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1

Linne, Brianne M. « Quantification of oral roughness perception and comparison with mechanism of astringency perception ». The Ohio State University, 2016. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=osu1466550825.

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Li, Xiankun. « Dynamics and Mechanism of Light Perception by UV Photoreceptor UVR8 ». The Ohio State University, 2017. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=osu1511801451939622.

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Withers, Caroline. « Sources, mechanism and perception of mouth drying in Oral Nutritional Supplement beverages ». Thesis, University of Reading, 2013. http://centaur.reading.ac.uk/76520/.

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Oral Nutritional Supplements (ONS) are nutritional status enhancing beverages prescribed to older adults at risk of under-nutrition. They contain energy, protein, vitamins and minerals, however the low consumption of ONS on elderly care wards can prevent patients from receiving their health benefits. The predominant cause for beverage wastage has been reported to result from patients disliking the taste, improvement of which is predicted to encourage greater consumption. This PhD study investigated the key sensory attributes of ONS, aiming to understand and reduce the negative characteristics to improve ONS products to enable increased consumption by older patients. Eight ultra high temperature (UHT) processed dairy-based ONS and non-ONS products were investigated for unpalatable attributes. The sensory characteristics were assessed with a trained panel by both quantitative descriptive analysis (QDA) and sequential profiling, as well as directly with older adults through a novel use of a taxonomic free sorting (TFS) technique. The results from TFS were directly relatable to QDA, even though the participants were untrained, and the sorting data was combined with liking data to yield a preference map generated entirely from target consumer data. Mouthfeel attributes such as viscosity that had been described in TFS, were investigated by just noticeable difference (JND) testing. There were found to be no significant age-effects for the perception of thickness and mouth coating. Interestingly, older adults were more sensitive to perceived mouth drying than younger adults; a critical attribute found to build to the greatest extent in ONS during repeated consumption. Sequential profiling with a trained panel assessed a range of ONS dairy protein ingredients to find potential sources of mouth drying. Although whey protein concentrate (WPC) was found to be the most drying ingredient, all protein powders elicited some drying which highlighted the need to understand masiGng techniques and potential mechanisms. Sweetness, viscosity, lipid enhancement and lipid type were not found to mask drying in protein enriched milks. However, in a novel application of fluorescence microscopy, the mucoadhesive properties of casein and ~-lactoglobulin were assessed which led to the conclusion that these milk proteins adhere directly to the mucous layer of oral epithelial tissue. The presence of this interaction may be crucial for determining the mechanism behind mouth drying sensations as found in ONS. Through a wide range of techniques this study highlighted mouth drying as a key detectable attribute of ONS. Although masking methods were not able to reduce the drying sensation, the breakthrough of mucoadhesion between dairy proteins and the oral mucosa suggests this attribute could be further investigated and reduced to improve ONS consumption by older patients.
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Mikkelsen, Yngve. « Exploring physicians’ decision making and perception of quality in health care delivery ». Thesis, Cranfield University, 2013. http://dspace.lib.cranfield.ac.uk/handle/1826/8420.

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The importance of health and quality health care in people’s daily lives is widely recognised. Physicians play a key role in delivering quality health care and improved patient outcomes. However, the evidence regarding physicians’ decision making and their perception of quality of health care delivery and its influencers is inconclusive. The overall aim of this thesis is to increase the understanding of quality in health care delivery and the factors that influence it from a physician’s perspective. This aim is fulfilled by conducting three interlinked research projects. The first research project comprises a systematic review of the literature that identifies the factors, contexts and theoretical underpinnings influencing physician decision making. The synthesis of 160 studies reveals two main categories of influencing factors. The first is ‘Contexts’, which refers to the set of circumstances or facts surrounding a particular event or situation. The second category is ‘Interventions’, which are the techniques, processes or actions introduced to create changes in how physicians make decisions while performing their clinical duties. Although extant literature provides ample evidence on factors influencing physician decision making the link to quality in health care is under researched. In the second research project, the author explores how physicians construct quality of health care delivery by means of investigating 162 clinical cases with 27 repertory gird interviews that yield eleven key constructs representing a classification of physicians’ conception of quality. The third research project examines physicians’ perceptions of enablers and barriers to quality in health care delivery, employing semi-structured interviews. Findings indicate that physician’s effort in delivering quality health care is largely influenced by factors affecting behavioural control (freedom to act). This research makes five contributions to knowledge. First, a novel classification of factors influencing physician decision making when prescribing is developed, providing new understanding of the link between these factors and quality of health care. Second, the systematic review shows an innovative application of factor analysis to structure the findings of a complex phenomenon. Third, the study presents a new conceptualisation of physicians’ construction of quality in health care. Fourth, the research provides a categorization of physicians’ perceived enablers and barriers to quality health care and the mechanisms by which they operate. Finally, this research develops a theoretically-grounded and empirically-informed conceptual model that incorporates three hitherto separate domains: agency, planned behaviour, and decision theories. This model provides a new integrated lens to better understand the complexities influencing quality in health care delivery. This study also makes two significant contributions to practice. First, the findings have helped initiate a transformation in the pharmaceutical industry’s business model, evolving from business-to-person to business-to-business. Second, the findings serve as a catalyst to drive organizational changes at Norway’s largest emergency hospital. As a result, a national debate was initiated, involving the Prime Minister and Minister of Health, on how hospital emergency care can best be provided at a national level.
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Lam, Yiu Man. « Neuromorphic implementation of motion neuron populations by combining position and phase tuned mechanism / ». View abstract or full-text, 2008. http://library.ust.hk/cgi/db/thesis.pl?ECED%202008%20LAMYM.

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Parker, Amanda Louise. « A cross-modal investigation into the relationships between bistable perception and a global temporal mechanism ». Thesis, The University of Sydney, 2013. http://hdl.handle.net/2123/9545.

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When the two eyes are presented with sufficiently different images, Binocular Rivalry (BR) occurs. BR is a form of bistable perception involving stochastic alternations in awareness between distinct images shown to each eye. It has been suggested that the dynamics of BR are due to the activity of a central temporal process and are linked to involuntary mechanisms of selective attention (aka exogenous attention). To test these ideas, stimuli designed to evoke exogenous attention and central temporal processes were employed during BR observation. These stimuli included auditory and visual looming motion and streams of transient events of varied temporal rate and pattern. Although these stimuli exerted a strong impact over some aspects of BR, they were unable to override its characteristic stochastic pattern of alternations completely. It is concluded that BR is subject to distributed influences, but ultimately, is achieved in neural processing areas specific to the binocular conflict.
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Margiotoudi, Konstantina [Verfasser]. « The phylogenetic origin and mechanism of sound symbolism - the role of action-perception circuits / Konstantina Margiotoudi ». Berlin : Freie Universität Berlin, 2021. http://d-nb.info/1227301839/34.

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8

Raykos, Bronwyn C. « Attentional and interpretive biases : independent dimensions of individual difference or expressions of a common selective processing mechanism ? / ». Connect to this title, 2006. http://theses.library.uwa.edu.au/adt-WU2007.0018.

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9

Haneburger, Ina Maria Suntka. « Insights into the molecular signal perception mechanism of the membrane-integrated transcriptional activator CadC of Escherichia coli ». Diss., Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, 2011. http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:19-160780.

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Jano, Rubina. « "Mentors' perception of the effectiveness of the Big Brother Big Sister mentor training programme" ». Thesis, University of the Western Cape, 2008. http://hdl.handle.net/11394/2791.

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Magister Psychologiae - MPsych
Mentoring has gained a great deal of popularity across various professional fields and disciplines over the past few years. More recently, planned mentoring has become an important form of intervention with young people (Philip, 2003). Although mentoring can be an effective strategy for dealing with youth, the mentoring is only as good as the relationship that develops out of the process between mentors and mentees and the match that is made between the two parties. The number of mentor programmes that is running continues to grow yet the quality of these programmes remains unknown as this area lacks agreed upon sets of standards and / bench marks that could be used to determine the effectiveness of these programmes (Sipe, 1988 -1995). The primary aim of this study is to evaluate the mentors' perceptions of the effectiveness of a mentor training programme run by Big Brother Big Sister South Africa.
South Africa
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11

Duxbury, Zane. « Determining the molecular mechanism of plant disease resistance following pathogen effector perception by the resistance gene pair RPS4/RRS1 ». Thesis, University of East Anglia, 2016. https://ueaeprints.uea.ac.uk/67060/.

