Articles de revues : « Rational speech act »

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Champollion, Lucas, Anna Alsop et Ioana Grosu. « Free choice disjunction as a rational speech act ». Semantics and Linguistic Theory 29 (9 décembre 2019) : 238. http://dx.doi.org/10.3765/salt.v29i0.4608.

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The so-called free choice inference (from You may take an apple or a pear to You may take an apple) is mysterious because it does not follow from ordinary modal logic. We show that this inference arises in the Rational Speech Act framework (Frank & Goodman 2012). Our basic idea is inspired by exhaustification-based models of free choice (Fox 2007) and by game-theoretic accounts based on iterated best response (Franke 2011). We assume that when the speaker utters You may take an apple or a pear, the hearer reasons about why the speaker did not choose alternative utterances such as You may take an apple. A crucial ingredient in our explanation is the idea of semantic uncertainty (Bergen, Levy & Goodman 2016). Specifically, we assume that the speaker is uncertain whether or not the hearer will interpret You may take an apple as forbidding them from taking a pear. This uncertainty can be thought of as resulting from Fox’s (2007) optional covert exhaustification. Uttering the disjunction is a way for the speaker to prevent the hearer from concluding that any fruit is forbidden to take. Knowing this, the hearer concludes that they may choose either fruit.

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Wreen, Michael J. « Look, Ma ! No Frans ! » Pragmatics and Cognition 2, n^o 2 (1 janvier 1994) : 285–306. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/pc.2.2.06wre.

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This paper criticizes the pragma-dialectical conception of a fallacy, according to which a fallacy is an argumentative speech act which violates one or more of the rules of 'rational discussion'. That conception is found to be neither a necessary nor a sufficient condition for committing a fallacy. It is also found wanting in several other respects.

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Decker, Janet R., Allison Fetter-Harrott et Jennifer Rippner. « Beyond Speech : Students’ Civil Rights in Schools ». Laws 10, n^o 4 (29 octobre 2021) : 80. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/laws10040080.

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Educators, including school leaders, must be able to handle legal dilemmas involving student speech, but these do not occur in a vacuum. Often, speech issues are commingled with other legal challenges. This article explores student rights beyond free speech that are guaranteed at PK-12 U.S. public schools. We clarify when educators must attend to students’ unique needs, especially when courts have identified that certain students are members of protected classes. This article explains the overarching constitutional framework in which the U.S. Supreme Court has applied the 14th Amendment’s Equal Protection Clause to protect the rights of students to be free from invidious discrimination. We describe how modern U.S. courts apply levels of review, including strict scrutiny, intermediate scrutiny, and rational basis review to equal protection cases. We then synthesize federal statutory law and case law that protect students. Specifically, we discuss how Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Title VI 1964) prohibits discrimination based on race, color, ethnicity, national origin, language proficiency, and religion. Next, we delve into the recent changes relevant to the application of Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972 (Title IX 1972) to students based on sex, sexual orientation, and gender identity. Our final focus covers students with disabilities, including medical conditions, who are protected by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA 1990) and Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act (Section 504 1973).

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Liu, Xuexin. « Japanese Linguistic Politeness as Speakers’ Rational Choice and Social Strategy ». Studies in Linguistics and Literature 7, n^o 1 (16 janvier 2023) : p8. http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/sll.v7n1p8.

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Japanese linguistic politeness is a commonly observed phenomenon and the speaker’s being linguistically polite is an expected social behavior in the Japanese society. Most previous studies of Japanese politeness describe such a polite social behavioral pattern at a superficial or observational level without exploring the linguistic nature of such a polite behavior or the speaker’s motivations for performing a polite speech act in a particular speech context. From some linguistic, sociolinguistic, psycholinguistic and sociological perspectives, this study defines “politeness” as the speaker’s rational choices and a social strategy in the Japanese culture beyond surface language forms themselves. This paper claims that so-called “polite” or “honorific” language forms as commonly employed by the speaker in various social interactions do not necessarily always indicate that such a speaker must be a polite person. The so-called “polite” language is “linguistic” in nature and is thus more about a particular language form itself than about the speaker himself/herself. This paper further claims that the speaker makes rational choices of particular polite language forms to realize his/her communicative intention with the outcomes as perceived. Thus, this study explores the relationship between polite language forms and their social, cultural, and pragmatic functions. It concludes that speakers in the same speech community are conscious of linguistic choices which conform to their normative views for the interaction types; there is no simple equation between polite forms and polite speakers, and speakers are rational actors in making linguistic choices.

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Gąsior, Weronika. « Cultural Scripts and the Speech Act of Opinions in Irish English : A Study amongst Irish and Polish University Students ». ELOPE : English Language Overseas Perspectives and Enquiries 12, n^o 1 (22 juin 2015) : 11–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.4312/elope.12.1.11-28.

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Studies in pragmatics have been limited to a handful of illocutionary acts such as requests, apologies or compliments, and opinions remain underrepresented in the existing literature. In this paper I present the results of a study of opinions in Irish English, conducted in an intercultural environment of Irish-Polish interactions. Departing from a traditional approach of speech act realisation studies, I applied the theory of cultural scripts to analyse opinions. In contrasting the Irish and Polish formulas for expressing opinions, as well as sociopragmatic attitudes towards this speech act, a difference in the cultural scripts for opinions in each culture was observable. Apart from already documented Polish frankness in opinions, the study discovered also a rational approach to presenting good arguments to support one’s assertions among the participants. In relation to the Irish script for opinions, the findings are in line with previous classifications of opinions in Australian English, showing a certain level of variational uniformity amongst the English-speaking cultures in this regard.

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Clark-Joseph, Adam D., et Brian D. Joseph. « Linguistics meets economics : Dealing with semantic variation ». Proceedings of the Linguistic Society of America 5, n^o 2 (9 juin 2020) : 67. http://dx.doi.org/10.3765/plsa.v5i2.4794.

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We explore here what happens in conversation when listeners encounter variation as well as change in semantics. Working within a general Gricean framework, and in ways somewhat akin to the “Cheap Talk” model of Crawford and Sobel (1982) and the “Rational Speech Act” model of Goodman and Frank (2016), we develop here a transactional view of communicative acts, based largely on insights drawn from economics. Taking a novel perspective, we build on what happens when communication misfires rather than examining what makes for successful communication. We see this effort as a demonstration of the utility of taking an economic perspective on linguistic issues, specifically the analysis of communicative acts.

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Junaidi, Muh. « NORMATIVE DIMENSIONS OF SPEECH ACTS : EXPLORATORY STUDY IN SASAK SPEECH COMMUNITY ». MABASAN 12, n^o 1 (15 octobre 2018) : 21–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.26499/mab.v12i1.32.

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This study investigates normative dimensions of speech acts. It analyzes the nature of normative dimension of speech acts.To get empirical data, 9 participants were chosen as sources of spoken language data: 2 tuan guru giving speeches in formal contexts; and 7 people engaging in casual conversations in informal context. To collect data, observation and voice recording was used. Prior to analysis, the data were transcribed, labeled and classified according to categories that appeared from the data. Findings reveal and advocate the normative and moral dimensions of speech acts generated from agent’s change normative standing to hearers in terms of right, obligation and responsibility. As a result, the study argues that moral values embedded in speech act performance such honesty, truth, self-control and respect, obedience and so forth could be taught in order to foster children good character development in comprehensive ways including moral reasoning, affection and behaviors. For that reason, moral values teaching based on speech act normativity and morality could be used as an arena for bearing good character corresponding to the process of acquiring of the first language or learning the second/foreign language. This could be a starting point for teaching moral competence through language institution that are more affordable, accessible and learnable for all rational human being all over the world. Furthermore, those moral values might be the foundation for moral action of children to bear the awareness of good interpersonal or intersubjective relationship. Based on the limitation of the study, it needs to hold further study as to the practical model of teaching moral values on the bases of moral values embedded in performing speech acts.Kajian ini menelaah tentang karakter dimensi normatif tindakan berbahasa. Data empiris diperoleh dengan melibatkan 9 partisipan, yakni 2 tuan guru yang memberikan ceramah dalam konteks formal dan 7 orang yang terlibat percakapan kasual dalam konteks informal. Data dikumpulkan melalui observasi dan rekaman suara. Sebelum analisa, data tersebut ditranskripsi, dilabeli dan diklasifikasikan. Kajian ini mengungkapkan dan mendukung adanya dimensi normatif dan moral tindakan berbahasa yang dibentuk dari perubahan kedudukan normatif pembicara dan pendengar terkait hak, kewajiban dan tanggungjawab. Kajian ini mendukung bahwa dimensi normatif dan nilai moral yang melekat dalam setiap tindakan berbahasa seperti, kejujuran, kebenaran, komitmen, tanggungjawab, kontrol diri, saling menghargai dan lain-lain yang bisa diajarkan dalam pengembangan karakter anak yang bermoral dengan cara yang komprehensif meliputi penalaran moral, afeksi dan tindakan. Oleh sebab itulah, pengajaran nilai-nilai moral berbasis moralitas dan normativitas tindakan berbahasa bisa digunakan sebagai arena pendidikan karakter atau nilai. Ini bisa menjadi langkah awal pengajaran kompetensi moral melalui instiusi bahasa. Di samping itu, nilai-nilai moral tersebut merupakan fondasi dalam tindakan anak yang bermoral untuk membangun kesadaran interpersonal anak yang baik. Berdasarkan keterbatasan kajian ini, diperlukan kajian lebih lanjut tentang model praktis pengajaran nilai-nilai moral berbasis dimensi normatif dan moral yang inheren dalam setiap tindakan berbahasa.

