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Articles de revues sur le sujet "Products liability – European Economic Community countries"
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Lim Tung, Odile J. « Transboundary Movements of Genetically Modified Organisms and the Cartagena Protocol : Key Issues and Concerns ». Potchefstroom Electronic Law Journal/Potchefstroomse Elektroniese Regsblad 17, no 5 (10 avril 2017) : 1787. http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/1727-3781/2014/v17i5a2153.
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Biotechnology or the engineering of the genetic material of species can give way to avenues of possibilities for the benefit of people, fauna and flora but also has the potential of posing untold and undiscovered threats to human beings and other living organisms. One of the first attempts to legislate on international rules on biotechnology can be traced back to article 19 of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in 1992. The CBD is indeed the first international legal instrument apart from the then European Community’s relevant directives to suggest that biotechnology is a matter of concern for the international community while providing a basis upon which more detailed procedures would be elaborated in the field of biosafety. While the CBD includes international rules on access to genetic resources, access to and the transfer of technology, the handling of biotechnology and the distribution of its benefits, it does not include a detailed regulation on genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and their possible adverse effects on the environment, human and animal health. It was only with the coming into existence of the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety (Cartagena Protocol) to the CBD in 2000 that the safe transfer, handling and use of living modified organisms (LMOs) such as genetically engineered plants, animals, and microbes were at last being catered for, albeit leaving aside the broader categories of GMOs. Due to the need for the negotiators of this protocol to make compromises, there were still key issues on the international biosafety framework pertaining mainly to the scope of the GMOs to be covered by this protocol and by the Advanced Informed Agreement procedure; identification and traceability issues; and liability and redress issues.Nine years after the entry into force of the Cartagena Protocol the transboundary movements of GMOs have clearly increased with new categories of GMOs and genetically modified products to regulate. The debate on the safety of GMOs used for food and feed as well as the effects of GMOs on the receiving environment is still very lively throughout the world, amidst a lack of traceability of GMOs or epidemiological studies in the GMO-producing countries. However, there has been some progress on liability and redress with regard to damage resulting from the transboundary movement of LMOs with the adoption of rules and procedures for liability and redress in 2010 with the Nagoya-Kuala Lumpur Supplementary Protocol "(hereafter the Nagoya SP)" to the Cartagena Protocol, which is yet to enter into force. There are also concerns on the harmonisation of national biosafety regulation, risk assessment and risk management standards, the interpretation of socio-economic considerations, and the monitoring of compliance with the provisions of the Cartagena The scope of the GMOs covered by the Cartagena Protocol is discussed first, which discussion is followed by the discussion of identification and traceability issues, the harmonisation of national biosafety regulation, the harmonisation of risk assessment and risk management standards, the scope of the relevant socio-economic considerations, implementation, and concerns about the settlement of disputes.
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Mardas, Dimitri. « Intra-Industry Trade in Manufactured Products Between the European Economic Community and the Eastern European Countries ». Journal of World Trade 26, Issue 5 (1 octobre 1992) : 5–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/trad1992028.
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Alpa, Guido. « The Making of Consumer Law and Policy in Europe and Italy ». European Business Law Review 29, Issue 4 (1 juillet 2018) : 589–611. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/eulr2018023.
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Before the creation of the European Economic Community in 1957 the Italian legal system did not know the notion of consumer in its legal meaning: “consumer” was a sociological and economic concept. Buyt for a quotation of this term in the Report made in 1942 by the Minister of Justice to the King concerning the presentation of the new Civil Code no statute had any reference to it. Only with the enactement of EC directives in different fields and only with the development of products liability the notion of consumer began to be a solid concept with important legal aspects. Today consumers occupy a relevent place in themarket, in contract law, in tort law, and also in competition law, and concumers associations are strong counterparties of entrepreneurs.
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White, John B., Morgan P. Miles et E. James Randall. « Innovative Financial Technologies To Facilitate Trade With Eastern Europe ». Journal of Applied Business Research (JABR) 8, no 3 (4 octobre 2011) : 101. http://dx.doi.org/10.19030/jabr.v8i3.6150.
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The European Economic Community is overshadowing the great market potential of the emerging, newly liberated Eastern Bloc countries. Entering these formerly communist markets is challenging because of a lack of sound economies and weak currencies. This paper develops a model whereby North American businesses enter these markets and accept local currencies for products and services, purchase local goods with the local currency and then sell these goods through international commodity exchanges.