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Plant and animal cells have an assortment of receptors employed for pathogen surveillance. The Nucleotide-binding domain and Leucine-rich Repeat-containing (NLR) family of proteins are important receptors involved in cell autonomous surveillance. In animals, upon perception of virulence molecules or conserved molecular patterns from pathogens several NLRs initiate immune signalling by the induced proximity of signalling domains. In order to do this, these NLRs form oligomeric wheel-shaped complexes, called inflammasomes, that bring the N-terminal signalling domains of the component NLRs into close proximity and initiates downstream signalling. In plants, much less is known about signal initiation and transduction during NLR-mediated immunity. Plant NLRs recognise virulence factors that are often race specific, called effectors. I used the model NLR pair RRS1/RPS4 to investigate effector recognition by NLRs. RRS1 and RPS4 have the archetypal TIR-NB-LRR architecture of a large subset of plant NLRs, but also contain non-canonical domains. Of particular note, RRS1 contains a C-terminal WRKY DNA-binding domain. RRS1 and RPS4 act in concert to recognise at least three effectors: AvrRps4 secreted by Pseudomonas syringae; PopP2, an acetyltransferase secreted by Ralstonia sotanacearum; and an unidentified effector from Cottetotrichum higginsianum. In this thesis, I present evidence that supports a new conceptual framework for effector recognition. In this model, the virulence target of PopP2 and AvrRps4 has fused to an NLR (in this case the WRKY domain in RRS1) and acts as a decoy, baiting the effector to attack the NLR and trigger immunity, instead of enhancing susceptibility by interfering with the function of its intended target. This mechanism of effector perception may be widespread in plants and I discuss other examples of NLRs with integrated atypical domains. NLRs exert intramolecular inhibition of immune signalling in the absence of effectors in order to prevent autoimmunity. The domains of RRS1 C-terminal to the WRKY exert negative regulation of activation. Upon establishing the method of effector recognition by RRS1 and RPS4, I leverage this knowledge of the mechanism of RRS1 autoinhibition to engineer recognition of viral proteases. In the final chapter of this thesis engineer a mammalian inflammasomeforming NLR system, fused to the signalling domain of RPS4, into plants to 1) introduce into plants an intracellular receptor that recognises conserved pathogen associated molecular patterns and 2) test if inducing the proximity of plant NLR signalling domains is sufficient for activation of NLR-mediated immunity.
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Yu, Jason Jusheng Shaw Donald Lewis. « The psychological mechanism of agenda setting developing a cognitive process model to test consumer perception of cause-related marketing / ». Chapel Hill, N.C. : University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 2009. http://dc.lib.unc.edu/u?/etd,2303.

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Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 2009.
Title from electronic title page (viewed Jun. 26, 2009). "... in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the School of Journalism and Mass Communication." Discipline: Journalism and Mass Communication; Department/School: Journalism and Mass Communication, School of.
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13

Raykos, Bronwyn C. « Attentional and interpretive biases : independent dimensions of individual difference or expressions of a common selective processing mechanism ? » University of Western Australia. School of Psychology, 2007. http://theses.library.uwa.edu.au/adt-WU2007.0018.

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[Truncated abstract] Attentional and interpretive biases are important dimensions of individual difference that have been implicated in the etiology and maintenance of a range of clinical problems. Yet there has been no systematic investigation into the relationship between these dimensions of individual difference. The current research program tested predictions derived from two competing theoretical accounts of the relationship between attentional and interpretive biases. The Common Mechanism Account proposes that cognitive biases represent concurrent manifestations of a single underlying selective processing mechanism. The Independent Mechanism account proposes that independent mechanisms underlie each bias. . . An apparent contradiction is that the manipulation of one bias served to also modify the other bias, despite the observation that the magnitude of the resulting change in both biases was uncorrelated. Neither the Common Mechanism nor the Independent Pathways accounts can adequately explain this pattern of results. A new account is proposed, in which attentional and interpretive biases are viewed as representing mechanisms that are related but that are not the same. Theoretical and applied implications of these findings are discussed, including the possibility that the two biases each may best predict emotional reactions to quite different stressful events and that training programs designed to attenuate allocation of attentional resources to threat may serve to reduce both attentional and interpretive selectivity in emotionally vulnerable individuals.
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14

Schrecke, Karen [Verfasser], et Thorsten [Akademischer Betreuer] Mascher. « The LiaFSR three-component System of Bacillus subtilis : mechanism of stimulus perception and signal transduction / Karen Schrecke. Betreuer : Thorsten Mascher ». München : Universitätsbibliothek der Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, 2013. http://d-nb.info/1036100944/34.

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Park, Hyeyoung Helen. « Determinants on Mechanism of Emotional Marketing| Emotional Intelligence, Perception of Emotional Labor' Action, Efficacy and Customer' Coping Strategy on Customer Satisfaction ». Thesis, Oklahoma State University, 2013. http://pqdtopen.proquest.com/#viewpdf?dispub=3598952.

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This study was to examine to identify the determinants on mechanism of emotional marketing in the restaurant business. The previous studied mostly examined to find out the service failure from the service qualities by service employees and by the service facilities. Limited studies were conducted to identify the service failure based on the emotional relationships among customers' emotional intelligence, and interactions to recover service failure from emotional labors as well as from customers.

The purposes of this study were conducted three steps. First, this study examined to identify how different characteristics of customer' characteristics of emotional intelligence such as perceiving emotion, social management, understanding emotion, use of emotion, and managing emotion can interact with 1) customer' perception on emotional labor' acting-out (deep and superficial), 2) customer' efficacy (for self and for other), 3) customer' coping strategy (emotional coping focus and problem coping focus) under unexpected service failure circumstances. Secondly, these three major theoretical constructs were tested to identify the statistical associations with customer' participation and satisfaction. Lastly, the group differences were conducted to test the mean differences between gender in customer' emotional intelligence, ethnicity, nationality and interactions between ethnicity and nationality.

The total of 598 responses was used for the group differences and the final structural equation modeling. Independent samples t-test was used to identify the mean differences between gender, and the Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) was conducted to test the vector differences between the two ethnicity groups and nationality origins from the western countries and the eastern countries.

The findings from the group differences explained 1) customer' emotional intelligence has statistical differences between male and female customers, 2) customer' EI had significant meanings in the vector differences among ethnicity, nationality, and interactions of ethnicity and nationality between the western countries and eastern countries. The comparative fit index of the final competing structural model was 0.918, RMSEA = 0.059, thus the overall SEM fit indices were over the cut-off of the powerful model fits. Thus, the this study identified the determinants on mechanism of emotional marketing using the theoretical constructs of EI, emotional labor's action, customer efficacy, coping strategy on customer satisfaction under unexpectedly encountered service failure and the interactions among emotional changes in the service recovery from emotional labors as well as customers. This study contributes to establish theory on how customer' different characters of the EI can associate with different emotional constructs in this studies for hospitality, tourism and service oriented industries.

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Lestage, Hélène. « De nos sensations proximales à notre perception de l'espace : l'attribution distale comme processus sensorimoteur et idéomoteur ». Thesis, Paris 10, 2018. http://www.theses.fr/2018PA100071/document.

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L’attribution distale réfère à notre capacité d’attribuer à nos sensations proximales (lumière sur la rétine, ondes sonores, etc.) une localisation dans l’espace distal. Les travaux issus de la substitution sensorielle ont permis d’identifier et de tester ce processus. L’objectif de cette thèse est d’investiguer l’attribution distale grâce à une approche conjointe et intégrée des théories sensorimotrices et idéomotrices. Dans deux études, nous utilisons une procédure idéomotrice classique consistant à associer des conséquences sensorielles proximales à des mouvements. La première étude montre que l’attribution de caractéristiques distales aux sensations proximales est déterminée par l’association bidirectionnelle sensations – mouvements. De plus, nous montrons que l’orientation du mouvement est consubstantielle des caractéristiques distales que nous conférons aux conséquences sensorielles. La seconde étude réplique ces résultats et les étend aux caractéristiques liées à l’amplitude du mouvement. Ces expériences nous amènent à définir l’attribution distale comme un processus sensori-moteur et relevant d’un mécanisme idéomoteur, inscrivant ainsi nos études dans une perspective constructiviste. Les limites théoriques et expérimentales de nos études nous conduisent alors à proposer de nouvelles expériences visant à mieux définir l’importance du mouvement dans la perception
Distal attribution refers to the capacity to attribute localization to proximal sensations (light on the retina, sound waves, etc.) in the distal space. Works in sensory substitution allowed identifying and testing this process. This thesis aims to investigate distal attribution thanks to a joint and integrated approach of sensorimotor and ideomotor theories. In two studies, we use a classic ideomotor procedure consisting in associating proximal sensory consequences to movements. The first study shows that the attribution of distal characteristics to proximal sensations is determined by the bidirectional association sensations-movements. Moreover, we show that movement orientation is consubstantial with distal characteristics we confer to sensory consequences. The second study replicates these results and extends them to characteristics related to the range of movement. These experiments bring us to define distal attribution as an embodied process depending on an ideomotor mechanism, thus making our studies fall within a constructivist approach. Theoretical as well as experimental limits to our studies invite us to propose ideas for new experiments aiming to better define the importance of movement in perception
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Haneburger, Ina Maria Suntka [Verfasser], et Kirsten [Akademischer Betreuer] Jung. « Insights into the molecular signal perception mechanism of the membrane-integrated transcriptional activator CadC of Escherichia coli / Ina Maria Suntka Haneburger. Betreuer : Kirsten Jung ». München : Universitätsbibliothek der Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, 2011. http://d-nb.info/1041224400/34.

