections and adapted to the place. The programme of architecture, a shop with workshops developed vertically, was spread in the same formula in all towns previously fairs/burgs, from Strasbourg to Odessa, throughout Vienna, to illustrate only three towns, acknowledged as major commercial centres, travelled through with the intention of discovering suppliers coming from there in the land of Bucharest. One of the main suppliers of the Lipscania was the J. Haug company in Bucharest, established starting with 1891 precisely, and awarded with the certifi cate of a Royal Supplier, specialized in shop windows and metallic shutters. Th e shop of Th .Ioaniţiu, the bookseller, the work of the beaux-artist architect Alexandru Săvulescu, continues to stand up today, with the same façade and planimetry as in the building permit drawings, with an additional storey, but with the shop windows at the ground fl oor slightly changed. The building can be easily recovered and restored, having many of the original building elements. The metallic shutters of the J. Haug company were certainly present at the shop window of the bookseller’s shop.

The arrest of Rosa Parks on 1 December 1955 provided the spark which ignited the long smouldering resentments of black Montgomerians. For 381 days they waged a boycott of the city bus lines, frustrating the opposition of white authorities and financially crippling the local transit company. More profoundly it resulted in a Supreme Court decision outlawing segregation on public transportation. Equally momentous was the emergence of the man who would serve as the spiritual figurehead of the civil rights movement: Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.In the wake of the Montgomery bus boycott, one national black newspaper acclaimed King as “Alabama's Modern Moses.” Since the darkest days of slavery African-Americans had sought spiritual salvation by comparing their own condition to that of God's Chosen People, the Israelites of the Old Testament. Throughout their years of enslavement they prayed for the Moses who would deliver them from their suffering unto the Promised Land. During the boycott, the black citizens of Montgomery had similarly sustained their morale by singing the old slave spirituals, raising their voices at the nightly mass meetings in rousing renditions of “Go Down Moses, Way Down in Egypt Land.” “As sure as Moses got the children of Israel across the Red Sea,” King exhorted the black community, “we can stick together and win.” Others too drew the analogy between the historical experience of Jews and the contemporary predicament of African-Americans. Looking back on the boycott, white liberal activist Virginia Durr evoked the spectre of Nazi Germany in describing the strength of racist opposition.

- Freek Colombijn, Hisao Furukawa, Coastal wetlands of Indonesia; Environment, subsistence and exploitation. Translated by Peter Hawkes. Kyoto: Kyoto University Press, 1994, vii + 219 pp., tables, figures, index. - C. van Dijk, Virginia Matheson Hooker, Culture and society in New Order Indonesia, Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1993, xxiii + 302 pp. - M.R. Fernando, Frans van Baardewijk, The cultivation system, Java 1834-1880, Changing Economy in Indonesia 14. Amsterdam: Royal Tropical Institute, 1993, 327 pp. - Bernice D. de Jong Boers, Jacqueline Vel, The Uma-economy; Indigenous economics and development work in Lawonda, Sumba (Eastern Indonesia). PhD thesis Landbouwuniversiteit Wageningen, 1994, viii + 283 pp. Maps, tables, photographs, glossary. - Marijke J. Klokke, Lydia Kieven, Arjunas Askese; Ihre Darstellung im altjavanischen Arjunawiwaha und auf ausgewählten ostjavanischen Reliefs. Kölner Südostasien Studien Bd. 2. Bonn: Holos, 1994, 154 pp. - Marijke J. Klokke, Edi Sedyawati, Ganesa statuary of the Kadiri and Sinhasari periods; A study of art history. Verhandelingen van het Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 160. Leiden: KITLV Press 1994. - Gijs Koster, Annabel Teh Gallop, The legacy of the Malay letter - Warisan warkah Melayu. With an essay by E. Ulrich Kratz. London: British Library for the National Archives of Malaysia, 1994, 240 pp. - Stephen Markel, Marijke J. Klokke, Ancient Indonesian Sculpture, Verhandelingen van het Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 165. Leiden: KITLV Press 1994, vii + 210 pp., Pauline Lunsingh Scheurleer (eds.) - Anke Niehof, Ingrid Rudie, Visible women in East coast Malay society; On the reproduction of gender in ceremonial, school and market. Oslo: Scandinavian University Press, 1994, xi + 337 pp. - Peter Pels, Nicholas Thomas, Colonialism’s culture; Anthropology, travel and government. Cambridge: Polity Press, 1994, xi + 238 pp. - Peter Pels, Nicholas B. Dirks, Colonialism and culture. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1992, xiv + 402 pp. - Anton Ploeg, Roger M. Keesing, Custom and confrontation; The Kwaio struggle for cultural autonomy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992, x + 254 pp. - M.C. Ricklefs, Vincent J.H. Houben, Kraton and Kumpeni: Surakarta and Yogyakarta 1830-1870. Verhandelingen van het Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 164. Leiden: KITLV Press, vii + 396 pp.