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Bohn, Manuel, et Michael C. Frank. « The Pervasive Role of Pragmatics in Early Language ». Annual Review of Developmental Psychology 1, n^o 1 (24 décembre 2019) : 223–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-devpsych-121318-085037.

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Language is a fundamentally social endeavor. Pragmatics is the study of how speakers and listeners use social reasoning to go beyond the literal meanings of words to interpret language in context. In this article, we take a pragmatic perspective on language development and argue for developmental continuity between early nonverbal communication, language learning, and linguistic pragmatics. We link phenomena from these different literatures by relating them to a computational framework (the rational speech act framework), which conceptualizes communication as fundamentally inferential and grounded in social cognition. The model specifies how different information sources (linguistic utterances, social cues, common ground) are combined when making pragmatic inferences. We present evidence in favor of this inferential view and review how pragmatic reasoning supports children's learning, comprehension, and use of language.

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Karasik, Vladimir I. « FACE AND REPUTATION : LINGUISTIC AND CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS ». RSUH/RGGU Bulletin. "Literary Theory. Linguistics. Cultural Studies" Series, n^o 8 (2022) : 170–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.28995/2686-7249-2022-8-170-181.

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The paper deals with reputation and face treated as emotional and rational evaluation and self-evaluation of a person correlating with their respect and self-respect. The most important features of respect/disrespect reflect its deontic character and focus on the correlation of respect/disrespect and affection/disaffection. The emotional component of this attitude is its basis, whereas the rational component is its addition. The feeling of self-respect is actualized if it may be threatened. The descriptions of reputation usually contain expressed or inferred motivation for such attitude. Reputation may be a masque meant to hide real motives of behavior. The correlation between respect/disrespect and reputation may be presented as an opposition of process Vs result and content Vs form when we describe the attitude to a person, or group, or organization. Reputation is connected with external signs – someone’s good or bad name. A speech act description of reputation and face includes the contradistinction of sincere and formal behavior in a situation of a threat to respect and selfrespect of a person. Conceptualization of face is predominantly determined by the norms of certain communities in a certain epoch.

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Balavi, Rasoul. « The Strategy of Conviction and its Semantic Functions in Talal Al-Joneibi's Poetry ». Dirasat : Human and Social Sciences 49, n^o 4 (30 juillet 2022) : 14–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.35516/hum.v49i4.2029.

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Conviction is linguistic connecting act to convey the message from the sender to the receiver to affect his behavior and subjecting the proposed idea. Poets have used conventions to affect on the readers and their interactions with the text. from these poets we found Talal Al-Joneibi, in terms of his field of systematic behavior, successfull in using conviction in his texts. He watches over emotional and psychological areas of his readers. And this shows his expertis in knowing the psychology of the reader and also using ways of conviction that affect the reader's behavior. This descriptive analytical study focuses on the ways of conviction in Al-Joneibi's poetry book "Emirates in heart". The research concludes that the poet cares about strategies and speech technicalities to excite the reader to get affected by the displayed perspective. He also tries to convince the reader and affect him through a discoursal language based on rational proofs and logical reasons to reach the desirable purpose.

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Salter, Michael. « The transitional space of public inquiries : The case of the Australian Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse ». Australian & ; New Zealand Journal of Criminology 53, n^o 2 (26 novembre 2019) : 213–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0004865819886634.

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This paper argues that the uncertain public status of victim narratives of sexual abuse has inhibited the information sharing and dialogue necessary for policy reform and transformative change. Through an integration of public sphere theory and relational psychoanalysis, the paper identifies the need for a transitional space for the explication of sexual abuse narratives in order to bridge the gap between private suffering and public understanding. The Australian Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse provides a case study of a transitional mechanism, with a focus on its instantiation of a therapeutic politics and the resultant synthesis of the rational–critical dimensions of public speech with the emotional depth and substance of traumatic catharsis. The paper suggests that public inquiries are uniquely positioned to act as transitional spaces between the personal and political dimensions of traumatic experience, while recognizing the challenges posed to this space by the contemporary bureaucratic state.

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Onea, Edgar. « Answering overt wh-questions ». Journal of Uralic Linguistics 1, n^o 2 (17 novembre 2022) : 154–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/jul.00008.one.

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Abstract It-clefts in English, their French and German counterparts and pre-verbal focus in Hungarian have been claimed to be semantically related constructions. For example, É. Kiss (1998) terms them identificational focus and Destruel et al. (2015) coin them inquiry-terminating (IT) constructions. Despite their similarities, these constructions also exhibit one major distributional difference: Clefts are usually no natural answers to overt wh-questions whereas pre-verbal focus in Hungarian constitutes the default question-answering strategy. In this paper, I show that it is possible to account for this difference within the Rational Speech Act model (Frank & Goodman 2012) without assuming any semantic differences between the structures. Thereby, I capitalize on the number of alternative constructions that could be used to answer overt wh-questions in the various languages under discussion and on a remarkable semantic property of the constructions under discussion that relates to the way they encode exhaustivity.

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Bornedal, Peter. « On the institution of the moral subject : on the commander and the commanded in Nietzsche's discussion of law ». Kriterion : Revista de Filosofia 54, n^o 128 (décembre 2013) : 439–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/s0100-512x2013000200010.

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The article discusses how Nietzsche understands the institution of law and morals in distinction to Kant and the Christian tradition. It argues that Nietzsche to a large extent is inspired by the paradigm-shift toward a evolutionary biological thinking introduced by several of his peers in the late 19th century, among else F. A. Lange, who sees this shift as a sobering scientific-materialistic alternative to Kant. In Nietzsche, the Kantian moral imperative is replaced with a notion of a morality emerging thanks to historical, or pre-historical, civilizational processes, imposed on a feebleminded human without any inherent rational dispositions to obey Law. It is also a process, which rather than universalizing the human, splits it in a duality where one part obeys old immediate self-interests and another part obeys new 'commands,' having been shouted 'into the ear' by a so-called 'commander.' The compliance with law takes two radically different forms in Nietzsche: servile and mediocre individuals need to be exposed to discipline and punishment in order to adopt Law; while so-called 'sovereign' individuals are able to impose law upon themselves. The figure of the 'sovereign' has consequently been an issue for vigorous debate in especially the Anglo-Saxon tradition of Nietzsche research, since his apparent 'respect for law' and 'sense of duty' reiterate typical Kantian qualities. Relating to these discussions, I suggest that Nietzsche's 'sovereign' (in one context) is identical his 'commander' (in other contexts). When the 'sovereign' as such imposes law upon himself and others, his act is conventional and arbitrary (like language in Saussure), and is rather irrational than rational as in Kant. His will is not a good will, nor a rational will with a vision of human autonomy. His command of himself and others is a performative, thus without truth-value (like illocutionary speech-acts in Austin and Searle).

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Kline, Melissa, Laura Schulz et Edward Gibson. « Partial Truths : Adults Choose to Mention Agents and Patients in Proportion to Informativity, Even If It Doesn’t Fully Disambiguate the Message ». Open Mind 2, n^o 1 (décembre 2017) : 1–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/opmi_a_00013.

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How do we decide what to say to ensure our meanings will be understood? The Rational Speech Act model (RSA; Frank & Goodman, 2012 ) asserts that speakers plan what to say by comparing the informativity of words in a particular context. We present the first example of an RSA model of sentence-level (who-did-what-to-whom) meanings. In these contexts, the set of possible messages must be abstracted from entities in common ground (people and objects) to possible events (Jane eats the apple, Marco peels the banana), with each word contributing unique semantic content. How do speakers accomplish the transformation from context to compositional, informative messages? In a communication game, participants described transitive events (e.g., Jane pets the dog), with only two words, in contexts where two words either were or were not enough to uniquely identify an event. Adults chose utterances matching the predictions of the RSA even when there was no possible fully “successful” utterance. Thus we show that adults’ communicative behavior can be described by a model that accommodates informativity in context, beyond the set of possible entities in common ground. This study provides the first evidence that adults’ language production is affected, at the level of argument structure, by the graded informativity of possible utterances in context, and suggests that full-blown natural speech may result from speakers who model and adapt to the listener’s needs.

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Skoczeń, Izabela, et Aleksander Smywiński-Pohl. « Numeral terms and the predictive potential of Bayesian updating ». Intercultural Pragmatics 18, n^o 3 (1 juin 2021) : 359–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/ip-2021-2015.