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Tayar, Violetta M. « Latin America and the European Union : Conceptual Approaches and Practice of Economic Cooperation ». Vestnik RUDN. International Relations 22, no 3 (15 décembre 2022) : 520–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.22363/2313-0660-2022-22-3-520-536.
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The article deals with North - South cooperation between the European Union (EU) and Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) with an emphasis on bilateral trade. Over the past decades, cooperation with the EU has been perceived in LAC as a counterweight to the US dominance and one of the priorities of external economic relations. The article presents a retrospective of theoretical approaches of the non-Western Latin American school of UN Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC, CEPAL in Spanish) to the economic cooperation with the EU. A feature of the article is the study of trade interaction between the LCA and the EU countries. When analyzing the dynamics of trade during the first two decades of the 21st century the author of the article comes to the conclusion that the trade exchange between the EU and the LCA is uneven. There are many LAC countries that continue to export low-value-added products to the EU. Thus, the dichotomy between two models of commercial specialization of LAC has exacerbated. On one hand, there is a model of South American countries focused on raw materials (MERCOSUR, Andean Community), and, on the other hand, there is a model that includes the export of manufactured products and participation in industrial production chains (Mexico, Central America). The article concludes that MERCOSUR will probably face a number of trade challenges related to its model of economic globalization, particularly with regard to its export specialization in commodities and food. The relevance of the study is due to the fact that in the context of exacerbation of geopolitical contradictions and a changing world order, it is important to analyze the Latin American approach to economic cooperation with the EU countries, among which, in turn, there is a growing understanding that still free niches in the Latin American market can be occupied by China or other partners not belonging to the collective West.
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Czermińska, Małgorzata, et Joanna Garlińska-Bielawska. « The pros and cons of the Economic Partnership Agreement (EPA) for the Southern African Development Community (SADC) in the context of Member States’ trade relations with the European Union (EU) ». Central European Review of Economics & ; Finance 23, no 1 (28 février 2018) : 69–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.24136/ceref.2018.006.
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The article aims to present the benefits and costs for the SADC member countries of the conclusion of EPA and of the implementation of trade liberalisation thereunder, in the light of their trade relations with the European Union. The hypothesis adopted is that for the majority of the SADC countries entering into the agreement will involve improved access for their products to the EU market. The assessment of the advantages and disadvantages of the conclusion of an EPA will take account of a situation in which the countries of the region would not sign an EPA: how their customs status would change and whether it would affect the conditions of trade with the European Union.
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Stojanović, Ivana. « The Impact of the Common Agricultural Policy of the European Union on the General Price Level of Countries that Joined in the Period from 2004 to 2007 ». Economic Themes 57, no 2 (1 juin 2019) : 233–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/ethemes-2019-0014.
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AbstractApplication of The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) of the European Union implies the existence of a single market (without customs duties on mutual trade), the community’s priority in meeting the needs for agricultural products (protection against imports) and the existence of financial solidarity (joint financing). Joining the European Union for new member states implies the termination of the implementation of the existing national agricultural policy and the the beginning of the implementation of the CAP. Although membership in the European Union implies many advantages, the period after joining this community can be quite economically unstable for some countries. One of the most significant problems is an increase in agricultural product prices and a rise in the general price level (inflation). The above can be confirmed by a simple empirical analysis of the economic indicators of the countries that joined the EU together in the period from 2004 until 2007.
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Kardanov, Valerii, et Denis Stoikov. « Comparison of the commodity certification systems in the European Union and in the Eurasian Economic Union ». Upravlenie 7, no 1 (7 mai 2019) : 66–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.26425/2309-3633-2019-1-66-71.