The cases of sea robberies and crimes in Asia and particularly in Malaysia waters from 2013 to 2018 is quite alarming. The cases from 2013 to 2018 is consecutively 150, 187, 203, 85, 101, and 83. There was a steady increase in cases from 2013 to 2015, which reached a peak of 203 cases in 2015. The current area of serious concern is the Sulu-Celebes Sea and waters off Eastern Sabah. The Malaysia maritime security forces that consist of the Royal Malaysian Navy, MMEA, and Marine Police have all out to stop thse sea crimes. The increased number of assets and frequency of patrol is not practical and costly and it is difficult to ensure the security of each vessel. One solution by the shipowner is to engage the service of the private maritime security company (PMSC) as a last security net. Ministry of Home Affair (MOHA) had established regulation for the operation of PMSC in Malaysia based on local law. However, the regulation is not compatible with international requirements and especially when shipping is the most international industry in the world. The reason for the incompatibility is may due to MOHA was using regulations and standards of on-land private security companies in Malaysia to develop the standard for the private maritime security firm. Another reason is Marine Department Malaysia, which represents Malaysia in the International Maritime Organization was not referred.

An Overview of the Role of Traditional Institutions in Nigeria Mustapha Alhaji Ali Department of Political Science and Administration. Yobe State University, Damaturu. Nigeria Fatima Ahmed Department of Political Science University of Maiduguri Nigeria *Corrosponding author’s Email: mustaphaalhajiali2@gmail.com Mustapha Alhaji Ali, born in Yobe state Nigeria, a staff of Yobe State University. Currently pursuing Ph.D. Political Science in Universiti Utara Malaysia is the based eminent Management University. The University in the green forest. Fatima Ahmed was born in Borno state Nigeria, working with the University of Maiduguri. Presently pursuing Ph.D. Political Development in the University the famous university in the North-Eastern region. Peer-review under responsibility of 3rd Asia International Multidisciplanry Conference 2019 editorial board (http://www.utm.my/asia/our-team/) © 2019 Published by Readers Insight Publisher, lat 306 Savoy Residencia, Block 3 F11/1,44000 Islamabad. Pakistan, info@readersinsight.net This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). Research Highlights The British officials in Nigeria framed and imposed rules and laws through the traditional rulers who only served as mediators between the people and the British officials. Though, the cultures and traditions of the Nigerian citizens were cherished and reserved by the British government in order to accept and welcome them by the citizens of the country. However, this system worked out well because of the support of the traditional rulers who claimed that since their cultures and traditions were not interfered with, they have no problem with the British authorities (Teslim, 2019). Before traditional rulers in everywhere in the world are attached with some important functions among which are contributing to development administration, linkage or "brokering" between grassroots and capital, extension of national identity through the conferral of traditional titles, low-level conflict resolution and judicial gate-keeping, ombudsmanship and institutional safety- valve for overloaded and sub-apportioned bureaucracies. In addition to the above roles, traditional rulers are meant to create educated chieftaincies meaningfully improves the success of traditional rulers (Miles, 1993). Furthermore, traditional rulers serve as another institute of conflict resolution in any nation where the state legal system is weakening to fully provide the judicial requirements of the country (Zeleke, 2011). A study by Isaac (2018) disclosed that in the olden days, traditional institutions are the administrative organizations in Nigeria. These establishments are entrenched in the history, cultures, and the traditions of several ethnic groups and cultural background. He further explained that traditional institutions plays an important role in the managerial process before, during, and after colonial rules, these institutions have contributed to the history of the nation. The role of traditional organizations was important and highly respected during these periods. Research Objectives The paper examined the roles of traditional institutions toward steady democracy To discover how efficient are these institutions in ensuring steady democracy Significance of the study This study is of great importance to the academician because it would add to the body of existing knowledge, by guiding and assisting students conducting research in a similar field of study. However, this