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Abstract In the experiment described in the paper Noah Goodman & Andreas Stuhlmüller. 2013. Knowledge and im-plicature: Modeling language understanding as social cognition. Topics in Cognitive Science 5(1). 173–184, empirical support was provided for the predictive power of the Rational Speech Act (RSA) model concerning the interpretation of utterances employing numerals in uncertainty contexts. The RSA predicts a Bayesian interdependence between beliefs about the probability distribution of the occurrence of an event prior to receiving information and the updated probability distribution after receiving information. In this paper we analyze whether the RSA is a descriptive or a normative model. We present the results of two analogous experiments carried out in Polish. The first experiment does not replicate the original empirical results. We find that this is due to different answers on the prior probability distribution. However, the model predicts the different results on the basis of different collected priors: Bayesian updating predicts human reasoning. By contrast, the second experiment, where the answers on the prior probability distribution are as predicted, is a replication of the original results. In light of these results we conclude that the RSA is a robust, descriptive model, however, the experimental assumptions pertaining to the experimental setting adopted by Goodman and Stuhlmüller are normative.

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Sazhyna, Alla. « Creativity оf Advertising Aesthetics in Generating New Fiction Texts ». Pitannâ lìteraturoznavstva, n^o 104 (27 décembre 2021) : 182–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.31861/pytlit2021.104.182.

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The article under studies deals with the creative possibilities of an advertising text within modern arts. It is generally recognized that the main purpose of advertising is to turn a recipient into a consumer. The advertisers achieve this goal through implementing the four consecutive stages of affecting the receptive consciousness: drawing attention, arousing interest, stimulating desire and encouraging action, which requires a perfect form of presentation. For successful achievement of the above results, the advertisers use rational, emotional, logical, psychological and aesthetic means of persuasion all together. Consequently, advertisement, as a peculiar synthetic type of “aestheticized pragmatics”, does not reject the aesthetic constituent. In the course of perceiving an advertising text, there might occur certain teleological deviations: when the aesthetic component of advertising comes out in the receptive consciousness in the first place, the advertising text can acquire new semantic parameters and be transformed into a qualitatively different text. In this way, most advertising slogans are usually considered. Being separated from the original text, they turn into independent messages (such as proverbs, sayings, phraseologisms) and enter the flow of the contemporary communicative space of speech. Other phenomena, generated by the aesthetics of an advertising text, are numerous anecdotes and comedic sketches, which parody plot structures, themes, images and specifics of the speech of advertising texts, as well as act as autonomous genres. The article under discussion regards the generation of a new text as a free game within aesthetic communication, whereby the author (the advertiser) and the recipient (the consumer) become equally successful partners. In addition, the article contains the analysis of certain samples, in which the aesthetics of an advertising text annihilates its immanent utilitarian form and creates an independent fiction text. Thus, the aesthetic component of an advertising text turns into a particular creative motive, a driving force in generating new literary texts.

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Legault, Georges-Auguste, Johane Patenaude, Suzanne Kocsis Bédard, Jean-Pierre Béland, Christian Bellemare, Pierre Dagenais, Charles-Etienne Daniel et Hubert Gagnon. « PP113 Towards A Systemic Approach of Value Judgment In HTA ». International Journal of Technology Assessment in Health Care 34, S1 (2018) : 108–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0266462318002519.

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Introduction:The fact that HTA is a value-laden process is recognized in the literature. This is one of the reasons for promoting a better integration of ethics in HTA processes. Although what is meant by value-judgment (VJ) and how it can be used in HTA is not clear for some authors; others have proposed the elicitation of implicit VJs, to make them more explicit, as one way for clarifying the role ethics may play in HTA. In order to clarify what a VJ is, a conceptual analysis is needed to distinguish it from a factual-judgment and see how they diverge on certain aspects and converge on others.Methods:The distinction between VJs and factual-judgments was debated in the fifties. At the core of the philosophy of language was a distinction between factual-scientific assertions about facts, considered objective, and VJs on what is right/wrong-good/bad, considered subjective. In speech-act theory these distinctions were treated as two different operations: assertive and evaluative. A conceptual analysis of VJs, considering them as specific speech-acts, was used for clarifying/deciphering the role of VJs in HTA.Results:VJs are intrinsically embedded in decision-making since they are the reasons justifying decisions. This is why implicit VJs can be identified at every decision-step in the HTA process. Assessment is usually considered objective while appraisal seems subjective. Since VJs are entrenched in the decisions taken throughout the assessment process, the results are not completely objective. Ethical analysis also distinguishes two types of VJs, those based on normative criteria and those based on various degrees of value actualization. Furthermore, since evaluation requires criteria based on a rational process, VJs are not totally subjective.Conclusions:Elicitation of VJs in HTA is one way of integrating ethics in HTA and offers decision-makers a more thorough picture of the ethical issues involved in their decision.

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Gridina, Tatiana A., et Nadezhda I. Konovalova. « Linguocreative potential of ergonominations in the aspect of their generation and perception : an experimental study ». Journal of Psycholinguistic, n^o 2 (27 juin 2022) : 30–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.30982/2077-5911-2022-52-2-30-45.

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The article analyzes the repertoire of ergonymic nominations in the light of their linguocreative specificity. The associative content of ergonyms in the everyday consciousness of various groups of the urban population has been experimentally verified. The nature of interpretation of a verbal sign is considered as a speech-thinking “reflexive act” reflecting the value paradigm of a specific linguistic personality. As a material for conducting free and directed associative experiments, the names of public catering establishments and entertainment centers of Yekaterinburg are used. Linguocreative processes of creation and perception of ergonymic nominations are considered in the light of the ratio of the nominator’s intention and depth “reading” (interpretation) of the name by the addressee. Ergonyms based on the language game bear a special burden in this regard. A complex model of the analysis of ergonyms in the aspect of their impact on the addressee’s consciousness is presented (taking into account the nominative technique of creating an ergonym, as well as criteria for its rational and emotional evaluation by the addressee). The parameters of the creativity of the name that are relevant for the bearers of urban culture are highlighted: 1) originality, unusual, game component); 2) correspondence of the name to the purpose of the object; 3) modernity of the name; compliance with the tastes of the addressee (his/her language priorities); 4) graphic design of the name that supports its decoding.

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Rahmawati, Nailur, Retno Purnama Irawati, Muchlisin Nawawi et Sulimah Sulimah. « ARABIC LANGUAGE DIRECTIVE SPEECH ACT IN SALAHUDDIN AL-AYYUBI MOVIE ». Arabi : Journal of Arabic Studies 5, n^o 2 (31 décembre 2020) : 142. http://dx.doi.org/10.24865/ajas.v5i2.292.

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A movie can be used as an effective and feasible medium for delivering messages; this served as the study’s rationale. This research acquired communicative speeches in the Salahuddin Al Ayyubi movie. This research aimed to explore two objectives: to describe the form of directive speech acts and to find out the functions of the directive speech acts. The techniques used in this research comprised: (1) uninvolved conversation observation; (2) recording; (3) transcription; and (4) note-taking. The results showed that (1) there were six forms of directive speech acts in the dialogues of "Saladin al-Ayyubi", i.e., imperative, request, invitation, advice, criticism, and prohibition; (2) the functions of directive speech acts in the dialogues of "Saladin al -Ayyubi” are quite varied. The imperative functions had 83 speech data. The request function comprised 52 speech data. The invitation function involved 33 speech data. The advice function consisted of 39 speech data. The criticism act had 13 speech data. The prohibition function consisted of 23 speech data.

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Palmieri, Rudi, et Johanna Miecznikowski. « Predictions in economic-financial news ». Argumentation in Journalism 5, n^o 1 (24 mars 2016) : 48–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/jaic.5.1.03pal.

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Compared to other domains of media discourse, economic-financial news contain a considerable amount of speech acts regarding future events, in particular predictions. This can be explained by their specific institutional context, financial markets, where investors constantly seek to single out gain opportunities and to correctly assess their risk. One of the crucial factors making economic-financial predictions worthy of being considered in investment decisions is argumentation, in particular the extent to which the predicted proposition follows from a plausible and acceptable reasoning. Starting from a corpus of 50 articles of the Italian economic-financial press, we consider the inferential dimension of prediction-oriented arguments, focusing on the locus, i.e. the ontological relation on which the connection between the argument(s) and the predictive conclusion rests. All predictions found in the corpus were manually annotated with the software UAM Corpus Tool. For each of them we identified the source, which could be either the journalist him/herself or a third party, typically financial analysts or corporate actors. We distinguished mere predictive opinions from predictive standpoints, i.e. predictions for which the journalist advances one or more supportive arguments (either confirmatory of refutatory). For the latter category, we identified the locus referring to an adaptation of the taxonomy outlined by Rigotti (2009). The findings highlight in particular the following three interesting aspects: (1) in predictions, journalists reinforce their stance by plausible justifications, but weaken it at the same time by marking it as uncertain and/or by using reported speech or evidential means to reduce their responsibility for the predictive speech act; (2) the justification of a predictive standpoint, by the journalist or by third parties, is mostly based on loci of causality, in particular on the locus from efficient cause, the locus from final cause and complex forms of causality where the involvement of rational agents is implied but defocused; (3) moreover, journalists refer to the predictive opinions of experts or corporate insiders to activate the locus from authority, either by explicit argumentation or implicitly, by reporting speech from reliable sources. Our study suggests that the role of predictions in financial news is not so much that of giving any straightforward advice to investors, but rather that of providing chunks of sound argumentative reasoning, including both supportive evidence and rebuttals or refutatory moves, that the investor-reader might apply and combine in the highly uncertain context of financial markets. Overall, our findings shed light on how financial journalists fulfil the function of information intermediaries in finance.