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The article deals with issues of product certification in the European Union and the Eurasian Economic Union. The objects of study are the economic systems of the European Union and the Eurasian Economic Union. The area of research is the theoretical basis for monitoring the development of economic systems of these associations. According to the authors, the plan for an agreement on economic rapprochement between the European Union and the Eurasian Economic Union today seems fantastic. Relations between Russia and the European Union are currently in a significant crisis. Cooperation in the economic field is reduced in terms of mutual sanctions. At the same time, the authors believe that the European Union is capable of playing a major role in solving the issues of improving the states of the Eurasian Economic Union member states, primarily on an economic scale. The role of the Russian food import limit showed the degree of interdependence in foreign trade and the interest of European companies in the normalization of commercial and economic relations. The countries of the world community, including Russia, confirm the unity of their views on the process of harmonization of standards, understanding that in practice harmonized standards guarantee the quality of products and services, the environmentally friendly production and goods, occupational safety, interoperability of products and, if necessary, its interchangeability. In this regard, the issue of harmonization of European and Russian standards of conformity, paperwork for certification and assessment of conformity and quality of exported and imported products, the mechanism of quality management of works and services is relevant. The certification rules in the European Union and the Eurasian Economic Union have been analyzed in the article, the CE and EAU marking and problems arising when applying these symbols have been considered, the influence of external (market requirements, competition) and internal (organizational, economic, etc.) factors on development of markets, placement of productive forces, increasing the efficiency of social production have been examined. It has been concluded, that standardization should be perceived as an effective element of the mechanism for managing the quality of products, works and services. This is confirmed by the fact, that the creation and application of harmonized standards allows one to get closer to the benchmarks of sustainable development and to remove many of the modern challenges from the agenda in a timely manner.
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Lewis, Xavier. « The EC Product Liability Directive : An EC wide conspectus ». European Review of Private Law 2, Issue 2 (1 juin 1994) : 183–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/erpl1994020.
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Abstract. This first article on Product Liability in Europe focuses on the implementation of the Council Directive no. 85/374/EEC of 25 July 1985 and its interpretation. Ten out of twelve Member States have now adopted legislation to implement the Directive. The author gives a survey of the way in which the various countries have made use of the options which the Directive leaves them. He submits that late implementation of the Directive may lead to state liability towards victims of defective products. The author then points to the influence the Directive has. Existing national law in the field of product liability must be interpreted with regard to the Directive. The Directive also transposes other Community texts into liability law. Finally, various non-EC Member States have adopted the Directive, which has also had an impact on some non-European countries. It is unlikely that the Commission will submit proposals for a fundamental revision of the Directive in 1995. Résumé. Ce premier article sur la responsabilité du fait des produits en Europe met plus spécialement l’accent sur l’étude de la mise en oeuvre de la directive communautaire n° 85/374 adoptée par le Conseil le 25 juillet 1985 et son interprétation. Dix des douze Etats membres ont maintenant adopté des législations spécifiques dans ce but. L’auteur étudie ainsi la façon dont les différents pays ont usé des options que leur laissait le texte. Il soutient en outre qu’une application tardive de son dispositif pourrait entraîner la responsabilité des Etats envers les victimes de produits défectueux. Il relève ensuite l’influence que peut avoir la directive. Les droits nationaux existants doivent d’abord être interprété au regard de ses dispositions. La directive transpose en outre d’autres textes communautaires en droit de la responsabilité. Enfin, divers Etats non membres de la Communauté ont adopté la directive, qui a ainsi eu une influence sur plusieurs pays non européens. Il est donc peu probable que la commission soumette de nouvelles propositions en vue d’une révision fondamentale de la directive en 1995.
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Pipchenko, Nataliya, et Taras Moskalenko. « PROMOTION OF UKRAINE’S CULTURAL DIPLOMACY IN THE EU ». Politologija 86, no 2 (20 juillet 2017) : 124. http://dx.doi.org/10.15388/polit.2017.2.10745.
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The paper provides an overview of existing research on Ukraine’s cultural diplomacy and sets the framework for further research. In other sections, the gathered practical insights about Ukraine’s cultural activity abroad and in the EU can be applied to the development of a new approach to the promotion of national interests and the examination of their impact on the current state of regional cooperation. The main time period covered in this study is the time after 2014, when Ukraine signed the Association Agreement with the EU. The paper uses a descriptive and interpretative approach, which is based on the review of previous research, as well as documentary and institutional analysis. It was found that the promotion of Ukrainian cultural products contributes to the deepening of the state’s integration into Europe and the developing of political, economic and civic relations between Ukraine and other countries of the region. The most important purpose of cultural activities approaching Ukraine to Europe is the prudent and consistent strategy of integrating the state in the European information space and the spread of positive information about Ukraine in European media. The research of the promotion of Ukraine’s cultural diplomacy in the EU made it possible to determine that the state’s perception by the European community is formed under the influence of several factors, in particular, national, tourist, social, political as well as economic. The paper draws conclusions about the main components of Ukraine’s cultural diplomacy strategy in the EU, which can be an area for further research. As a result of this, the main components of Ukraine’s cultural diplomacy strategy in the EU may be the explanation of Ukraine’s historic heritage, cultural and religious contacts with the European countries; communication with the international community about the great historic, cultural and religious heritage of Ukraine, unique travel opportunities and security; support of the famous European artists visits to Ukraine; the participation of Ukrainian artists in European art events; the attraction of the audience to using Ukrainian art products; the establishment of a joint Ukrainian-European forum on sensitive historic events to explain their historic background.