research work is very significant because it would help the traditional institution in understanding their weakness and how to improve where necessary.This study helps in identifying the gap in the literature and it as well assists in filing the existing gap in the literature Methodology This paper is qualitative in nature because it is based on an organized review of related literature and a subtle examination of secondary data, in this case, data were established from various sources such as magazines, published and unpublished articles, books, journals, reports archives and newspaper articles (Braun & Clarke, 2013; Creswell, 2009). Research Design Under the research design the researcher adopted case study approach this is because it provides the researcher with an in-depth understanding of a phenomenon under inquiry, or it helps in providing an in-depth thoughtful of cases (Creswell, 2013; Othman, 2018). Theoretical Framework There are many theories that can explain these study, but for the purpose of this paper the researcher used two theories, these are dependency and servant leadership theory, and reason for using these theories is based on their applicability and relationship with the topic under examination, these theories dwelled on abilities of leader and leadership independence in all the society. The postulations of these theories are that traditional rulers should be an independent body, truthful, honest, loyal, responsible, forecast, sensible and above all dedication to administrative responsibilities (White and Clark, 1990; Stone, & Patterson, 2005). Findings Traditional rulers play an important role in the society by advising the elected leaders in different areas, these include; economic policy, security issues, equal sharing of goods and services, recommending aspirants for elections or appointment to serve the community, demand for good governance and general wellbeing of the people among others. Study by Lund (2006) and Osifo (2017) disclosed that before traditional institutions use religion power to settle disputes among the citizens as well as married couples in the society, it also uses religious sanctions in resolving issues related to land disputes among the people in their respective societies, and issues like robbery, and disputes between neighbors in the societies. Recommendations The paper recommended that traditional rulers should be given full independence and should be well connected into Nigeria democratic process, this would encourage them to contribute in no small measure to the social and economic development. The study further recommended that democratization of the states along traditional organization would help in enhancing economic development that would enhance the living standard of the citizens Conclusion The study concluded that traditional institutions play important roles in the olden day. By settling disputes among the citizens. They in addition help in maintaining peace and order among the general populace. References a Stone, A. G., & Patterson, K. (2005). The history of leadership focus.Servant leadership research roundtable proceedings.School of Leadership Studies, Regent University, Virginia Beach, US. Teslim, O. O. (2019). Indirect Rule in Nigeria. Victor O. (2017). 7 Roles of Traditional Rulers in Achieving Stable Democracy in Nigeria. Information Guide in Nigeria. White, L.G. & Clark, R. P. (1990). Political Analysis: Technique and Practice. California: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company. Yemisi O. I. (2018). Role of Traditional Institution in Nigeria Democratic Space: Contending Perspectives, Issues, and Potentials. Zaleha O. (2018). Important things about Qualitative Research. Zeleke, M. (2011). Ye Shakoch Chilot (the court of the sheikhs): A traditional institution of conflict resolution in Oromiya zone of Amhara regional state, Ethiopia. African Journal on Conflict Resolution, 10(1), 63–84.

In 1609, the Virginia Company published a series of sermons to garner support for the struggling joint-stock company. This essay analyzes two of these, with special attention to the biblical exegesis used. The two preachers examined, Robert Gray and William Symonds, both employ a hermeneutic of supercessionism—the belief that God’s promises to Israel have been transferred to Christians—to interpret the Bible in ways favorable to the goals of the colonizing power. In particular, supercessionist readings of the call of Abraham and the conquest of the land of Israel depicted in Joshua provide these authors justification for the widespread disenfranchisement and displacement of indigenous peoples and even for outright genocide. While claiming to hold out hope for the conversion of indigenous peoples to the Christian faith, the sermons of the Virginia Company contribute to a version of Christianity of and for white people alone.