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Shahzad, Hina Fatima, Adil Ali Saleem, Amna Ahmed, Kiran Shehzadi et Hafeez Ur Rehman Siddiqui. « A Review on Physiological Signal Based Emotion Detection ». Annals of Emerging Technologies in Computing 5, n^o 3 (1 juillet 2021) : 24–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.33166/aetic.2021.03.003.

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Emotions are feelings that are the result of biochemical processes in the body that are influenced by a variety of factors such as one's state of mind, situations, experiences, and surrounding environment. Emotions have an impact on one's ability to think and act. People interact with each other to share their thoughts and feelings. Emotions play a vital role in the field of medicine and can also strengthen the human computer interaction. There are different techniques being used to detect emotions based on facial features, texts, speech, and physiological signals. One of the physiological signal breathing is a parameter which represents an emotion. The rational belief that different breathing habits are correlated with different emotions has expanded the evidence for a connection between breathing and emotion. In this manuscript different recent investigations about the emotion recognition using respiration patterns have been reviewed. The aim of the survey is to sum up the latest technologies and techniques to help researchers develop a global solution for emotional detection system. Various researchers use benchmark datasets and few of them created their own dataset for emotion recognition. It is observed that many investigators used invasive sensors to acquire respiration signals that makes subject uncomfortable and conscious that affects the results. The numbers of subjects involved in the studies reviewed are of the same age and race which is the reason why the results obtained in those studies cannot be applied to diverse population. There is no single global solution exist.

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Panesar, Kulvinder. « An Evaluation Of A Linguistically Motivated Conversational Software Agent Framework ». Journal of Computer-Assisted Linguistic Research 3, n^o 1 (16 juillet 2019) : 41. http://dx.doi.org/10.4995/jclr.2019.11118.

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<p>This paper presents a critical evaluation framework for a linguistically motivated conversational software agent (CSA). The CSA prototype investigates the integration, intersection and interface of the language, knowledge, and speech act constructions (SAC) based on a grammatical object, and the sub-model of belief, desires and intention (BDI) and dialogue management (DM) for natural language processing (NLP). A long-standing issue within NLP CSA systems is refining the accuracy of interpretation to provide realistic dialogue to support human-to-computer communication. This prototype constitutes three phase models: (1) a linguistic model based on a functional linguistic theory – Role and Reference Grammar (RRG), (2) an Agent Cognitive Model with two inner models: (a) a knowledge representation model, (b) a planning model underpinned by BDI concepts, intentionality and rational interaction, and (3) a dialogue model. The evaluation strategy for this Java-based prototype is multi-approach driven by grammatical testing (English language utterances), software engineering and agent practice. A set of evaluation criteria are grouped per phase model, and the testing framework aims to test the interface, intersection and integration of all phase models. The empirical evaluations demonstrate that the CSA is a proof-of-concept, demonstrating RRG’s fitness for purpose for describing, and explaining phenomena, language processing and knowledge, and computational adequacy. Contrastingly, evaluations identify the complexity of lower level computational mappings of NL – agent to ontology with semantic gaps, and further addressed by a lexical bridging solution.</p>

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Sikos, Les, Noortje J. Venhuizen, Heiner Drenhaus et Matthew W. Crocker. « Reevaluating pragmatic reasoning in language games ». PLOS ONE 16, n^o 3 (17 mars 2021) : e0248388. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0248388.

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The results of a highly influential study that tested the predictions of the Rational Speech Act (RSA) model suggest that (a) listeners use pragmatic reasoning in one-shot web-based referential communication games despite the artificial, highly constrained, and minimally interactive nature of the task, and (b) that RSA accurately captures this behavior. In this work, we reevaluate the contribution of the pragmatic reasoning formalized by RSA in explaining listener behavior by comparing RSA to a baseline literal listener model that is only driven by literal word meaning and the prior probability of referring to an object. Across three experiments we observe only modest evidence of pragmatic behavior in one-shot web-based language games, and only under very limited circumstances. We find that although RSA provides a strong fit to listener responses, it does not perform better than the baseline literal listener model. Our results suggest that while participants playing the role of the Speaker are informative in these one-shot web-based reference games, participants playing the role of the Listener only rarely take this Speaker behavior into account to reason about the intended referent. In addition, we show that RSA’s fit is primarily due to a combination of non-pragmatic factors, perhaps the most surprising of which is that in the majority of conditions that are amenable to pragmatic reasoning, RSA (accurately) predicts that listeners will behave non-pragmatically. This leads us to conclude that RSA’s strong overall correlation with human behavior in one-shot web-based language games does not reflect listener’s pragmatic reasoning about informative speakers.

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Joukovskaia, Anna. « Bureaucracy : a Shape-Memory Word ». ISTORIYA 13, n^o 11 (121) (2022) : 0. http://dx.doi.org/10.18254/s207987840023170-6.

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Terminological debates, leaving aside the problem of the translation of terms, usually revolve around the definition of words. Less frequently discussed is the question of whether a particular lexeme is appropriate as a form for a given definition. Present-day historians of the Russian administration of the 16th — 18th centuries can be divided into two groups: those who freely use the term bureaucracy to describe the Muscovite and early imperial systems of administration, and those who consider it unsuitable for this purpose. However, the disagreement is rooted not so much in different scientific definitions (according to Marx, according to Weber) or differences in empirical description of the subject, but rather in a deep psychological acceptance or rejection of the very word bureaucracy as a scientific term. Some historians insist on the need for the researcher to banish from his mind all negative associations connected with the common linguistic usage of this lexeme, while others resist to this. The purpose of this article is to explore the history of the word bureaucratie in French during the decade of the French Revolution; to show, on the basis of the monuments of parliamentary eloquence, periodicals, literature and contemporary dictionaries, that this word was used as an expressive sign (according to Charles Bally terminology); and to remind thus the origin of that powerful negative emotional charge, which still remains in most European languages (especially in Russian) and prevents the word bureaucracy from being transformed from an expressive sign into a scientific term. The conclusion is that the word bureaucracy is still used as a performative (a speech act equivalent to an action), which aims to reveal and stigmatize evil in the form of some vice of executive power. Given this fact, it is suggested that the lexeme may be more useful not as a term for a «rational form of domination» in Weberian paradigm, but as a key concept in the (historical) psychology applied to the phenomenon of public administration.

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Martínez-Flor, Alicia, et Vicente Beltrán-Palanques. « Teaching refusal strategies in the foreign language classroom : a focus on inductive-deductive treatments ». Journal of English Studies 11 (29 mai 2013) : 41. http://dx.doi.org/10.18172/jes.2616.

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The present paper attempts to present a pedagogical model for the integration of pragmatic competence in the foreign language classroom by following an inductive-deductive approach. For the sake of the current article, the pragmatic feature that has been chosen is the speech act of refusals. The rationale behind this selection is based on the fact that refusals are seen as a face-threatening act which may confront listeners’ expectations (Eslami 2010: 217). Hence, learners should obtain a particular pragmatic expertise to outperform refusals successfully and that is the reason why the teaching of this speech act should be integrated in foreign language settings.

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Lyons, Rena, et Margaret Rodden. « A Group Approach to the Management of Dysphonia ». Journal of Clinical Speech and Language Studies 4, n^o 1 (1 septembre 1994) : 36–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.3233/acs-1994-4105.

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A group approach to the management of dysphonia has been adopted in the Speech and Language Department of a Community Care Clinic. This paper outlines the rationale, format and results to-date. A group approach, where a supportive atmosphere exists has been found to facilitate change and is an effective means of working on such areas as relaxation, breathing and reduction of vocal abuse.

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Kornhauser, Marjorie E. « Doing the Full Monty : Will Publicizing Tax Information Increase Compliance ? » Canadian Journal of Law & ; Jurisprudence 18, n^o 1 (janvier 2005) : 95–117. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0841820900005518.

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Publicity of information is a fundamental principle of American democracy. Not only is it instrumental in increasing compliance with the laws, a necessity of any government, but also it is an essential element of the right to know-which itself is an aspect of the first amendment right to free speech. Unfortunately, publicity often conflicts with another fundamental right-the right to privacy. In regards to taxes, citizens essentially have two rights to know: a right to know what the tax laws are, and a right to know that these laws are being administered fairly. Publicity in the tax context traditionally means making tax return information public records in an attempt to ensure the fair administration of the tax laws. This type of publicity, however, generates intense hostility because taxpayers perceive it as a huge invasion of their privacy.After examining the pros and cons of traditional publicity of tax information, this Essay suggests that tax publicity be reconceived more broadly. Redefined in the dictionary sense of simply the transmission of information, tax publicity can include a wide array of communications, varying as to content and audience, which can better achieve publicity’s underlying goals with minimal invasions of privacy. A large portion of publicity in this broad sense can be-and should be-educational.The Essay outlines four publicity proposals to stimulate discussion. Three use the expanded definition of publicity and focus on individual taxpayers: an annual tax statement, a short booklet to accompany the 1040, called Know Your Taxes, and an annual W-4. These essentially educational programs should deliver tax information to taxpayers more effectively than currently occurs. The fourth, more controversial, proposal suggests partial publicity-in the traditional sense. It attempts, however, to minimize the customary objections to publicizing tax return information by reducing invasions of privacy.All the proposals will cost money, but probably less than the costs of enforcing compliance only through increased audits and litigation. They may also have psychic and political costs. Although recent studies show that more informed taxpayers are often more compliant, some of the information may trigger negative attitudes which would decrease compliance and/or create pressure for lower taxes.Regardless of whether taxpayer reactions to the increased information are positive or negative, the greater publicity proposed in the Essay could have salutary effects, especially if it occurred in the context of a rational debate by elected officials about tax policy (instead of the current inflammatory rhetorical sound bites). On the one hand, if taxpayers respond positively to publicity, compliance will increase. If they act negatively, and their hostility to taxes increase, at least the publicity will arm them with more precise information that will allow them to focus their objections to the income tax and thereby lobby more effectively for real tax reform.