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Robinson, Alan Edward. « Mechanisms of brightness perception ». Diss., [La Jolla] : University of California, San Diego, 2009. http://wwwlib.umi.com/cr/ucsd/fullcit?p3372643.

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Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of California, San Diego, 2009.
Title from first page of PDF file (viewed Oct. 7, 2009). Available via ProQuest Digital Dissertations. Vita. Includes bibliographical references (p. 57-58).
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Tzoneva-Hadjigeorgieva, Maria. « Mechanisms of human motion perception ». Thesis, University of Glasgow, 2007. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.484885.

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Observation of human movements provides a rich source of information about the physical and internal states of those around us. The thesis examines behavioural and brain responses to movement observation. The thesis starts by examining how observers' visual perception of point-light displays of human arm movements is influenced when the movements are perturbed by the introduction of temporal offsets into position data. From this it extends the technique of movement perturbation to whole-body ballet movements and examines, in novices and experts, the effect of temporal offsets put into position and joint-angle representations of movement. Finally, it measures event-related brain potentials (ERP) in response to viewing these original and perturbed ballet movements. Chapter 2 describes four experiments investigating the visual perception of point-light human movement when increasing levels of temporal offset are introduced to position and joint angle representations of movement. Temporal offsets into position preserve local motion of elements but cause displays to become less coherent in form and motion with increasing offsets. Temporal offsets into joint angles preserve the piecewise rigid structure of the body regardless of offset, but show less of the natural coordination for increasing offsets. Res~lts showed that at high noise levels the effects of temporal offsets were much' less when introduced into joint angles than position. In addition, an effect of expertise was only evident at low levels of offset. Chapter 3 examined stimulus relevant ERP elicited from posterior cortical areas in response to the ballet movements with and without temporal offsets into joint angles. An early negative response (N150-170) over bilateral inferior parietotemporal region was found to be modulated by temporal offset. Additionally, a late positive response (P3) was salient at the middle occipitoparietal area suggested involvement of attentional mechanisms during processing of biological motion.
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Vermeiren, Astrid. « Underlying mechanisms of conscious perception ». Doctoral thesis, Universite Libre de Bruxelles, 2013. http://hdl.handle.net/2013/ULB-DIPOT:oai:dipot.ulb.ac.be:2013/209348.

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L'objectif principal de cette thèse est d'étudier les mécanismes sous-jacents de la transition entre le traitement visuel conscient et inconscient. Il est maintenant largement accepté dans le domaine de la psychologie cognitive qu'au moins certains processus peuvent se dérouler de manière inconsciente. La perception visuelle est le champ le plus étudié à ce sujet. Bien que nous ayons l'impression d’avoir une vision complète, détaillée et continue du monde extérieur, il a été démontré que certaines parties de ce flux visuel ne sont pas consciemment perçues, par exemple en raison du fait qu'elles ont été présentées très rapidement ou en raison du fait que notre attention avait été détournée par un autre stimulus.

Le problème majeur dans l'étude scientifique de ces perceptions (in)conscientes, est que l'on doit se baser sur des mesures subjectives. En effet, seul l’observateur lui-même est capable de rapporter son expérience visuelle, et ce qu’il perçoit ne peut jamais être vérifié de manière objective par l'expérimentateur. En d'autres termes, il n'y a pas de variable directement mesurable de la conscience perceptuelle, ce qui force les expérimentateurs à utiliser des données observables objectivement (des données « à la troisième personne »). Se baser sur les rapports introspectifs est difficile car il s’agit d’une information qualitative et qui n’est pas fiable en raison de son caractère subjectif. Par conséquent, il a longtemps été considéré comme impossible d'étudier scientifiquement la conscience. Cependant, de nombreux développements, tant dans la pensée que dans les avancées méthodologiques, ont contribué à l'étude de la conscience en psychologie expérimentale.

Descartes [17], en introduisant une distinction entre le corps et l'esprit, a paradoxalement rendu possible l'étude scientifique du cerveau, celui-ci étant considéré comme faisant partie du corps. Cependant, la pensée (consciente) était considérée comme faisant partie de l'esprit, un substrat non-physique dont l’étude scientifique est impossible. C'est la principale raison pour laquelle, pendant longtemps, la conscience a été un sujet réservé exclusivement à la réflexion philosophique. Ce n'est qu’au cours du 19ème siècle que les premiers psychologues expérimentaux ont fait valoir l’idée selon laquelle les processus psychologiques pourraient être mesurés, et que la psychologie est devenue une discipline scientifique. Toutefois, au cours du 20ème siècle, les comportementalistes évitent la «conscience». Le comportement observable était alors considéré comme fournissant des données précieuses et étudier la conscience faisait appel à des méthodes introspectives considérées comme non fiables. Cependant, plus tard, les développements scientifiques ont radicalement changé cette idée. Par exemple, le gestaltisme a montré dans les illusions visuelles, que la conscience subjective est une variable qui peut être manipulée. De plus, la théorie de l'information [20,21] a proposé une métaphore du cerveau humain comme un système de traitement de l'information par analogie à un système informatique. Des expériences sur la "mémoire de travail" étaient alors très semblables à ce que nous appellerions aujourd’hui des études sur la conscience. En outre, certaines expériences ont démontré un traitement inconscient (par exemple, Marcel [3]) et la théorie de Détection du Signal [26] a fourni un moyen de quantifier les rapports de conscience. Enfin, des études de neuro-imagerie ont révélé que le traitement de l'information inconscient est accompagné par des processus cérébraux observables et démontre ainsi que les mécanismes neuronaux sous-jacents de traitement de l'information inconscient dans le cerveau peuvent être comparés à des mécanismes observés dans le traitement conscient. Cette approche à aujourd’hui mis à jour de nombreux candidats pour ce que l’on appelle le « corrélat neuronal de la conscience » (le «Neural Correlate of Consciousness» [6,29]).

En résumé, ces développements récents ont stimulé l’investigation expérimentale ainsi que de la pensée théorique sur la conscience. Il existe aujourd’hui de nombreuses théories de la conscience. Certaines sont inspirées de la philosophie et d'autres sont d’avantage basées sur l’analyse des mécanismes neuronaux sous-jacents. Dans l'introduction de cette thèse, nous ne discutons que les théories qui forment la base pour la construction de nos études. Nous empruntons la taxonomie de Block [34] pour organiser la multitude de théories. Nous survolons rapidement les théories biologiques, les théories du type « Espace de travail global » (Global Workspace Theory), et les théories d'ordre supérieur.

Dans la perspective biologique, la conscience est définie par un état biologique du cerveau. Lamme [38], par exemple, suggère que le traitement récurrent dans le cerveau est l'élément déterminant des processus conscients. Si le traitement est limité aux connexions « feedforward », il peut influencer le traitement mais n'est pas considéré comme conscient. Si des connexions récurrentes sont impliquées dans le flux de traitement, le traitement est défini comme une perception consciente. Même si ce traitement récurrent est très local (par exemple limité au cortex visuel), les participants sont considérés comme étant conscients du stimulus. Selon Lamme [38], cette définition de la conscience s'applique même lorsque les sujets nient faire l’expérience consciente du stimulus. Il s’agit d’une théorie très controversée, car elle définit la conscience en fonction d'un mécanisme neuronal et ne laisse aucune place aux rapports subjectifs.

La théorie de l’espace de travail global (GWT), par contre, met l’accent sur l’importance des rapports subjectifs. Dans cette théorie, la conscience est expliquée par la métaphore du théâtre [54]. Une représentation théâtrale combine des événements qui ont lieu sur scène en présence d’un public, tout comme la conscience implique des informations limitées qui rendent possibles l'accès à un grand nombre de sources inconscientes de la connaissance» [358]. Dehaene et ses collègues [55,61,334] ont étendu cette idée et ont proposé que la signature neuronale de cet espace de travail est une ignition brusque d’activation généralisée du cortex pariéto-frontal. En outre, ils distinguent quatre niveaux de conscience, basés sur deux dimensions: la force des stimuli (bottom-up) et l’attention (top-down). Si les deux dimensions sont élevées, un stimulus est consciemment traité. Si une seule de ces dimensions est élevée, le stimulus est traité inconsciemment (subliminal ou préconscient). Si les deux dimensions sont faibles, les stimuli n’ont (presque) aucun effet sur le traitement. Seulement dans le cas du traitement conscient, il y a donc activation qui s’étend à la région pariéto-frontale, c’est-à-dire l'espace de travail.

Dans une troisième théorie, « higher-order thought theory » (HOT) [69,70], inspirée de la philosophie, l'intuition est suivi que la conscience exige une pensée à l'effet que nous sommes dans un état d’avoir une certaine perception. Par exemple, lorsque je dis que j’ai une perception consciente de la couleur rouge, je veux dire que je pense à moi étant dans un état de percevoir rouge. En général, selon cette théorie, les états de conscience sont des états mentaux dont nous sommes conscients. Cette théorie traite donc particulièrement de l'aspect phénoménal de la conscience (c’est-à-dire ce que c'est que d'être dans un état de conscience).