Abstract The kingdoms of Kandy (now Sri Lanka) and Ayutthaya (now Thailand) were briefly connected across Indian Ocean waters in the mid-eighteenth century by Dutch East India Company (hereafter VOC) traders, leading to the importation of valuable Siamese Buddhist monks and their ordination lineage to the island. Two series of events related to the VOC's search for and delivery of these monks demonstrate that the patronage of connected religious dynamics—not just the contingencies of trade, land, labour, and statecraft—was an essential aspect of Company business. At the same time, mediating Buddhist connection was a dangerous, sometimes perilous undertaking. Analysing VOC records alongside Laṅkān and Siamese historical chronicles and travelogues reveals that what were initially friendly connections at first necessitated, and later intensified certain forms of danger. We begin with perilous shipwrecks and diplomatic impasses across monsoon waters that eventually led to the restoration of an important but defunct Kandyan Buddhist ordination lineage, and conclude with the aftermath of a failed assassination attempt in 1760 against the royal patron of that lineage transmission. I advance the notion of “dangerous friendships” to characterise how Buddhist courts and European traders worked together to first generate, and then exploit, friendly religious connections.

In addition to the other momentous events of 1619, the year also marked the Virginia Company’s first widespread granting of private land to colonists. The private land grants have long been seen as a natural outgrowth of a peculiarly English colonial desire to own and exploit land in the Americas, and as a first step toward the construction of a Lockean liberal settler society. This essay challenges these assumptions by recovering the long and complex debate within the Virginia Company about the virtues and pitfalls of offering planters private land. It traces different schemes for establishing landownership and connects them to competing ideas about market regulation and political economy in contemporary England. The essay ultimately argues that the system of plantation estates that developed in the 1620s, operated by private planters with indentured laborers but retaining some civic functions, was a compromise between these two models. It represented a unique evolution of English thinking about landownership, commerce, and civic order, which can only be fully understood by acknowledging the complex negotiation over private land that wracked the Virginia Company in the late 1610s.

This chapter explores the creation of Virginia's General Assembly in a late Renaissance intellectual and political context in which safeguarding the colony's public took on new urgency. It attends to the ideals of the public and commonwealth that animated Virginia Company leaders like Robert Cecil, first earl of Salisbury, and Sir Edwin Sandys and recovers the particular political crisis the colony confronted in early 1618 from two different directions. In the first place, corporate entities like the Virginia Company faced new pressures from King James I and his Treasurer Sir Lionel Cranfield, who had come to eye such public repositories as sources of wealth to which the king had a rightful claim. The greater threat, however, came from the machinations of Robert Rich, second earl of Warwick, who had similarly come to regard Virginia's public stock as fair game, though for God's purposes rather than the king's. It was immediately after Warwick launched a raid on Virginia's public stock that the Virginia Company created the General Assembly. Its purpose would be to stand sentinel against any such pillaging missions, whether by royal treasurers or Puritan pirates, in the future.

This chapter explores a new strategy for defending the Virginia project that emerged in the early seventeenth century as a male king, James I, ascended the English throne and as England's powerful secretary of state Robert Cecil, earl of Salisbury, sought to overcome the dishonor attached to Elizabethan sovereign engagements overseas through a robust vision of state-led colonization. Eager to usher in an era of vigorous English sovereignty under a fit male ruler but discouraged by James's uneasiness in challenging Spanish title across the Atlantic, Salisbury became the energetic prime mover behind the Virginia Company. Intended to embody the English body politic and thereby endow the colonizing venture with a legitimacy derived more from the public than the king, the company was from the outset a controversial entity that leaned on a rich literature of the providential state to argue for Virginia's commonwealth status. After Salisbury's death, the company would become vulnerable to the machinations of James's new treasurer, Lionel Cranfield, first earl of Middlesex, who would seek to reinvent the Virginia Company as a mere trading company whose function was less to found a viable American kingdom than to ensure a steady flow of revenue to royal coffers.