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Donnelly, Carole A. « Utilizing an Educational Model in Speech-Language Pathology Programs in Schools ». Journal of Clinical Speech and Language Studies 2, n^o 1 (1 septembre 1992) : 50–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.3233/acs-1992-2106.

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Traditionally speech-language pathologists have utilized a medical model in providing services to children in schools. While not without merit,this model has limited effectiveness with children who in addition to their communication problems also exhibit academic difficulties. Many of these children show little ability to carry over their newly learned communication patterns into the classroom. This paper presents an alternative model of services delivery for school settings. A model of service delivery that is more inclusive is described. This educationally based model does not allow for serving children in isolation but rather utilizes a more inclusive approach. An educationally based model involves serving communicatively disordered children primarily in the classroom setting. This paper further presents a rationale for this type of service delivery. It also describes how the classroom teacher can be directly involved in assisting children with communication disorders. The role of the school curriculum is emphasised.

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Murphy, Carol-Anne. « Exploring Sentence Level Difficulties in Children with Specific Language Impairment (SLI) ». Journal of Clinical Speech and Language Studies 16, n^o 1 (1 septembre 2008) : 55–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.3233/acs-2008-16107.

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Psycholinguistic profiling of children with SLI using speech and single word processing models has yielded promising results in the assessment and remediation of phonological, semantic and literacy difficulties. Children with SLI can have problems with sentence comprehension and production. This theoretical paper outlines a rationale for applying Garrett’s (1980, 1982, 1988) model of sentence processing to understand their difficulties, with particular reference to the message (conceptual/inferential level), functional (content items-verb and its arguments) and positional levels (word forms and sentence frame) and predicts examples of the types of errors made by children with SLI at the different levels of the model with reference to relevant research literature.

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Cederman, Kaye. « Diluting Skills ? Sharing Knowledge ? What Does It Mean to Be the Speech & ; Language Therapist Within a Transdisciplinary Team ? » Journal of Clinical Speech and Language Studies 14, n^o 1 (1 septembre 2004) : 111–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.3233/acs-2004-14108.

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In Ireland over the last two years it has become apparent that Health Boards are progressively more interested in providing inclusive child health and disability services which work in a transdisciplinary way. Indeed the newly established Mid-Western Regional Child Development Centre and Early Intervention Services have instigated transdisciplinary, play-based assessments of a child’s cognitive, social-emotional, sensory-motor and communication areas. The rationale underpinning this method argues that when professionals get alongside the family to share roles and responsibilities and purposely cross disciplinary boundaries, all participants learn from each other and work together to progress the goals of each child and family. But what might be some of the implications of this ‘trans’ method of collaborative practice for speech & language therapists? The paper critically appraises transdisciplinary practices which are inclusive, holistic and non-hierarchical.

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Murza, Kimberly A., et Barbara J. Ehren. « Considering the Language Disorder Label Debate From a School Speech-Language Pathology Lens ». Perspectives of the ASHA Special Interest Groups 5, n^o 1 (21 février 2020) : 47–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1044/2019_persp-19-00077.

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Purpose The purpose of this article is to situate the recent language disorder label debate within a school's perspective. As described in two recent The ASHA Leader articles, there is international momentum to change specific language impairment to developmental language disorder . Proponents of this change cite increased public awareness and research funding as part of the rationale. However, it is unclear whether this label debate is worthwhile or even practical for the school-based speech-language pathologist (SLP). A discussion of the benefits and challenges to a shift in language disorder labels is provided. Conclusions Although there are important arguments for consistency in labeling childhood language disorder, the reality of a label change in U.S. schools is hard to imagine. School-based services are driven by eligibility through the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, which has its own set of labels. There are myriad reasons why advocating for the developmental language disorder label may not be the best use of SLPs' time, perhaps the most important of which is that school SLPs have other urgent priorities.

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Blaisdell, Jay, et James B. Talmage. « Impairment of Face-, Nose-, and Throat-related Structures Sixth Edition Approaches ». Guides Newsletter 24, n^o 2 (1 mars 2019) : 12–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/amaguidesnewsletters.2019.marapr03.

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Abstract Facial disfigurements, including those caused by burns (thermal, chemical, or electrical) or trauma, are rated in the AMA Guides to the Evaluation of Permanent Impairment (AMA Guides), Sixth Edition, Chapter 11, which also discusses occupational overexposure to sunlight, airborne chemicals, heavy metals, and allergens that may lead to head and neck cancers and degraded ability to breathe, chew, swallow, smell, or speak. Additional relevant impairments include those of olfaction and taste, chewing and swallowing, voice and speech, and of the upper respiratory passages. For upper air passage defects and voice and speech impairments, the evaluator assigns an impairment rating by selecting the relevant table or grid in Chapter 11 and then assigning the appropriate impairment class, as determined by the key factor. The patient's history is the key factor for upper air passage deficits, and the performance measures of audibility, intelligibility, and functional efficiency collectively act as the key factor for voice and speech impairments. Once they select an impairment class, evaluators can modify the rating within the impairment class by considering remaining variables. When rating the patient's ability to smell and taste or chew and swallow, raters do not use impairment classes or modifiers. Rather, they assign impairment within an allowable range largely based on professional judgment complemented by objective findings and a well-documented rationale.

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Mvurya, Mgala. « The Extent and Use of Artificial Intelligence to Achieve the Big Four Agenda in Kenya ». Multidisciplinary Journal of Technical University of Mombasa 1, n^o 1 (27 novembre 2020) : 1–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.48039/mjtum.v1i1.9.

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Artificial Intelligence (AI) is the human-like intelligence given to systems and demonstrated by machines in doing tasks associated with human intelligence. AI systems can therefore, think like humans, act like humans, think rationally or act rationally. AI systems are not only more powerful and more useful than ordinary computers, but they also solve complex emerging human problems. These systems can be used in areas such as medicine, to conduct guided surgery; transportation, for autonomous vehicle control; face recognition; speech recognition; decision making in agriculture, manufacturing and housing. The present study is a review of the AI technology trend. A search was conducted on literature, technology magazines, and other internet sources. A discussion is presented on how AI systems have been widely applied in the developed world and the extent these systems are being embraced in other countries like China to spar development. Thereafter, this paper discusses the extent to which AI has been applied in the specific areas that relate to the Kenyan Big Four Agenda. The contribution of this paper is a framework that the Kenya Government can adapt in the application AI’s world transforming technologies to achieve its development agenda. We discuss the challenges that hinder full application of the AI technology and present the way forward.

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Shriberg, Lawrence D. « Four New Speech and Prosody-Voice Measures for Genetics Research and Other Studies in Developmental Phonological Disorders ». Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 36, n^o 1 (février 1993) : 105–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1044/jshr.3601.105.

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Research in developmental phonological disorders, particularly emerging subgroup studies using behavioral and molecular genetics, requires qualitative and continuous measurement systems that meet a variety of substantive and psychometric assumptions. This paper reviews relevant issues underlying such needs and presents four measurement proposals developed expressly for causal-correlates research. The primary qualitative system is the Speech Disorders Classification System (SDCS), a 10-category nosology for dichoto mous and hierarchical-polychoto mous classification of speech disorders from 2 years of age through adulthood. The three quantitative measures for segmental and suprasegmental analyses are (a) the Articulation Competence Index (ACI), an interval-level severity index that adjusts a subject’s Percentage of Consonants Correct (PCC) score for the relative percentage of distortion errors; (b) Speech Profiles, a series of graphic-numeric displays that profile a subject’s or group’s severity-adjusted consonant and vowel-diphthong mastery and error patterns; and (c) the Prosody-Voice profile, a graphic-numeric display that Profiles a subject’s or group’s status on six suprasegmental domains divided into 31 types of inappropriate prosody-voice codes. All data for the four measures are derived from one sample of conversational speech, which obviates the limitations of citation-form testing; enables speech assessment as a qualitative, semi-continuous, and continuous trait over the life span; and provides a context for univariate and multivariate statistical analyses of phonetic, phonologic, prosodic, and language variables in multiage, multidialectal, and multicultural populations. Rationale, procedures, validity data, and examples of uses for each measure are presented.