Ces deux derniers types de théories ont considérablement contribué à l’élaboration de la thèse de la plasticité radicale [7,93]. Cette dernière constitue le point de départ des études dans la présente thèse de doctorat. Elle sera donc largement décrite tout au long de ce travail de thèse.

La thèse de la plasticité radicale [7,93] est une vue dynamique sur la conscience, en précisant que le cerveau s'adapte en continu à travers l'apprentissage de ses propres signaux internes en les re-décrivant. Ce processus de rediscription correspond à la formation de méta-représentations de la théorie de la pensée d'ordre supérieur. La combinaison de plusieurs de ces méta-représentations augmente la disponibilité de la conscience et correspond à une diffusion globale dans la théorie de l'espace de travail global.

En outre, la thèse de la plasticité radicale [7,93] stipule que la disponibilité de la conscience dépend de la qualité de la représentation, qui à son tour, dépend de trois dimensions: la force, la distinctivité et la stabilité. Une représentation solide, stable et distincte est plus susceptible d'être disponible pour le traitement conscient. Par exemple, l'augmentation de la durée de la présentation d'un stimulus (la force) augmente la qualité de la représentation de ce stimulus et augmente donc la disponibilité à la conscience.

Enfin, la relation entre la qualité de la représentation et la disponibilité à la conscience n'est pas une relation une-à-une, mais évolue en trois phases: la phase de cognition implicite, la phase de la cognition explicite et la phase d'automaticité.

Tout d'abord, au stade de la cognition implicite, il concerne une expérience phénoménale très vague. Le contrôle intentionnel et la conscience d'accès sont faibles, ce qui implique qu’on ne peut pas contrôler l'effet d'un stimulus sur le comportement et qu’on ne peut pas verbaliser l'identité du stimulus. Il s’agit de l'étape du traitement inconscient. Par exemple, dans les expériences d'apprentissage de grammaires artificielles [94], les participants sont exposés à des chaînes de lettres ou de mots qui suivent des règles complexes. Après une phase d’exposition, les participants doivent indiquer si de nouvelles chaînes obéissent à ces règles ou non, ce qui indique qu'ils ont appris le matériel avec succès. Toutefois, ils ne sont pas capables de verbaliser ces règles. Cela suggère qu'ils ont appris le matériel de manière inconsciente, ou du moins implicite. Dans un paradigme lié, l'apprentissage de séquences [102], il a en outre observé que les participants ne pouvaient pas inhiber l’utilisation d’une séquence difficile qui a été appris au cours du temps. En d'autres termes, ils ne peuvent pas contrôler l'information acquise et en plus de cela, ils ne pouvaient pas le rapporter. Pourtant, l'information a été traitée, comme démontré par des temps de réaction plus rapides lorsque le matériel suit la séquence que lorsqu’il suit une séquence aléatoire. Cela suggère encore une fois que l'apprentissage inconscient est possible. La recherche sur le conditionnement (par exemple, [109,113,118]) révèle également des effets inconscients. Même lorsque les participants ne sont pas conscients de l'association entre deux stimuli ou entre un stimulus et une réponse, leur comportement est influencé par l'association. Cependant, ce domaine de recherche est moins contingent sur les résultats obtenus et d’autres chercheurs critiquent [129] les mesures de conscience utilisées dans ces paradigmes. Un troisième axe de recherche pertinent concerne des paradigmes d'amorçage subliminal. Dans un paradigme d'amorçage subliminal, les stimuli sont présentés pour une très courte durée et ensuite masqués (c’est-à-dire les amorces). Cela les rend invisibles et ils ne sont donc pas traités consciemment. Elles sont cependant traitées inconsciemment, ce qui est démontré par l'effet qu'ils exercent sur le comportement des stimuli ultérieurs (c’est-à-dire les cibles). Beaucoup de ces effets ont été observés, même au niveau des influences sémantiques [135,136,137]. Par exemple, si le mot "médecin" présenté de manière subliminale est suivi par un mot sémantiquement lié tel qu’«infirmière», les participants réagissent plus vite que lorsqu’il est suivi par un mot sans rapport, tel qu’«arbre». En somme, plusieurs paradigmes ont examiné la possibilité que le traitement inconscient (ou implicite) est possible. Dans ces paradigmes, le traitement inconscient est souvent comparé au traitement conscient (ou traitement explicite), qui est la deuxième étape dans notre cadre de la qualité de représentation.

Dans la deuxième étape, les représentations ont accumulé une qualité suffisante pour être à la disposition de l'accès conscient. Ce sont ces contenus, dont nous sommes conscients, par exemple lorsque nous effectuons une multiplication difficile. Elle concerne principalement l'attention lors de tâches exigeantes et le stade est caractérisé par un contrôle flexible. Parce que la conscience est généralement considérée comme le mode par défaut dans lequel nous nous trouvons, les études décrivent souvent cette étape par opposition avec la précédente, le stade inconscient [2]. En effet, de nombreuses différences ont été observées entre le traitement conscient et inconscient. Ces différences indiquent que la conscience est nécessaire pour le control adaptative [1], pour tenir compte du contexte [176], pour enchaîner les opérations mentales [173], pour l’inhibition [167], Au contraire, d'autres expériences démontrent que certains de ces processus ne se limitent pas au traitement conscient. Par exemple, des indices no-go présentés de manière subliminale pourraient induire de l’inhibition [181]. Il est donc loin d'être clair si on peut dire que la fonction de la conscience est d'offrir un contrôle souple et du comportement adaptatif. Ces incohérences nous amènent à supposer que le flux entre les étapes est graduel. Pour cette raison, dans nos études, nous avons manipulé graduellement les variables indépendantes .

Enfin, la troisième étape de l'automaticité est caractérisée par un comportement bien formé, par exemple comme jouer du piano chez les pianistes experts. La recherche sur les effets de l'expertise démontre que le traitement est en effet très différent pour les experts que pour les novices. Par exemple, la catégorisation au niveau sous-ordonné (par exemple, Bulldog, Schnauzer, ) est plus difficile que la catégorisation à un niveau de base (par exemple, chien contre chat). Chez les experts en races de chiens, ces performances de catégorisation peuvent atteindre le même niveau [191,192]. Nous défendons l’idée selon laquelle la fonction de l'expertise est de rendre automatique le traitement des objets d ‘expertise. Dans l'exemple, l'expert en races de chiens peut catégoriser automatiquement les différentes sortes de chiens. Au stade de l'automaticité, les représentations sont très disponibles pour l'action, ce qui se traduit par de bonnes performances. D'autre part, le contrôle est faible, en raison du caractère balistique de ces processus [224]. Une fois lancés, ils ne peuvent pas – ou difficilement - être arrêtés. En outre, ces processus peuvent éventuellement être disponibles à la conscience phénoménale. En effet, la fonction de ces processus automatiques est l’efficacité. Ils ne nécessitent pas d'attention, et peuvent ainsi se concentrer ailleurs. Normalement, ces processus ne sont donc pas conscients à mesure qu'ils progressent, mais attirer l'attention sur ces processus peut les rendre disponibles. Par exemple, lorsque vous conduisez une voiture, on n'est généralement pas conscient des mouvements d’embrayage, mais on pourrait se concentrer sur ces derniers en cas de besoin. Ainsi, les processus automatiques ne sont pas nécessairement des processus inconscients. Au contraire, la conscience y est facultative.

La transition entre les trois stades qui ont été décrits doit être considérée comme une transition progressive. Surtout, cette transition dépend de la qualité des représentations. Dans les études dans cette thèse de doctorat, nous avons manipulé la qualité de la représentation afin d'explorer la transition entre la phase inconsciente (implicite) et le stade conscient (explicite). Ces manipulations sont supposés influencer la qualité de la représentation en deux directions: bottom-up et top-down.

Nous avons défini les facteurs bottom-up comme des facteurs propres à la stimulation externe, tandis que les facteurs top-down sont propres au cerveau des sujets. Ceci est cohérent avec la définition de l' « input » et « priors » (des connaissances à priori), dans le cadre de l'inférence bayésienne [228,229]. Les dimensions de la qualité de la représentation (la force, la stabilité et le caractère distinctif) peuvent ainsi être manipulés par des facteurs bottom-up et top-down.

Nous présentons cinq études dans cette thèse qui étudient l'influence de ces facteurs bottom-up et top-down dans un paradigme de la perception subliminale. De nombreuses études ont porté sur un facteur particulier bottom-up: la force du stimulus. Par exemple, dans l’étude de Del Cul et al. [231], l'augmentation de l'intervalle de temps entre un stimulus et le masque subséquent, provoquait une augmentation de l’accès à la conscience, qui suivait une fonction sigmoïde. Cependant, la forme exacte de la courbe est un sujet de débat: certains la considèrent comme un phénomène de tout-ou-rien [60,231], tandis que d'autres la considèrent plutôt comme un continuum [7,233].