George Rogers Clark, the son of middling Virginia gentry, escaped a short stint of education and fled to the eastern bank of the Ohio River at the age of nineteen. Trained as a surveyor, he made frequent trips to Fort Pitt, where he heard Croghan describe the land between the Appalachians and the Mississippi. Dunmore, Virginia’s last colonial governor and an investor in Croghan’s Illinois Land Company, began a series of skirmishes with trans-Appalachian American Indians to rid the territory of any cause that retarded settlement (and land sales). Clark, after riding with Dunmore against Cornstalk, moved to Kentucky and soon challenged the new Virginia Assembly to defend Kentucky from British and Indian raids or cede the territory to the people. He is credited with creating Kentucky County, Virginia.

Abstract In 1754, responding to the emerging imperial crisis in the Ohio country, the British appointed Edward Braddock as commander in chief in North America. A native of Scotland, Braddock was almost sixty years old at the time of his appointment and had been in the British Army for forty-five years. He arrived in Virginia in March 1755 with two Irish regiments and based them at Wills Creek, Maryland, where the land speculators who formed the Ohio Company had built a storage and supply depot. Braddock enlarged the fort and renamed it in honor of his patron, the Duke of Cumberland, a younger son of George II.

In the spring of 1791,Waldemar joins the French colonists already at Gallipolis, Ohio Territory, hitching a ride on the boats transporting soldiers down the Ohio River to fight the Indians. He was fortunate not to continue the journey past Gallipolis, for it would culminate in the disaster known as St. Clair's Defeat, in which 97% of the Americans are killed or wounded. Unlike the other colonists, Waldemar owns no land at Gallipolis; in fact, they only thought they had ownership, having been swindled by Joel Barlow and company back in France. He is assigned to be an "Indian spy," tasked with scouring the woods daily for signs of Indian presence. Actually, the Indians intentionally spare the French but repeatedly attack the American settlers, including Daniel Boone and his family, at nearby Point Pleasant, Virginia (now West Virginia). Life is hard for Waldemar, as he waits for Charlotte to arrive. The travails of the colony are recorded in two newspaper and magazine articles the Mentelles later wrote, one of which has remained unknown to historians until now.

Abstract In October 1789, after a journey of some 46 days from Massachusetts to Baltimore and then on to Muskingum, Ohio, Thomas Wallcut sat down to write a letter to James Freeman, a Unitarian minister in Boston. Everywhere he went, Wallcut reported, one topic seemed to dominate conversation-the spread of Methodism. It seemed that wherever two or three were gathered together, “you would certainly hear some, thing about Methodists-sometimes one of the Company would defend them, but I most generally fell among those that disliked & spoke against them.” From what he could discern, the spread of Methodism in Virginia and Mary, land seemed “unparrelled & astonishing.” “Some go so far as to say that full half the People are Methodists already & that Methodism will be the established Religion of Virginia in a few years,” wrote Wallcut. Though he doubted that this would ever be the case, he was nonetheless alarmed at the “enthusiasm & intemperate zeal” of the Methodists. Methodist meetings, recounted Wallcut after witnessing several, were “attended with all that confusion, violence and distortion of the body, voice & gestures that characterizes such a boiling hot religion.

Abstract More than 2,000 representatives of the Iroquois, Delawares, Shawnees, and other Indian nations assembled at Fort Stanwix in New York at the end of October 1768. Sir William Johnson presided over the largest and most important Indian conference in American colonial history. Pennsylvania sent a high-powered delegation, including John Penn, Attorney-General Benjamin Chew, and former provincial secretary Richard Peters, whose knowledge of Pennsylvania’s land transactions was unrivaled. The governments of New Jersey and Virginia also sent delegates. The resulting treaty, signed on November 5 by representatives of each of the Six Nations, pushed the boundary set by royal proclamation in 1763 considerably to the west. The Iroquois received land in New York in return; the Delawares, Shawnees, and Mingoes of the Ohio country, who lived in the territory ceded by the Iroquois, had no say in the matter. In a separate transaction Thomas Penn paid the Six Nations£10,000 for all land in his province not previously deeded to the proprietary family. Under the terms of this “New Purchase,” he reacquired most of the Ohio country. Once again, the Indians who lived in the region were not consulted. After Fort Stanwix, European settlement formally penetrated beyond the Allegheny Mountains on a large and permanent scale.1