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Masaoud, Alzobair A. Yahya. « Apology Strategies Among Libyan Learners of English at Omar Al-Mukhtar University ». International Journal of Linguistics 11, n^o 6 (5 novembre 2019) : 68. http://dx.doi.org/10.5296/ijl.v11i6.15960.

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A good body of research has been conducted to investigate the realization of apology speech act. Much of the literature investigated focused on western languages. The increase of research on apology has lead other non-western scholars to explore apology in their languages. However, fewer have addressed this issue in Arabic language varieties in general, and Libyan Arabic in particular. This has presented us with a challenge worthy of a deeper investigation. The rationale behind investigating apology as a speech act is to indicate how findings can be used to facilitate the way people of diverse socio-cultural backgrounds interact with each other. The aim of this study is to discuss selected points relating to the type and use of apology strategies in Libyan Arabic. The investigation is based on a corpus of Libyan apologies collected from fifty students at Omar Al-Mukhtar University (OMU). This article uses a Discourse Completion Test (DCT) that comprised 10 situations to elicit apology strategies from the participants. The findings indicated that the informants used the expression of remorse in situations in which the offended person was a friend, an elderly and a teacher/supervisor/boss who has some authority. A reasonable number of informants refused to admit responsibility for the harm and used explanations to put the blame on other sources. Strategies, such as self-blame, reparation, intensification, and use of Allah’s name were also used in this study.The results of this paper, it is hoped, could have profound implications for researchers seeking to address this issue or any other area pertinent to inter-cultural communication further.

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Greenwood, Kate. « The Ban on “Off-Label” Pharmaceutical Promotion : Constitutionally Permissible Prophylaxis against False or Misleading Commercial Speech ? » American Journal of Law & ; Medicine 37, n^o 2-3 (juin 2011) : 278–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/009885881103700204.

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Critics of the Food & Drug Administration's ban on off-label promotion often claim that it violates the First Amendment because it suppresses pharmaceutical manufacturers' truthful speech about their legal—and beneficial—products. Characterizing the ban on off-label promotion in this way has more than rhetorical significance. Bans on truthful, non-misleading speech elicit special skepticism because of the belief that they “usually rest solely on the offensive assumption that the public will respond ‘irrationally’ to the truth.” The legislative history of the provisions of the Food Drug and Cosmetic Act that underlie the ban on off-label promotion, however, reveals that Congress was concerned that physicians were responding rationally to false and misleading promotional claims. In this Article, I explore the doctrinal questions raised by conceiving of the ban on off-label promotion not as a ban on “truthful speech to physicians” but instead as a prophylaxis against false and misleading pharmaceutical promotion. I review the evidence that false and misleading claims were commonplace before the ban's adoption and persist today, along with the enforcement challenges the FDA confronted at that time and would confront were the ban lifted, and conclude the government likely could develop the factual record necessary to establish that Congress' rejection of an after-the-fact case-by-case approach to combating false and misleading prescription drug promotion is constitutional.

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Wolański, Napoleon, et Anna Siniarska. « Perspektywiczne kierunki rozwoju biologii człowieka w Polsce, ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem auksologii ». Studia Ecologiae et Bioethicae 7, n^o 1 (30 juin 2009) : 7–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.21697/seb.2009.7.1.01.

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Protoculture has already existed in animals and is manifested by using a natural object as a tool or by coping the habits of another animals being successful in doing something. At the beginning it was the practice of everyday life, the act of survival, what can be understood as “technique”. After that the process of rational cognition (theory) takes place, and innovative theories propagate the “science” development. Science discovers rules in our nature and society as well as in human activity called culture. Science is a certain sphere of consciousness including self-consciousness, thus science could be created together with consciousness, as a product of thinking mind. Such mind is possessed by humans only. Probably, science has been developed till nowadays following the technological progress. Most likely generalizations of tools behaviors and social contacts have caused brain development and favored abstraction, future vision and articular speech. Since the beginning of Civilization, science had been created not because there was a demand for it, but as the reflection on human life, the result of technical achievements, and as the answer for the question “why does it happen?” When man has protected his basic requirements and received nutritional surplus above daily needs, he has gained a little free time for contemplation, and his reflections have directed the civilization development. In this case, the only way: “thinking is the action” is not adequate. Science, as a turn, causes a revolution in technology, but does not serve for small engineering improvements, as revolutions have also a destructive face. As long as evolution strengthens and improves existing system, revolution destroys the old system, and the new one may fail to be good. If science has been interfered in technique continuously, the technical progress which makes our life easier would have been stopped. Science takes into account cognition of existence, as well as, the realities which are still unknown according to their being and functions. Propagation of knowledge belongs to education, whereas invention of artifacts (things which do not come into existence simultaneously) belongs to technique, engineering and art. The main aim of science is the summary (generalization) of technical and engineering achievements, which may serve as verification of the process of cognition. Science, as a tool of intellectual cognition, should provide a better contact with surrounding world, nature and universe. It should also serve human development and help to understand the sense of our existence, promote ability of thinking and intellectual self-realization. In the context of previous considerations, there are four, very important problems in human biology, especially in auxology. The first one concerns directions of studies on the basis of current information concerning mechanism of ontogeny causing variation in body build and functions of contemporary human populations. The second one deals with dissemination of knowledge in human biology, on the university and general levels. The third problem is about application of human biology and ecology in medical and pedagogic practice, as well as concerns the evaluation of planned engineering actions, changes in human life environment. There is also a fourth problem, which varies in particular countries, and it includes the state of each scientific anthropological atmosphere. In most of countries, physical anthropology is still understood as natural history on Man, his variation in time and space, and as the biological base for social practices. However, the main accent which included anthropogenesis, rasogenesis, and ethnogenesis has changed into mechanisms of adaptation to changing environment (also understood as living conditions and social surroundings) during ontogeny, and causes the mechanisms of evolution (phylogeny is recapitulated during the first phases of ontogeny).

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Kimelman, Reuven. « The Seduction of Eve and the Exegetical Politics of Gender ». Biblical Interpretation 4, n^o 1 (1996) : 1–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/156851596x00095.

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AbstractThis reading of the Eve and Adam story focuses on the consequential role of the woman and her linkage to the serpent. Her rapid switch from defender to transgressor of the divine command shows that the idea of disobeying God was not instigated exclusively by the serpent. Since the serpent does not get her to act out of character, he does not function outside of her, but provides a rationale for her to extend previous inklings. This function of the serpent is based on the differences between the original divine command and her rendering. It is supported by the reader's awareness that her Hebrew name Havva sounds like its cognates hivyah and hivvah which mean serpent and speech, respectively. The talking serpent becomes the inner Eve. Thus, the story is not one of humanity coming of age but a parable of the human condition. Our heroine is nothing less than Every(wo)man. Her representative status explains why the story features both woman and serpent, why the serpent talks specifically to woman, why of all the ancient epics of origins Genesis alone gives the creation of woman separate billing, and why Genesis underscores the commonality between man and woman. By highlighting the significance of the woman, this reading makes for the remarkable combination of authoritarian theology and egalitarian anthropology.

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Sanikidze, Inga. « Psycholinguistic paradigm of biblical damnation in ancient Georgian Historical Documents ». Signo 47, n^o 88 (3 janvier 2022) : 165–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.17058/signo.v47i88.17397.

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Any language as a psycholinguistic entity does not only accumulates in itself the emotional layers but also explores the relevant verbal ways for expressing these emotions. A speech act or a written form is a visible product of this emerging process. Therefore, language is generated as a concurrent processes result. Linguistics increases the psychology extent, describing language phenomenon facts occurring either in oral or written forms. Any of the national languages material has an inherent value reflecting its systematic organization, its expression extent, psychologically stable or paradigmatic patterns, or is subject to common psychological changes occurring in a group of a particular language native speakers. Both oral and written damnation forms should be considered as one of such oldest psycholinguistic proto-paradigms. Special focus will be given to the verbal model of Biblical (particularly, the Old Testament) curse formulae, attested in old Georgian historical documents (IX-XII cc.). Damnation as a psycho-verbal model is supposed to be originating from the mankind earliest existence period, when a human being gained a solid word power understanding, matching it against physical abilities to a certain extent. Damnation as a verbal material has been manifested in written monuments also and its psycho-emotional rationale intended, first and foremost, to instill fear (specifically, fear of God), and to have God-fearing readers. Damnation problem in the literature recent findings are both Biblical and Georgian historical materials (records), revealing the so-called damnation texts particularly meticulous choice: it is a fact that it intends to cause anxiety in readers.

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Shapovalova, Olha, Svitlana Parfilova et Nataliіa Pavlushchenko. « THEORETICAL ASPECTS OF BUILDING INDEPENDENCE IN CHILDREN OF SENIOR PRESCHOOL AGE IN GAME ACTIVITIES ». Psychological and Pedagogical Problems of Modern School, n^o 2(8) (27 octobre 2022) : 6–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.31499/2706-6258.2(8).2022.268043.