Dans l'étude 1, nous avons exploré la forme de ces courbes en faisant varier la durée des amorces dans un paradigme d'amorçage subliminal. Tout d'abord, plusieurs blocs d'amorçage ont été présentés aux participants dans lesquels la durée de l’amorce a augmenté dans chaque bloc. Au cours de cette tâche, les participants devaient classer les cibles et n'ont pas été informés de la présence des amorces. Ensuite, nous avons mesuré la conscience de l’amorce au moyen de la même quantité de blocs avec les mêmes durées premiers croissants. Cette fois-ci, les participants ont été informés de la présence des amorces et ont été invités à les classer. Ceci est un test de conscience objectif typique, basée sur la mesure « d prime » (d’) de Signal théorie de détection [26]. Cette étude nous a permis d'explorer la dynamique de la perception inconsciente et consciente en fonction de la durée de l’amorce.

Comme prévu, nous avons observé une augmentation des effets d'amorçage et de conscience en fonction de la durée d’amorce. Les formes des courbes étaient plutôt concave pour les effets d'amorçage et sigmoïde pour la conscience. Cela indique que les mécanismes sous-jacents de l'amorçage et de la conscience sont au moins en partie dissociables. En outre, les courbes des effets d'amorçage différaient significativement de zéro pendant une durée de l ‘amorce plus courte que les courbes de conscience. Cela confirme l'existence d'effets d'amorçage inconscients, qui ont déjà été démontrés dans la littérature [3,133,148]. Cependant, nous avons observé que ces effets d'amorçage inconscients ne se sont produites qu’à des durées cruciales de l’amorce, ce qui indique que ces effets inconscients sont difficiles à observer si la durée l’amorce n'est pas manipulée avec soin. Enfin, le test de conscience a indiqué que les réponses à ce dernier étaient influencées par l'identité de la cible, en dépit de l'instruction de l’ignorer. Cela amène à s'interroger sur la validité de ces tests de conscience objectives dans l'étude 2.

Dans l'étude 2, nous avons à nouveau utilisé un paradigme d'amorçage subliminal et exploré les effets d'amorçage et de conscience. Cependant, cette fois le but de l'étude était d'examiner plusieurs facteurs qui pourraient influer la mesure de la conscience, afin de tester la validité de cette mesure. Par conséquent, nous avons présenté plusieurs tests de conscience légèrement différents aux participants. Nous avons manipulé trois facteurs. Tout d'abord, nous avons examiné s’il y avait une influence de la présentation de la cible sur la conscience des amorces. Lors de ce mesure de conscience, nous avons présenté une cible qui pouvait être soit directionnelle, soit neutre. Nous avons supposé que la cible directionnelle nuirait à la visibilité des amorces par rapport à la présentation d'une cible neutre, puisque la cible directionnelle pourrait interférer avec le traitement de l’amorce. Afin de tester autre facteur susceptible d’influer sur la mesure de la conscience, nous avons introduit un retard entre la cible et la réponse. Nous avons supposé que cela augmenterait la conscience, car il faut du temps pour prendre conscience d'un stimulus. Enfin, un troisième facteur a été testé en manipulant l’attention top-down. Ici, dans une condition, l'attention pouvait être entièrement attribuée à l'amorce, alors que dans une autre condition, l’attention était partagée entre l’amorce et la cible. Nous avons supposé qu'une attention accrue devrait conduire à une conscience accrue des amorces.

Les trois hypothèses ont été confirmées: une cible neutre, l’attention focalisée et un retard entre la cible et la réponse ont tous trois eu pour effet d’augmenter la conscience. Cela implique que l’utilisation du d’entant mesure, souvent utilisée dans la recherche de la conscience, peut être une sous- ou une surestimation de la prise de conscience réelle. Cette situation est problématique, surtout dans le cas de sous-estimation, parce que les effets inconscients sur le comportement pourraient être attribués à un traitement conscient minime. Par conséquent, nous avons utilisé une mesure subjective de la conscience dans les études suivantes. Nous avons choisi d'utiliser une échelle PAS (Perceptual Awareness Scale) [246], ce qui remet en question la visibilité phénoménale de stimuli. Les participants devaient évaluer cette visibilité sur une échelle de 4 points, notamment: 1) aucune expérience, 2) bref aperçu, 3) une expérience presque clair et 4) expérience claire du stimulus. Toutefois, d'autres questions peuvent être posées sur des mesures subjectives. Tout d'abord, la validité des mesures subjectives pourrait souffrir du syndrome du « underconfidence" [160], à savoir le fait que les participants ont tendance à sous-estimer leur conscience. Deuxièmement, il est difficile de savoir comment mettre en évidence les effets inconscients à l'aide de ces mesures, car il n’est pas clair qu’une réponse telle que "bref aperçu » indique un traitement conscient ou inconscient. Par conséquent au lieu de remplacer la mesure objective par la mesure subjective, nous avons utilisé les deux en même temps. Une telle approche à plusieurs volets est, à notre avis, la meilleure solution que nous avons pour le moment.

Dans l'étude 3, suivant le même ordre d’idées que dans l'étude 1, nous avons manipulé le nombre de répétitions d'un stimulus masqué afin d'explorer l'effet de la stabilité du stimulus. Nous avons de nouveau supposé que l'augmentation de la stabilité des stimuli augmenterait la disponibilité à la conscience. Ceci est en contraste avec d'autres études réalisées par Marcel et par Wentura et Frings [3,262]. Ces auteurs ont observé que la répétition d'une amorce masquée augmentait les effets d'amorçage, mais pas la conscience. Cependant, nous pensons que l'amélioration de la méthodologie pourrait apporter un nouvel éclairage sur ce point. Nous avons testé les effets d’amorçage et la conscience dans un design mixte, où les participants devaient classer la cible sur la moitié des essais et effectuer un test de conscience objective et subjective sur l'autre moitié des essais. Surtout, nous avons observé que les effets d’amorçage et la conscience augmentaient en fonction de la stabilité de l’amorce. Nous interprétons ces résultats dans une perspective de qualité de la représentation et défendons l’idée selon laquelle la répétition d'un stimulus augmente la qualité de sa représentation et a donc une plus grande probabilité d'être accessible à la conscience. De plus, nous n'avons pas observé des effets d'amorçage inconscients dans cette étude. Une conscience significative a été observée pour moins de répétitions de l’amorce que des effets d'amorçage significatifs. Ainsi, les effets d'amorçage ont été trouvés uniquement lorsque les participants étaient conscients des stimuli. Cela confirme notre idée première, selon laquelle les effets inconscients sont difficiles à trouver et dépendent de paramètres spécifiques de la tâche à accomplir. Enfin, les participants ont utilisé toutes les réponses de l’échelle PAS (bien que les réponses «expérience claire» étaient rares), ce qui suggère que l'expérience de ces stimuli n'était pas un phénomène de tout-ou-rien, et soutient ainsi notre point de vue de la conscience comme étant progressive.

Dans l'étude 4, nous avons étudié l'effet top-down de l'expertise sur la conscience. L’une des principales prédictions de la thèse de la plasticité radicale est que la conscience dépend de l'apprentissage. Un apprentissage approfondi aboutît à l’expertise et, par conséquent, l'expertise devrait accroître la conscience, au moins lorsque les participants sont invités à rapporter cette prise de conscience. Conformément à nos autres études, nous avons utilisé un paradigme de perception subliminale, mais cette fois sans amorçage. Nous avons comparé des participants chinois et européens dans leur reconnaissance (test de conscience objectif) et visibilité (test de conscience subjectif) de caractères chinois et de symboles mayas. L'hypothèse était que les participants chinois auraient une meilleure performance lors de la reconnaissance et une visibilité accrue pour les caractères chinois. C'est exactement ce que nous avons observé, confirmant ainsi l'idée selon laquelle l'expertise augmente la disponibilité de conscience pour les objets d'expertise.

L’étude 5 est étroitement liée à l'étude 4 et a été construite dans le but de contrôler la situation d'apprentissage. Des participants non-experts ont été formés sur un ensemble de stimuli et nous avons comparé leur performance en reconnaissance ainsi que les rapports de conscience avant et après la formation. Dans trois expériences, l'intensité de l'apprentissage a été augmentée, en raison de l’absence des effets d'entraînement. Dans la troisième expérience, un effet d'entraînement général pouvait être démontré, après neuf jours de formation consécutifs. Cependant, l'effet ne se limitait pas aux stimuli sur lesquels les participants ont été formés, mais était généralisé aux stimuli de contrôle également. Nous avons observé cet effet général uniquement sur la performance au test de reconnaissance (test de conscience objective). En revanche, les rapports de conscience subjectifs ont montré un effet d'apprentissage spécifique, avec une visibilité accrue limitée à l'ensemble de stimuli appris. Nous supposons que ce dernier est un artefact induit par les choix de réponse qui ont été présentés lors du test de reconnaissance précédent. Cela signifie que la conscience plus élevée a été signalée lorsque les options de réponse ont fait partie de l’ensemble des stimuli appris que lorsque les options de réponse ont fait partie de l'ensemble non apprise. En somme, les expériences dans l'étude 5 suggèrent que l'apprentissage doit être suffisamment étendu pour induire des effets sur la conscience. Peut-être seulement une réelle expertise, et non un simple apprentissage associatif, peut avoir un impact sur la disponibilité à la conscience.