Thèses sur le sujet "Products liability – European Economic Community countries"
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Dony, Marianne. « La responsabilité des pouvoirs publics en cas d'intervention dans une entreprise en difficulté ». Doctoral thesis, Universite Libre de Bruxelles, 1990. http://hdl.handle.net/2013/ULB-DIPOT:oai:dipot.ulb.ac.be:2013/213118.
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VAN, WIJK NIEUWPOORT Coby. « The EEC directive of products liability : an appropriate standard for accomplishment of harmonisation and strict products liability ? » Doctoral thesis, 1987. http://hdl.handle.net/1814/5641.
Texte intégralLivres sur le sujet "Products liability – European Economic Community countries"
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Patrick, Thieffry, Whitehead G. Marc et Practising Law Institute, dir. The European Economic Community : Products liability rules and environmental policy. New York, N.Y. (810 7th Ave., New York 10019) : Practising Law Institute, 1990.
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Commission of the European Communities. Directorate-General for Employment, Industrial Relations and Social Affairs., dir. Working with dangerous products. Luxembourg : Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 1992.
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Alex, Schuster, et Irish Centre for European Law., dir. Product liability : Papers from the I.C.E.L. Conference, March 1989. Dublin : Irish Centre for European Law, 1989.
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D, Bale Malcolm, World Bank et Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations., dir. Horticultural trade of the expanded European Community : Implications for Mediterranean countries. Washington, D.C., U.S.A : World Bank, 1986.
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Die veränderte Wettbewerbssituation auf dem EG-Milchmarkt durch die Aufhebung der Produktions- und Absatzbeschränkungen für Milchimitate. Frankfurt am Main : P. Lang, 1992.
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Inside information and securities trading : A legal and economic analysis of the foundations of liability in the U.S.A. and the European Community. London : Graham & Trotman, 1991.
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Dröge, Cordula. Positive Verpflichtungen der Staaten in der Europäischen Menschenrechtskonvention = : Positive obligations of states under the European Convention of Human Rights. Berlin : Springer, 2003.
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Harmonization of Laws in the European Communities (Virginia legal studies). University of Virginia Press, 1988.
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Liability for on-line data bank services in the European Community. Köln : Heymanns, 1992.
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(Editor), Jean-pierre Casey, dir. Pouring New Wine into Old Skins ? : Ucits and Eu Asset Management Regulation After the White Paper. Centre for European Policy Studies, 2008.
Trouver le texte intégralChapitres de livres sur le sujet "Products liability – European Economic Community countries"
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Evans, J. D. « Liability Arising from the Administration of Blood and Blood Products within the European Economic Community ». Dans Transfusion Medicine : Fact and Fiction, 49–53. Boston, MA : Springer US, 1992. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-3504-1_8.
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Martseniuk, Olena. « CURRENT TRENDS AND PROBLEMS OF THE MARKET OF CIVIL LIABILITY INSURANCE OF VEHICLE OWNERS AND WAYS TO SOLVE IT ». Dans Theoretical and practical aspects of the development of modern scientific research. Publishing House “Baltija Publishing”, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.30525/978-9934-26-195-4-5.