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The article substantiates the current problems of raising independent children of senior preschool age in game activities. It has been established that upbringing of preschoolers consists in self-control of their activities, shortcomings and defects. Behind this short definition stands a huge number of abilities and skills: organizational, general-speech, cognitive, control-evaluative, that a child should acquire. It has been proved that in order to work independently, a child of senior preschool age must be able to organize his work, carry it out rationally, check the quality of the work done.Indicators of a child’s independence are outlined, which are reflected in three components: cognitive (knowledge, rules, norms, ideas about one’s traits and skills); emotional-value (a system of feelings related to one’s own states, needs, self-esteem, personal meaning); behavioral (willingness to act in a certain way, the ability to regulate one’s own behavior, analyze the situation and personal values). It has been established that each of these components is particularly important for the formation of the “self” of an individual. The leading importance of game activities in the structure of cognitive tasks is analyzed, attention to the wide use of the game environment enables children to show all forms of social and cognitive activity.One of the peculiarities of building children’s independence is the ability to make free choices, which is associated with self-development and self-creation. The basis of the choice of a child of senior preschool age is always game activity. Children are characterized by the desire to take on the role of an “adult” – this is where their desire for independence is manifested. While playing, they try to bring into the game what they observe in the surrounding life.It has been established that the ability to act quickly in new social conditions depends on the communication abilities and skills of senior preschool children, the sufficient level of which allows the child to be confident in himself. Throughout preschool childhood, children develop a need for communication with an adult, inclusion in various types of game activities, which contributes to the formation of an emotional and value attitude to reality and to oneself, self-knowledge, self-affirmation, assimilation of humanistic values, development of creative abilities and imagination. Keywords: independence; upbringing; children of senior preschool age; game activity; cognitive independence; communication abilities and skills; self-development; self-knowledge; self-affirmation; assimilation of humanistic values; development of creative abilities and imagination.

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Ni Chuileann, Susan Jennifer, et Jean Quigley. « Recognizing voice : the child with autism spectrum disorder ». Journal of Assistive Technologies 10, n^o 3 (19 septembre 2016) : 140–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/jat-04-2015-0011.

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Purpose This paper assesses the ability of the minimally verbal child with autism to recognise their own voice. The rationale for this study rests in recent advances in technology aimed at making the voice of speech generating devices (SGDs) sound more like the child using them (van Santen and Black, 2009). The purpose of this paper is to investigate the child’s ability to actually recognise the sound of their own voice in a series of short experiments using computer-based methodology. Design/methodology/approach Using a voice-face matching computerised paradigm, the performance of 33 children with autism was compared to that of 27 children with developmental delay (DD), and 33 typically developing (TD) children. The children were matched for verbal and non-verbal ability and a training period was conducted prior to the main test to ensure children’s understanding of what was expected of them. Findings The findings of this study suggest that the child with autism recognise the sound of their own voice at test, but with much greater difficulty than age-and-ability matched comparison groups. The implications of this finding are useful for researchers in the field of speech mimicry technology and manufacturers of SGD software packages. The paper also provides empirical insights about how the child with autism may process voice in their everyday social interactions. Research limitations/implications Some limitations to this study exist, for instance, there were only a small number of presentations involving self-voice in this task. This may have over simplified the process for the young TD children and the children with DD. Nevertheless, it is striking that despite being matched for non-verbal mental age, the children with autism performed significantly less well than either of the other two groups of children. However, future studies would benefit from adjusting the number of presentations of voice and face accordingly. It is also important to note that for some children with autism the simultaneous presentation of faces and voices may act more as an interference effect (Cook and Wilding, 1997; Joassin et al., 2004) than a facilitation effect (Molholm et al., 2002). Future studies may wish to test a subgroup on voice recognition without the aid of visual prompts. Practical implications The paper includes implications for the type of voice children with autism may prefer to use when communicating via a SGD. The authors suggest that if the child does not recognise or prefer the sound of their own natural voice on such devices, partial or complete abandonment of the SGD may occur. Originality/value This paper fulfils an identified need to research how children’s abilities and preferences can be taken into account at the point of decision making for particular communication tools.

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Nielsen, Helge Baden. « Et skabelsesteologisk perspektiv på Danne-Virke ». Grundtvig-Studier 40, n^o 1 (1 janvier 2008) : 44–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.7146/grs.v40i1.16003.

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The “Danne-Virke” Viewed in the Perspective of “Creation” TheologyBy Helge Baden Nielsenis a paper read to the Annual Conference of the GS on 14. January 1988. Its theme is Grundtvig’s alternative to the transcendental idealism of German philosophy that prevailed in Denmark during the better part of Grundtvig’s lifetime. The first part of the paper is devoted to other angles on the “Danne-Virke” in the literature on Grundtvig, be it a literary approach as with Flemming Lundgreen-Nielsen, or one in terms of the history of Grundtvig’s personal development as with Kaj Thaning in Grundtvig-Studier 1953. In this context Baden Nielsen thinks it vital to emphasize that any dividing-up of Grundtvig’s work into periods tend to obscure an implicit continuity in Grundtvig’s thinking that stems from his position as a theologian. The Bible was the very air he breathed, and here his thinking began in the opinion of Baden Nielsen. That also holds true of Nordens Mytologi 1808. According to his almanac for 1813 he read the New Testament five times during that year. In the last instance he was a Christian thinker who fought to get his message through, whether he worked as a priest, a historian, or a philosopher, or for that matter as a budding poet, inspired by the poetics of Romanticism. His development means that his theological insights are deepened so as to illuminate still wider areas of experience. What has been described as conversions and spiritual breaks are often something external: changes in his method of working or in the way he faces the world and the contemporary age. An example is his sermon for Saint Stephen’s Day 1815. Now he wants to implicate faith in a new way, in human affairs as well as in his thinking. With reference to everyday speech and elementary human experience he wishes to establish the Judaeo-Christian doctrine of revelation as irrefutably true. But in essence his position is as before. His basic assumption is the idea of man as created in God’s image. Consequently he holds by the anthropology of Creation theology as did Luther. He wanted to expose as untenable the school of philosophy that had influenced the intellectual elite. If one gets “wed” to a particular way of philosophizing, the result may be that the very scope and independence of theology will be undermined. As Maker God is not remote, but near at hand, speaking to man through creation and history. Concurring with Henning Høirup Baden Nielsen thinks Grundtvig’s assessment of philosophical idealism highly accurate, whether man exist by virtue o/himself (being independent) or, at least, in his own right (being free in the strictest sense of the word), for that is what it is all about, as Grundtvig puts it in the Danne-Virke I, p. 114.According to Baden Nielsen Thaning’s contention that in the Danne-Virke Grundtvig gets stuck or runs out of energy is not strictly correct. It would be truer to say, according to Baden Nielsen, that he took his work of enlightenment and clarification as far as it was beneficial to himself. Any true philosophy about man Grundtvig holds to be historical. In the view of Baden Nielsen, such a historical philosophy (“vidskab”) reflects man’s struggle to understand himself as one who exists. The following quote by Grundtvig contains the gist of his anthropology:“...when man exists, neither by virtue of himself or in his own right, when he is a creature, ... then all activity within him and all works by him presuppose an impact made on his constituent parts, all spiritual activity and all spiritual works an impulse from the Spirit upon the body and consciousness. Physical activity presupposes a physical impulse, and a spiritual one conditions spiritual action, and all that is required in man is an aptitude for receiving impulses, which, on its side, cannot possibly exist by virtue of itself or in its own right, but presupposes a processing of any received impact.” (Danne-Virke II, p. 183 f.).Man’s identity is external to himself. It is Luther’s idea of “justitia aliena” expressed in terms of phenomenology in Baden Nielsen’s view. With my hand I feel that I have a body. There is an established relationship between an ego and a body. I have become aware of myself. This “clear idea” Grundtvig holds to be “exactly the rational self-consciousness, without which all self-contemplation and all clear ideas about things in their relation to each other and to us were impossible.” (Danne-Virke II p. 154). Thanks to this primary insight man has conceived of himself as dependent on time and space, “as temporary and dependent, being aware of the fact that he could not call himself independent without contradicting himself. ” (Ibid. p. 158) But according to Baden Nielsen this way of thinking rests entirely on one particular theological presumption that man was created in God’s image, that God made the world through His Word and made an image of Himself in man. (The reality of Creation and the reality of Incarnation). This theological presumption is not proved, but is confirmed by the very structure of human existence. Perception he sees as the condition making it possible for God to produce His own image, in which He may reveal himself to man.Perception is also fundamental to Grundtvig’s idea of Revelation: “Seeing is no act on the part of the seer, but perception. Not the mirror, but the object, or rather the progenitor of them both and their relationship produce the spectacle (or vision), and a spiritual vision that shows itself in a physical speculum is a revelation.” (D anne-Virke III, p. 282). This spiritual vision is communicated to man by the Word, which is registered by hearing, while being Spirit as well.Baden Nielsen detects a circular structure in Grundtvig’s reasoning: his initial assumption is faith in the reality of Creation, which is confirmed by experience and the very structure of human existence. And conversely: It is impossible for Grundtvig to proceed from temporal, physical human life without the problem of spirit and eternity being brought up by the antithesis of Truth and Untruth.According to Baden Nielsen Grundtvig’s main aim was to lay down the irrefutability of an understanding of life in terms of the idea of Creation. By illuminating the unseverable connection he found between Christianity and human life, he would be armed in a new way when he would again be called upon to vindicate Christianity in the pulpit. The insights he attained in the Danne- Virke were to prove fruitful for his sermons, while later on bringing about his discovery of his spiritual affinity with Irenaeus.