En somme, les manipulations bottom-up ont démontré des effets clairs sur la disponibilité à la conscience, tandis que les manipulations top-down de l'apprentissage et de l'expertise sont moins claires. On pourrait imaginer qu’un certain degré d'apprentissage est nécessaire afin d'augmenter la disponibilité à la conscience, et que ce dernier coïncide avec le degré d'apprentissage nécessaire pour que les effets de l'expertise se produisent.

Dans la discussion générale, nous avons formulé ces résultats non seulement dans la thèse de plasticité radicale, mais également par rapport à d’autres théories existantes de la conscience. Nous reprenons les trois sortes de théories qui ont été proposées par le Block [34] et ont mis en évidence la façon dont nos études s'insèrent dans les prédictions faites par ces théories.

Dans le cadre biologique, et plus particulièrement selon la théorie de Lamme [38], les facteurs bottom-up que nous avons manipulé sont supposés influencer la probabilité de la survenance d'un traitement récurrent dans le cerveau. En ce sens, nos résultats n’infirment pas cette théorie. Cependant, le traitement récurrent est censé être tout ou rien, alors que nous avons observé des rapports de conscience intermédiaires. On ne sait pas comment l'expertise pourrait influencer l'apparition de connexions récurrentes. L’expertise est-elle un facteur favorable, similaire à l'attention? Ou est-ce l’apprentissage qui contribue à la formation de ces connexions? Il n’y a actuellement pas d’hypothèses spécifiques concernant les effets de l'apprentissage selon cette théorie ou d'autres théories partageant les idées du cadre biologique.

Ensuite, nous discutons d'une théorie plus fonctionnaliste qui intègre les tentatives d'explication des effets d'apprentissage: la théorie de l'intégration de l'information [46]. Selon cette théorie, l'apprentissage provoque un «raffinement et la réorganisation des connexions entre les patterns de connexion des neurones dans régions appropriées du système thalamo-cortical". L'apprentissage détermine la façon dont l'information est intégrée dans un système (c’est-à-dire la qualité de la conscience). De nombreux éléments de cette théorie sont en accord avec la thèse de la plasticité radicale et nos résultats pourraient donc être pris en compte par cette théorie. Toutefois, cette théorie nie l'importance des rapports subjectifs, que nous considérons comme obligatoires afin de tirer des conclusions au sujet de la conscience phénoménale.

La théorie de l'espace de travail global [54,55] souligne également l'importance des mesures subjectives et est très similaire à la thèse de la plasticité radicale dans ses prédictions concernant les facteurs bottom-up. La théorie globale de l'espace de travail prédit que lorsque la force du stimulus bottom-up augmente, la probabilité que ce stimulus devienne conscient augmente. C'est exactement ce que nous avons observé dans les études 1 et 3.

Cependant, la théorie globale de l'espace de travail prévoit également que cette augmentation a lieu selon le principe du tout-ou-rien et donc qu'il existe une durée du stimulus cruciale au cours de laquelle les participants prennent conscience d'un stimulus. Dans notre première étude, nous avons observé des courbes sigmoïdes de conscience, ce qui indique que l'augmentation de la prise de conscience en fonction de la durée du stimulus n'est pas tout-ou-rien, mais pas linéaire non plus. En plus de cela, la distribution des réponses PAS dans l'étude 3 suggère que la conscience phénoménale avait des niveaux intermédiaires. Ainsi, nous soutenons que la conscience est un phénomène graduel, mais on pourrait également la considérer comme un processus qui évolue par étapes. En effet, la gradualité peut être à la base d'un traitement en plusieurs étapes, tout comme par analogie avec la physique, les changements progressifs de la température provoquent des différentes transitions d'état, par exemple lorsque l'eau se transforme en glace. Une idée liée a été proposé dans l'hypothèse de la prise de conscience partielle [256]: la conscience peut survenir à différents niveaux de la hiérarchie du traitement. Par exemple lorsque les lettres masquées sont présentées, les participants pourraient être pleinement conscients de petites parties de ces lettres, mais seulement partiellement conscients de la lettre dans son intégralité. Cette hypothèse propose donc l'idée selon laquelle la gradualité peut évoluer à partir d'événements discrets.

En outre, comme c'est le cas pour le cadre biologique, la théorie globale de l'espace de travail ne formule pas d’hypothèses concernant l’apprentissage. Une expérience récente sur les bébés de 5 mois pourrait même conduire à penser que cette espace de travail global est inné [353]. Cette expérience a démontré que le même réseau de neurones est activé dans le cerveau des bébés que dans le cerveau des adultes au cours de la perception visuelle consciente. Ceci est en contraste frappant avec notre prédiction que la conscience est acquise pendant l'enfance. Elle réside dans le débat inné vs. acquis et des recherches supplémentaires seront nécessaires pour établir ce qui est inné et dans quelle mesure nous apprenons à être conscients.

Une dernière théorie qui a été discutée est celle de « HOT theory » de la conscience [69,355]. Contrairement aux théories précédentes, cette dernière ne fait pas de prédiction par rapport au fait que des facteurs du stimulus bottom-up influencent la disponibilité à la conscience. Au lieu de cela, la disponibilité à la conscience ne dépend que de l'existence d'une pensée d'ordre supérieur lorsqu’on se trouve dans un état mental spécifique. Il ne nie pas l’éventualité d’influences bottom-up, mais ne précise pas comment elles pourraient influer sur l'existence des pensées d'ordre supérieur. De même, aucune hypothèse n’est faite concernant l'influence des facteurs top-down, comme l'attention et l'apprentissage. Récemment, des prédictions testables plus spécifiques et empiriques ont été formulées dans « HOT theory » [356]. L’apprentissage des pensées d'ordre supérieur pourrait être le résultat du développement du cortex préfrontal, qui est présumé être le domaine associé à ces représentations d'ordre supérieur. En outre, les pensées de second ordre peuvent être innées, alors que celles de troisième ordre (ou d'ordre supérieur) se développeraient pendant l'enfance. Cette hypothèse expliquerait comment la conscience peut être construite au cours du développement, mais ne prévoit pas expressément que ces processus d'apprentissage se produisent également chez les adultes à des échelles de temps plus restreintes. En revanche, la thèse de la plasticité radicale stipule explicitement que la conscience dépend de l'apprentissage, même chez les adultes. Une étude approfondie de la question serait nécessaire, afin de tester cette idée de manière spécifique. Cependant, à première vue, les effets d'apprentissage généraux dans notre cinquième étude indiquent que l'apprentissage (ou mieux: l’expertise) augmente la disponibilité de conscience.

En somme, la plupart des théories concernant la conscience prédisent que la force d’un stimulus bottom-up augmente la disponibilité à la conscience. Cependant, la plupart d'entre elles prédisent que la conscience est un processus de tout-ou-rien et que, à partir du moment où un stimulus est suffisamment fort, nous sommes pleinement conscients de ce stimulus. Au contraire, nous pensons que la conscience est graduelle et qu’il existe des états intermédiaires d'expérience phénoménale. En outre, la plupart de ces théories ne tiennent pas compte explicitement des effets top-down d'expertise. Nous soutenons que ces théories doivent être étendues afin de pouvoir faire des prédictions concernant la relation entre l'apprentissage et la conscience plus explicite. Ce faisant, d'autres expériences peuvent confirmer - ou infirmer - les mécanismes sous-jacents proposés.

De nombreux paradigmes expérimentaux développés ont contribué à la création de nombreuses théories vérifiables de la conscience. Cependant, nous pensons que des progrès passent inévitablement par des prévisions plus explicites. Une orientation future consisterait donc à une réflexion théorique profonde afin d’établir des théories plus directement comparables.

En outre, une attention particulière devrait être accordée à des questions de mesure, car le débat concernant la manière plus appropriée de mesurer la conscience reste ouvert. Comparer les différentes expériences n’est pas aisé, voire impossible, si différentes mesures dépendantes sont utilisées. Tant qu’il n’y a pas de consensus, nous sommes en faveur d’une approche à plusieurs volets dont les différentes mesures sont utilisées dans une expérience. Nous émettons également quelques réserves concernant les tests de conscience post-hoc, étant donné que la fatigue ou l'apprentissage pourraient influencer la conscience. Nous proposons d'utiliser un modèle mixte dans lequel les essais expérimentaux et les essais de test de conscience sont testés simultanément.

Enfin, en ce qui concerne la thèse de la plasticité radicale [7,93] qui a été testée lors des études conduites dans cette thèse de doctorat, nous reconnaissons que de futures recherches sont nécessaires afin de tester ses principales prédictions. Tout d'abord, nous pouvons appliquer les mêmes manipulations dans un paradigme de clignement attentionnel. Dans ce paradigme, la perception d'un stimulus est entravée non pas parce qu'elle est présentée pour une courte durée, mais parce que l'attention est captée par un stimulus présenté précédemment. Il serait intéressant de voir si l'apprentissage et l’expertise influencent également la perception de ces stimuli.