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Insurance in general and civil liability insurance, as part of it, is an infrastructure that helps increase the efficiency of all areas of business. This determines the importance of the development of all types of insurance in Ukraine, taking into account the process of Ukraine’s integration into the world community. The development of insurance business in our country should be based on the study and balanced use of experience of industrialized countries with long traditions of insurance market organization, legal regulation of insurers and diversification of various types of insurance [2].The world community, however, has invented a universal means of redress, which is the most popular type of liability insurance worldwide – civil liability insurance for owners of land vehicles. It provides for the payment of monetary compensation to the victim in the amount that would be collected from the owner of the vehicle on a civil claim in favor of a third party for damage to life and health, as well as for damage or loss of property due to an accident or other road -transport (accident) due to the fault of the insured. Given the state and prospects of motorization in our country, as well as foreign experience in insurance, we can say with confidence that liability insurance is one of the leading areas among other types of insurance. However, in its organization and implementation there are many different problems of legal, social, economic and organizational nature. The subject of the study is the economic relations that arise in the protection of property interests of persons injured in traffic accidents caused by the fault of the insured. The purpose of the work is a theoretical and practical study of the features of civil liability insurance of vehicle owners and determine on this basis the problems and prospects for the development of motor insurance in our country.In accordance with the set goal, the following tasks were identified: to determine the economic essence and benefits of civil liability insurance of vehicle owners; to consider the experience of foreign countries in the field of liability insurance and the possibility of its introduction in Ukraine; to analyze the current state of motor insurance in Ukraine; identify problems of development of civil liability insurance of vehicle owners in Ukraine and predict the directions of their solution, taking into account foreign experience; provide proposals to improve the efficiency of insurance activities.The scientific novelty of the obtained results is the substantiation of theoretical and methodological bases of strategic development of civil liability insurance of vehicle owners in Ukraine, which allowed to obtain practical and theoretical results that contain scientific novelty, in particular: generalized features of comparative characteristics of liability insurance , property insurance and personal insurance and on the basis of the analysis the essential differences of liability insurance from other branches of insurance are defined that allows to state definitively that liability insurance is an independent branch of insurance; proved a specific feature of liability insurance, which is that the object of insurance is not specific personal property of a citizen or organization, as in property insurance, and the occurrence of events related to life or ability to work of a citizen who entered into a contract, which is typical for personal insurance, and liability to third parties. Thus, the direct object of liability insurance is the economic interest of potential victims, who in each insured event finds a specific monetary expression; the necessity of digitalization of the liability insurance industry is substantiated. Based on the study, it is proved that marketing innovations in motor insurance relate to new sales channels. Today, such a sales channel is the online sale of insurance products, which allows the insured to draw up a contract online, choose the functions that belong to him and pay insurance premiums. At the micro level, innovative development is seen as the process of implementing innovative solutions by insurers that help strengthen their competitiveness, create a unique insurance product for each policyholder individually, improve insurance services and more. Practical significance of the obtained results is to develop and provide recommendations for improving the civil liability insurance of vehicle owners, taking into account the experience of foreign countries.
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Guirao, Fernando. « The Decision to Grant the Preference (1964–1967) ». Dans The European Rescue of the Franco Regime, 1950-1975, 170–234. Oxford University Press, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198861232.003.0005.
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For the Six, Chapter 4 shows, the Spanish question boiled down to whether they would grant the preference rather than how. Documentary records and trade data show that the EEC did not discriminate against Spanish products. The EEC’s policy on Franco Spain was forged around the justification that relations with dictatorships of less-developed countries served to promote economic development and social change. These changes would naturally lead to a collective desire for political change. France and West Germany acted accordingly and exercised due influence on their peers. In the pursuit of their own interests, the European Community and its member-states opted to induce progressive reform towards West-European institutional standards over punishment or rupture. The political debate was limited to the speed of such changes, not to the validity of the assumption. The Europeanization/democratization binomial implied that closer relations with the EEC would promote convergence towards West-European standards, including democratization.
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Klymchuk, Iryna. « FEATURES OF THE SCANDINAVIAN MODEL OF PUBLIC DIPLOMACY OF THE KINGDOM OF SWEDEN ». Dans Development of scientific, technological and innovation space in Ukraine and EU countries. Publishing House “Baltija Publishing”, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.30525/978-9934-26-151-0-28.