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Degen, Judith. « The Rational Speech Act Framework ». Annual Review of Linguistics 9, n^o 1 (7 novembre 2022). http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-linguistics-031220-010811.

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The past decade has seen the rapid development of a new approach to pragmatics that attempts to integrate insights from formal and experimental semantics and pragmatics, psycholinguistics, and computational cognitive science in the study of meaning: probabilistic pragmatics. The most influential probabilistic approach to pragmatics is the Rational Speech Act (RSA) framework. In this review, I demonstrate the basic mechanics and commitments of RSA as well as some of its standard extensions, highlighting the key features that have led to its success in accounting for a wide variety of pragmatic phenomena. Fundamentally, it treats language as probabilistic, informativeness as gradient, alternatives as context-dependent, and subjective prior beliefs (world knowledge) as a crucial facet of interpretation. It also provides an integrated account of the link between production and interpretation. I highlight key challenges for RSA, which include scalability, the treatment of the boundedness of cognition, and the incremental and compositional nature of language. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Linguistics, Volume 9 is January 2023. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.

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Kettner, Matthias. « Discourse Ethics beyond Apel and Habermas. A Realistic Relaunch ». Nordicum-Mediterraneum 6, n^o 1 (2011). http://dx.doi.org/10.33112/nm.6.1.4.

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Karl-Otto Apel, not Jürgen Habermas (as is often wrongly supposed) is the philosophical originator of discourse ethics (“Diskursethik”).The central contention of a discourse ethics, according to Apel’s lectures in the mid-sixties, is that some necessary presuppositions of discourse have universally valid moral content, or at least some content that is morally relevant, i.e. relevant for outlining a morality the principles of which have unassailable rational credentials. If any such presuppositions can be identified as governing the practice of rational argumentation, then for any interlocutor’s communicative intention in a debate, waiving such presuppositions will clash with the construal of that debate as rationally meaningful debate, since it involves the interlocutor in a kind of inconsistency that Apel (like Habermas), drawing on speech-act theory, conceptualizes as a “performative self-contradiction”.

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Hitchcock, David. « The Significance of Informal Logic for Philosophy ». Informal Logic 20, n^o 2 (1 janvier 2000). http://dx.doi.org/10.22329/il.v20i2.2265.

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Informal logic is a new sub-discipline of philosophy, roughly definable as the philosophy of argument. Contributors have challenged the traditional concept of an argument as a premiss-conclusion complex, in favour of speech-act, functional and dialogical conceptions; they have identified as additional components warrants, modal qualifiers, rebuttals, and a dialectical tier. They have objected that "soundness" is neither necessary nor sufficient for a good argument. Alternative proposals include acceptability, relevance and sufficiency of the premisses; conformity to a valid argument schema; conformity to rules for discussion aimed at rational resolution of a dispute. Informal logic is a significant part of philosophy.

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Assaturian, Sosseh. « Why Children, Parrots, and Actors Cannot Speak : The Stoics on Genuine and Superficial Speech ». Apeiron, 20 novembre 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/apeiron-2020-0042.

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AbstractAt Varro LL VI.56 and SE M 8.275-276, we find reports of the Stoic view that children and articulate non-rational animals such as parrots cannot genuinely speak. Absent from these testimonia is the peculiar case of the superficiality of the actor’s speech, which appears in one edition of the unstable text of PHerc 307.9 containing fragments of Chrysippus’ Logical Investigations. Commentators who include this edition of the text in their discussions of the Stoic theory of speech do not offer a univocal account of the superficiality of the parrot’s, the child’s, and the actor’s speech. In this paper, I offer a reconstruction of the Stoic account of genuine and superficial speech and show that not only is there an account of superficial speech that univocally explains the superficiality of the speech of parrots, children, and actors, but that this account challenges traditional assumptions about the entities at the heart of the Stoic theory of language—lekta. It will turn out that genuine speech is the expression of a lekton by way of performing a speech act, and that this account of superficial speech can be used to explain other linguistic phenomena that are of interest to the Stoics, such as sentences in insoluble sophisms and sentences containing demonstratives that do not refer to anything in the subject term. Importantly, my reconstruction shows, against the near consensus view of lekta, that lekta do not primarily explain what makes an utterance meaningful. Rather, they primarily explain what makes an utterance an instance of genuine speech.

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Yung, Frances, Jana Jungbluth et Vera Demberg. « Limits to the Rational Production of Discourse Connectives ». Frontiers in Psychology 12 (28 mai 2021). http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.660730.

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Rational accounts of language use such as the uniform information density hypothesis, which asserts that speakers distribute information uniformly across their utterances, and the rational speech act (RSA) model, which suggests that speakers optimize the formulation of their message by reasoning about what the comprehender would understand, have been hypothesized to account for a wide range of language use phenomena. We here specifically focus on the production of discourse connectives. While there is some prior work indicating that discourse connective production may be governed by RSA, that work uses a strongly gamified experimental setting. In this study, we aim to explore whether speakers reason about the interpretation of their conversational partner also in more realistic settings. We thereby systematically vary the task setup to tease apart effects of task instructions and effects of the speaker explicitly seeing the interpretation alternatives for the listener. Our results show that the RSA-predicted effect of connective choice based on reasoning about the listener is only found in the original setting where explicit interpretation alternatives of the listener are available for the speaker. The effect disappears when the speaker has to reason about listener interpretations. We furthermore find that rational effects are amplified by the gamified task setting, indicating that meta-reasoning about the specific task may play an important role and potentially limit the generalizability of the found effects to more naturalistic every-day language use.

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Schreiber, Alexander, et Edgar Onea. « Are Narrow Focus Exhaustivity Inferences Bayesian Inferences ? » Frontiers in Psychology 12 (4 août 2021). http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.677223.

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In successful communication, the literal meaning of linguistic utterances is often enriched by pragmatic inferences. Part of the pragmatic reasoning underlying such inferences has been successfully modeled as Bayesian goal recognition in the Rational Speech Act (RSA) framework. In this paper, we try to model the interpretation of question-answer sequences with narrow focus in the answer in the RSA framework, thereby exploring the effects of domain size and prior probabilities on interpretation. Should narrow focus exhaustivity inferences be actually based on Bayesian inference involving prior probabilities of states, RSA models should predict a dependency of exhaustivity on these factors. We present experimental data that suggest that interlocutors do not act according to the predictions of the RSA model and that exhaustivity is in fact approximately constant across different domain sizes and priors. The results constitute a conceptual challenge for Bayesian accounts of the underlying pragmatic inferences.

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Carcassi, Fausto, et Jakub Szymanik. « An alternatives account of 'most’ and 'more than half’ ». Glossa : a journal of general linguistics 6, n^o 1 (30 décembre 2021). http://dx.doi.org/10.16995/glossa.5764.

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While ‘most’ and ‘more than half’ are generally assumed to be truth-conditionally equivalent, the former is usually interpreted as conveying greater proportions than the latter. Previous work has attempted to explain this difference in terms of pragmatic strengthening or variation in meanings. In this paper, we propose a novel explanation that keeps the truth-conditions equivalence. We argue that the difference in typical sets between the two expressions emerges as a result of two previously independently motivated mechanisms. First, the two expressions have different sets of pragmatic alternatives. Second, listeners tend to minimize the expected distance between their representation of the world and the speaker’s observation. We support this explanation with a computational model of usage in the Rational Speech Act framework. Moreover, we report the results of a quantifier production experiment. We find that our account can explain the difference in typical proportions associated with the two expressions.

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Dionne, Danielle, et Elizabeth Coppock. « Complexity vs. salience of alternatives in implicature : A cross-linguistic investigation ». Glossa Psycholinguistics 1, n^o 1 (29 août 2022). http://dx.doi.org/10.5070/g601190.

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Scalar implicature depends on the activation of alternatives. For instance, in English, finger implicates 'not thumb', suggesting that thumb is an activated alternative. Is this because it is more specific (Quantity) and equally short (Manner)? Indeed, toe doesn't imply 'not big toe', perhaps because big toe is longer. As L. Horn points out, this Quantity/Manner explanation predicts that if English had the simplex Latin word pollex meaning 'thumb or big toe', then the asymmetry would disappear. But would it suffice for that word to exist in the language, or would the word also have to be sufficiently salient? We explore this question in four languages that are sometimes said to lack a single-word alternative for thumb: Spanish (which does have pulgar 'thumb or big toe' (< pollex), though it is a non-colloquial form), Russian, Persian, and Arabic. To gauge the salience of various ways of describing digits, we use a fill-in-the-blank production task. We then measure the availability of implicatures using a forced choice comprehension task. We find cross-linguistic differences in implicature, and moreover that implicature calculation tracks production probabilities more closely than structural complexity of the alternatives. A comparison between two Rational Speech Act models—one in which the speaker replicates our production data and a standard one in which the speaker chooses based on a standard cost/accuracy trade-off—shows that comprehension is more closely tied to production probability than to the complexity of alternatives. 

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