Deuxièmement, une étude longitudinale serait nécessaire afin de tester l'hypothèse selon laquelle nous apprenons à être conscient lors du développement. Bien qu'il soit difficile, voire impossible d'inférer la conscience phénoménale chez les bébés, nous pourrions commencer par examiner comment la conscience évolue au cours de la petite enfance, par exemple lors de l’apprentissage de la lecture.

Troisièmement, la phase d'automaticité proposée n'a pas été directement testée dans cette thèse de doctorat. Toutefois des prédictions fondamentales existent et pourraient être testées dans des recherches futures. La conscience est-elle réellement obligatoire lors du traitement automatique? Un moyen d’investiguer cette question consisterait à sonder la conscience des participants uniquement sur une petite quantité d'essais au cours d’un apprentissage. Cette méthode permettrait de voir s’ils étaient – ou non – phénoménalement conscients de la tâche automatique.

Dernier point, mais non le moindre, des méthodes neuro-imagerie pourraient certainement aider à tester les hypothèses de la thèse de la plasticité radicale. L'amélioration de ces techniques pourrait permettre de mieux décrire la qualité d'une représentation neuronale et de trouver les mécanismes neuronaux sous-jacents aux méta-représentations. Ces techniques pourraient éventuellement permettre de montrer comment le cerveau s'adapte et comment il pourrait apprendre quelque chose à propos de ses propres signaux.

English Summary

The main objective of this thesis is to explore the underlying mechanisms of the transition between conscious and unconscious visual processing. It is now widely accepted in the field of cognitive psychology that at least some processes can occur unconsciously. Visual perception is the most studied subject to this matter. Although we have the impression of a complete, detailed and continuous vision of the external world, it can be demonstrated that parts of this visual stream are not consciously perceived; for example because of the fact that they were presented very quickly, outside of the center of our visual focus or because of a lack of attention.

The major problem in the scientific study of (un)conscious perception is the fact that one has to rely on subjective measures. Indeed, only the seeing person is capable of reporting his visual experience and this report cannot be objectively verified by the experimenter. In other words, there is no directly measurable variable of the contents of perceptual experience which forces scientists to use data from a third-person perspective. Relying on introspective reports is difficult because of their qualitative nature and is unreliable because of their subjectivity. Therefore, in history, it was long considered as impossible to study consciousness scientifically. However, many developments in thinking and methodology have made room for the investigation of consciousness in experimental psychology.

Descartes [17] made a distinction between body and mind which enabled the scientific study of the brain, because it was considered as part of the body. However, (conscious) thought was part of the mind, a non-physical substrate that could not be studied scientifically. This was the main reason why, for a long time, consciousness was a subject restricted to philosophical thinking. It was only in the 19th century, that the first experimental psychologists argued that psychological processes could be measured and psychology became a scientific discipline. However, during the 20th century, behaviorists banned “consciousness” because only observable behavior was considered as providing valuable data and studying consciousness relied on unreliable introspective methods. However, later on, scientific developments radically changed this idea. For example, Gestaltpsychology showed in visual illusions that subjective awareness was a variable that could be manipulated. More importantly, Information Theory [20,21] created the metaphor of the human brain as an information processing system in analogy to a computer system. Experiments on “working memory” were very similar to what we now call consciousness studies. Furthermore, some experiments demonstrated unconscious processing (e.g. Marcel [3]) and Signal Detection Theory [26] provided a way of quantifying awareness reports. Finally, neuroimaging studies revealed that unconscious information processing is accompanied by observable brain processes and thus demonstrates that the underlying neural mechanisms of unconscious information processing in the brain can be compared to the mechanisms observed in conscious processing. This has thus far revealed many candidates for a Neural Correlate of Consciousness (the “NCC” [6,29]).

In sum, these recent developments have boosted experimental investigation as well as theoretical thinking on consciousness. Many theories of consciousness exist, some more philosophically inspired and others that are based on neural mechanisms. In the introduction of this thesis, we only discuss the theories that form the basis for the construction of our studies. We borrow the taxonomy of Block [34] to organize the multitude of theories and distinguish between a biological framework, a global workspace perspective and a higher order view.

In the biological framework, consciousness is defined by a biological state of the brain. For example, Lamme [38] states that recurrent processing in the brain is the defining feature of conscious processing. If processing is restricted to feedforward sweeps, it can influence further processing, but it is not considered to be conscious. If recurrent connections are involved in the processing stream, the percept is defined as a conscious percept. Even if this recurrent processing is very local (for example restricted to the visual cortex), participants are considered as being conscious of the material. According to Lamme [38], this definition of consciousness even applies when subjects thus deny subjective experiences. This is a very controversial theory, because it defines consciousness in function of a neural mechanism and disapproves the value of subjective reports.

On the contrary, emphasis and reinstated use of subjective reports is defended in the second sort of theory: the Global Workspace Theory (GWT). In this theory, consciousness is explained by the metaphor of a theater [54]. The theater “combines limited events taking place on stage with a vast audience, just as consciousness involves limited information that creates access to a vast number of unconscious sources of knowledge” [358]. Dehaene and colleagues [55,61,334] extended this idea and proposed that the neural signature of this workspace is a sudden ignition in widespread activation of parieto-frontal cortex. Furthermore, they distinguish four different levels of consciousness, based on two dimensions: bottom-up stimulus strength and top-down attention. If both dimensions are high, a stimulus is consciously processed. If only one of these dimensions is high, the stimulus is unconsciously processed (subliminally or preconsciously). If both dimensions are low, the stimuli have (almost) no effect on processing. Only in the case of conscious processing there is thus wide-spread activation to a parieto-frontal network, i.e. the workspace.

In a third, more philosophically inspired theory, Higher-Order Thought Theory [69,70], the intuition is followed that consciousness requires a thought to the effect that we are experiencing a certain stimulation. For example, when I say that I am consciously seeing red, I mean that I am thinking about me being in a state of experiencing redness. In general, according to this theory, conscious states are mental states we are conscious of. This theory thus particularly deals with the phenomenal aspect of consciousness (i.e. what it feels like to be in a conscious state).

The last two sorts of theories have substantially contributed to the construction of the radical plasticity thesis [7,93]. The radical plasticity thesis forms the starting point of the studies in the current doctoral thesis. It is therefore extensively described throughout the thesis.

The radical plasticity thesis [7,93] is a dynamic view on consciousness, stating that the brain continuously adapts itself through learning about its own internal signals by redescribing them. This redescription process corresponds to the formation of meta-representations from Higher-Order Thought Theory. Combining many such meta-representations increases the availability to awareness and corresponds to global broadcasting in Global Workspace Theory.

Furthermore, the radical plasticity thesis [7,93] states that the availability to awareness depends on the quality of a representation, which in turn depends on three dimensions: strength, distinctiveness and stability. Strong, stable and distinctive representations are more likely to be available for conscious processing. For example, increasing the duration of presentation of a stimulus (i.e. strength) increases the quality of the representation of that stimulus and therefore increases availability to awareness.

Finally, the relationship between quality of representation and availability to awareness is not a one-to-one relationship but evolves in three stages: the implicit cognition stage, the explicit cognition stage and the automaticity stage.

First, in the implicit cognition stage, there is a very vague phenomenal experience. Intentional control and access consciousness are low, implying that one cannot control the effect a stimulus has on behavior and one cannot verbalize the identity of the stimulus. This is the stage of unconscious processing. For example, in artificial grammar learning experiments [94], participants are confronted with strings that follow complicated rules. After this presentation stage, participants are able to indicate whether new strings obey these rules or not, which indicates that they successfully learned about the material. However, they cannot verbalize these rules. This suggests that they learned about the material in an unconscious, or at least in an implicit, manner. In a related paradigm, sequence learning [102], it was furthermore observed that participants could not withhold from using a difficult sequence that was learned during a sufficient amount of time. In other words, they could not control the acquired information and on top of that, they could not report upon it. The information was processed as demonstrated by faster reaction times when the material was presented according to the sequence than when it followed a different sequence. This again suggests that learning without awareness is possible. Conditioning research (e.g. [109,113,118]) also reveals such unconscious effects. Even when participants are not aware of an association between two stimuli or between a stimulus and a response, their behavior is influenced by the association. However, this research field is less contingent upon the obtained results and critics [129] question whether awareness was validly measured in these paradigms. A third, more profound literature concerns subliminal priming paradigms. In a subliminal priming paradigm, stimuli are presented for a very short duration and subsequently masked (i.e. the primes). This renders them invisible and they are thus not processed consciously. They are processed unconsciously, which is demonstrated by the effect they exert on responses to subsequent stimuli (i.e. the targets). Many such effects have now been observed, even up to the level of semantic influences [135,136,137]. For example, if the subliminally presented word “doctor” is followed by the semantically related word “nurse”, participants respond faster than when it is followed by the unrelated word “tree”. In sum, several paradigms have made room for the possibility that unconscious (or implicit) processing is possible. In these paradigms, unconscious processing is often compared to conscious (or explicit) processing, which is the second stage in our Quality of Representation framework.