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The article is devoted to the studying of the functioning of features of public diplomacy of the Kingdom of Sweden. The author covered the evolution of Swedish public diplomacy as a bright example of «niche» public diplomacy. It has been proved that the initial goal of county’s public diplomacy was to get rid of the negative consequences of the neutrality policy during World War II, and during the 1950s and 1980s – to make the Sweden more visible in the international arena by promoting its national features and interests. The institutional and legal principles and tools for the implementation of public diplomacy are also revealed. In particular, it has been established that the main country’s public diplomacy institutions are: the Swedish Institute, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Swedish Arts Council, Natioanal Heritage Fund, Team Sweden, Nordic Council of Ministers. Today, Sweden successfully implements its public diplomacy through cooperation with Eastern European countries, among which special attention is paid to the development of relations with European Union, as well as countries in South Africa, the Middle East, Latin America and Asia. The priority areas of country’s public diplomacy are environmental protection, gender equality, education, combating sexual violence and others. Also, a set of theoretical and empirical methods have been used during the study of the topic. Thanks to the use of the historical method, it was possible to investigate the origins, causes and preconditions of the public diplomacy’s institution development. Due to the systematic method, public diplomacy was considered as a set of appropriate tools and mechanisms responsible for improving the image, visibility and attractiveness of the Scandinavian state in the eyes of the world community. With the help of swat analyze it was possible to summarize the advantages and disadvantages, as well as challenges and potential threats of the Swedish public diplomacy. The study object is the public diplomacy as an element of Swedish foreign policy. The subject of the study is the peculiarities of the functioning of public diplomacy in the Kingdom of Sweden. The aim of the study is to analyze the features and prospects of the public diplomacy model of the Kingdom of Sweden. During the research it has been founded that the strengths of Swedish public diplomacy are: convenient geographical location, membership in international organizations (UN, Nordic Council, EU), democratic style in decision making, international corporations that promote products and services associated with Swedish quality and standards (IKEA, Flippa K, H&M, Spotify, Ericsson, COS); great cultural heritage (music, cinema, literature, design, fashion, cuisine); active academic mobility and cooperation, intensive implementation of Internet technologies Web 2.0; attractive tourist infrastructure. Instead, one of the shortcomings are: the weak migration policy, which has led to the large influx of immigrants from Africa and the Middle East, that affects the economic and social climate in the country and further more the blurring of national identity; lack of clear long-term strategy for the development of foreign affairs.
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Kern, Josipa. « Standardization in Health and Medical Informatics ». Dans Medical Informatics in Obstetrics and Gynecology, 323–29. IGI Global, 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.4018/978-1-60566-078-3.ch017.
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When things go well then often it is because they conform to standards (ISO, 2005). According to the Oxford Dictionary of Modern English, there is a lot of explanation of what standard means, but, in context of the first sentence, the best meaning is «standard is a thing or quality or specification by which something may be tested or measured». Personal computer is a standardized computer. It means that any of its components is made according to strictly defined specification. Consequently, it does not matter who produces components and where they are produced. Industry put the first demand for standards. Especially standardization is extremely important for electronics, for information and communication technology (ICT), and its application in different areas. Nowadays developing of standards is organized on global, international level, but it exists also on national level, well harmonized with international one. Developers of standards are organizations and groups working on this matter. The leading standard developer in the world is International Standards Organization (ISO). ISO is a nongovernmental organization established on 23 February 1947. Its mission is to promote the development of standardization and related activities in the world with a view to facilitating the international exchange of goods and services, and to developing cooperation in the spheres of intellectual, scientific, technological and economic activity (ISO, 2005). ISO collaborates with its partners in international standardization, the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), a non-governmental body, whose scope of activities complements ISO’s. The ISO and the IEC cooperate on a joint basis with the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), part of the United Nations Organization and its members are governments. The ISO standard can be recognized by the ISO logo, ISO prefix and the designation, “International Standard”. European developer of standards is the European Committee for Standardisation (Comité Européen de Normalisation – CEN). It was founded in 1961 by the national standards bodies in the European Economic Community and EFTA countries. CEN promotes voluntary technical harmonization in Europe in conjunction with worldwide bodies and its partners in Europe and the conformity assessment of products and their certification (CEN, 2005). CEN cooperates with the European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization (CENELEC), and the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI). Product of this cooperation is the European standard which can be recognized by the prefix EN. Any added prefix to the existing one, for both ISO and CEN standard, means that this standard is result of cooperation with other standardization group or organization. The prefix ENV in European standardization means that this standard is not yet a full standard (it is under development by CEN). ISO and CEN have Technical Committees working in the specific areas. ISO/TC215, established in 1998, and CEN/TC251, established in 1991, are corresponding technical committees working on standardization in health and medical informatics in ISO and CEN. Both standardization bodies, the ISO and CEN cooperate, and they mutually exchange their standards. There are also a variety of organizations and groups developing standards, cooperating with ISO and CEN or acting as administer and coordinator in standardization. For example, there are Health Level 7 (HL7), Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine (DICOM), American National Standards Institute (ANSI), non-profit organization that administers and coordinates the U.S. voluntary standardization and conformity assessment system, etc.