The provincial ‘matadors’: Between royal favour and the envy of the burghers. The Otte dynasty in Ekernførde in Schleswig 1700–1770 The Otte dynasty did not possess notable land in the town of Ekernførde in Schleswig in 1700–1770, and its members did not become landlords, and the family members owned only two estates near their residence. Thus, Ekernførde should not be considered a ‘landlord town’ as defined by Finn-Einar Eliassen. However, Christian Otte and his son Friedrich Wilhelm Otte gained a dominant position in the town. Their path to success was facillitated by unique business talent, the social networks they built, and their contacts in the local council and the central administration in Copenhagen. The Otte dynasty managed to establish the largest single-proprietor shipping company in Denmark outside Copenhagen. Therefore, one must conclude that Ekernførde was, for a certain period, a privatised monopoly town. This occurred despite the fact that the Danish state systematically kept a tight grip on urban sites by providing state tenants with power and authority. In addition, these statal measures were underpinned by manifold administrative and judicial regulations. Yet statal bureaucratisation of the towns in Denmark did not prevent ‘matadors’ like the Otte family from growing and obtaining strong economic and social positions. They also benefited from royal favour, which triggered envy and dissatisfaction in other merchant families. One should not assume that the Otte dynasty is a unique example of ‘matadors’ in Denmark, and they were not the only ones who anchored their dominant position without owning the land the town was built on, but rather on various political and economic resources. Consequently, this study of Ekernførde indicates that other small towns in Denmark most likely fostered dynasties and ‘matadors’ temporarily. However, it is clear that Schleswig became less controlled by statal bureaucracy compared to other parts of the Danish Realm. More studies are needed to explore the whole picture of the political economy of Denmark in the 18th century.

Before he became a revolutionary general and the nation’s first president, George Washington was a destroyer of wetlands. In 1763, he surveyed the edges of a million-acre expanse of wet forest that lay along the Virginia–North Carolina state line. He described the Great Dismal Swamp as a “glorious paradise” full of wildfowl and game. Still, he seemed to have no qualms about dismantling Eden. In 1764 he applied with five partners for a charter to create a business called “Adventurers for draining the great Dismal Swamp.” Their goal was to chop down and sell the timber from majestic cypress and cedar trees, then to plow the land for crops. The brutal work of digging drainage ditches and canals was done by slaves. By the time of the Revolutionary War, the Adventurers Company was producing 8 million shingles a year for sale—valuable slivers of wood cut from the swamp’s enormous bald cypress trees. There was profit in undoing wetlands. Draining a wetland also seemed to make a place healthier. People who colonized swampy land were plagued by a dreadful illness, one that often killed, and left survivors with recurring bouts of a bonerattling fever. Malaria—the name itself means “bad air”—was believed to be triggered by poisonous vapors rising from still waters. The drainage and destruction of wetlands was an unwritten founding principle of the US. The pattern began with some of the earliest European settlers. Well before the colonies won their independence, the loss of wetlands had led to pollution that changed the ecology of rivers and bays. Over the centuries, wetlands loss and water pollution have accelerated in tandem, driven by the need for farmland, the urge for profit, and the fear of disease. The history of these interwoven changes on land and underwater begins in the Chesapeake Bay, the site of the first permanent British colony in America. In the summer of 1608, Captain John Smith and the colonists of Jamestown were starving.

Sellafield is a former Royal Ordnance Factory used since the 1940’s for the production and reprocessing of fissile materials. Leaks and spills from these plants and their associated waste facilities has led to radioactive contaminated ground legacy of up to 20 million m3. Consideration of land contamination at Sellafield began in 1976, following discovery of a major leak from a waste storage silo. Over the past three decades there has been a programme of environmental monitoring and several phases of characterization. The latest phase of characterization is a £10million contract to develop second generation conceptual and numeric models. The Site Licence Company that operates the site has been subject to structural changes due to reorganizations within the British nuclear industry. There has also been a change in emphasis to place an increased importance on accelerated decommissioning. To address these challenges a new contaminated land team and contaminated land and groundwater management plan have been established. Setting and measuring performance against challenging objectives is important. The management plan has to be cognizant of the long timescales (ca. 80 years) for final remediation. Data review, collation, acquisition, analysis, and storage is critical for success. It is equally important to seize opportunities for early environmental gains. It is possible to accelerate the development and delivery of a contaminated land and groundwater management plan by using international experts.