In the second stage, representations have accrued sufficient quality to be available to conscious access. It is these contents we are conscious of, for example when doing a difficult multiplication. It mainly concerns attention-demanding tasks and the stage is characterized by flexible control. Because consciousness is usually considered as the default mode we find ourselves in, studies mostly describe this stage by contrasting it with the previous, unconscious stage [2]. Indeed, many differences were observed between conscious and unconscious processing. They indicate that consciousness is necessary for adaptive control [1], for taking context into account [176], for chaining serial mental operations [173], for inhibition [167], … On the contrary, other experiments demonstrate that some of these processes are not restricted to conscious processing. For example, subliminally presented no-go cues induced inhibition [181]. It is thus far not clear whether it can be stated that the function of consciousness is to offer flexible control and adaptive behavior. These inconsistencies lead us to assume that the flow between the stages is gradual. Therefore, we manipulate the independent variables in our studies gradually.

Finally, the third stage of automaticity is characterized by well-trained behavior, for example playing the piano in expert piano players. Research on expertise effects demonstrates that processing is indeed very different for experts than for novices. For example, performance for categorization on the sub-ordinate level (e.g. Bulldog, Schnauzer,…) is normally harder than categorization at a basic level (e.g. dog versus cat). In dog experts these categorization performances can reach the same level [191,192]. In our view, the function of expertise is that processes can become automatic. In the example, the dog expert can automatically categorize the different sorts of dogs. In the automaticity stage, representations are highly available for action, demonstrated by high performance. On the other hand, control is low, because of the ballistic character of these processes [224]. Once initiated, they cannot – or hardly- be stopped. Furthermore, these processes are only optionally available to phenomenal consciousness. Indeed, the function of these automatic processes is their efficiency. They do not require attention and attention can thus be focused elsewhere. Normally, these processes are thus not conscious as they progress, but focusing attention on these processes can make them available. For example, when driving a car, one is normally not conscious of the clutch movements made, but one could focus on them when required. Hence, automatic processes are not necessarily unconscious processes. Rather, awareness is optional.

The transition between the three stages that were described, has to be thought of as a gradual transition. Crucially, this transition depends on the quality of representation. In the studies in this doctoral thesis, we manipulated the quality of representation in order to explore the transition between the unconscious (implicit) stage and the conscious (explicit) stage. These manipulations were assumed to influence the quality of representation from two directions: bottom-up and top-down.

We defined bottom-up factors as factors proper to the external stimulation, while top-down factors are proper to the subjects’ brain. This is coherent with the definition of input and priors in the Bayesian inference framework [228,229]. The dimensions of the quality of representation (strength, stability and distinctiveness) can thus be manipulated by as well bottom-up factors as by top-down factors.

We present five studies in this thesis that investigate the influence of these bottom-up and top-down factors in a subliminal perception paradigm. Much research has focused on a particular bottom-up factor: stimulus strength. For example, Del Cul et al. [231], observed sigmoid increases in awareness as a function of the interval between a stimulus and its subsequent mask. However, the exact form of the curve is a matter of debate: some view it as an all-or-none phenomenon [60,231], while others view it as a continuum [7,233].

In Study 1, we explored the form of these curves by varying the prime duration in a subliminal priming paradigm. First, several priming blocks were presented to participants whereby prime duration increased in each block. During this task, participants had to categorize the targets and were not informed about the presence of primes. Next, we measured prime awareness by means of the same amount of blocks with the same increasing prime durations. This time, participants were informed about the presence of the primes and were asked to categorize them. This is a typical objective prime awareness test, based on the d prime (d’) measure from Signal Detection Theory [26]. This study allowed us to explore the dynamics of unconscious and conscious perception as a function of prime duration.

As expected, we observed an increase in priming effects and in awareness in function of prime duration. The curve forms were concave for priming effects and sigmoid for awareness. This indicates that the underlying mechanisms of priming and awareness are at least partly dissociable. Furthermore, the curves for priming effects significantly differed from zero at a smaller prime duration than the awareness curves. This confirms the existence of unconscious priming effects that were demonstrated in the literature [3,133,148]. However, we observed that these unconscious priming effects only occurred at crucial prime durations, indicating that these unconscious effects are hard to find if prime duration is not carefully manipulated. Finally, the awareness test indicated that awareness responses were influenced by the identity of the target, despite the instruction to ignore the target. This led us to investigate the validity of such objective awareness tests in Study 2.

In Study 2, we again used a subliminal priming paradigm and explored priming effects and awareness. However, this time the aim of the study was to investigate several factors that might influence the awareness measure, and as such might question its validity. Therefore, we presented several slightly different awareness tests to participants. We manipulated three factors. First, we investigated whether there was an influence of the presentation of the target on prime awareness. We either presented a directional target or a neutral target during the awareness test. We assumed that the directional target would hamper visibility of the primes in comparison with the presentation of a neutral target, because the directional target might interfere with the processing of the prime. As a second factor, we induced a delay between target and response. We assumed that this would increase awareness, because it takes time to become aware of a stimulus. As a third factor, we manipulated top-down attention. In one condition, attention could be fully allocated to the prime and in the other condition attention was divided between prime and target. We assumed that increased attention would lead to increased awareness of the primes.

All three assumptions were confirmed: a neutral target, focused attention and a delay between target and response all increased awareness. This implies that the standard d’ measure in consciousness research might be an over- or underestimation of real awareness. This is problematic, especially in the case of underestimation as unconscious effects on behavior might be attributed to minimal conscious processing. Therefore, we used a subjective measure of awareness in our subsequent studies. We chose to use a PAS-scale (Perceptual Awareness Scale) [246], which questions the phenomenal visibility of stimuli. Participants had to rate this visibility on a 4-point scale, including 1) no experience, 2) brief glimpse, 3) almost clear experience and 4) clear experience of the stimulus. However, other issues can be raised on subjective measures. First of all, the validity of subjective measures might suffer from the “underconfidence phenomenon” [160], i.e. the fact that participants tend to underestimate their awareness. Second, it is unclear how to demonstrate unconscious effects by using such measures, because it might be discussed whether for example “brief glimpse” responses indicate conscious or unconscious processing. Therefore, we did not replace the objective measure with the subjective measure, but we used both at the same time. Such a multi-pronged approach is, in our view, the best solution we have at the moment.

In Study 3, we reinstated the investigation of bottom-up factors on awareness. We now manipulated the number of repetitions of a masked stimulus in order to explore the effect of stimulus stability. We again assumed that increasing the stability of stimuli would increase the availability to awareness. This is in contrast with other studies by Marcel and by Wentura and Frings [3,262]. They observed that repeating a masked prime increased priming effects, but not awareness. However, we believed that improved methodology might shed new light on this. We tested priming and awareness in a mixed design, where participants had to categorize the target on half of the trials and had to perform an objective and subjective awareness test on the other half of the trials. Importantly, we observed that both priming and awareness increased as a function of stimulus stability. We interpret these results in the quality of representation framework and state that repeating a stimulus increases the quality of its representation and therefore has an increased likelihood of being consciously accessed. Furthermore, we failed to observe any unconscious priming effects in this study. Significant awareness results were observed for less repetitions of the prime than significant priming effects. Thus, priming effects were only found when participants were aware of the stimuli. This confirms our previous statement that unconscious effects are hard to find and depend on specifics of the task at hand. Finally, participants used all PAS-scale responses (although the “clear experience” responses were sparse). This suggests that experience of these stimuli was not all-or-none and thus supports our view of consciousness as being graded.

In Study 4, we investigated the top-down effect of expertise on awareness. The most important prediction of the radical plasticity thesis reads that consciousness depends on learning. Extended learning gives rise to expertise and therefore, it follows that expertise should increase awareness, at least when participants are probed to report upon this awareness. Consistent with our other studies, we used a subliminal perception paradigm, but now without priming. We compared Chinese and European participants in their recognition (objective awareness test) and reported visibility (subjective awareness test) of Chinese characters and Mayan symbols. We hypothesized that Chinese participants would have increased performance in recognition of and increased reported awareness for Chinese characters. This is exactly what we observed, which confirms the idea that expertise increases the availability to awareness for objects of expertise.

Study 5 is closely related to Study 4 and was constructed with the purpose of controlling the learning situation. Non-expert participants were trained on a certain stimulus set and recognition performance and reported awareness were compared before and after training. In three experiments, the intensity of learning was increased, because of a failure to observe any training effects. In the third experiment, a general training effect could be demonstrated after nine consecutive training days. However, the effect was not restricted to the trained stimuli, but generalized over the control stimuli as well. We observed this general effect only for recognition performance (objective awareness test). In contrast, subjective awareness reports showed a specific learning effect, with increased visibility restricted to the learned stimulus set. We assume that the latter is an artifact induced by the response alternatives that were presented during the preceding recognition test. This means that higher awareness was reported when the response alternatives were part of the learned stimulus set than when the response alternatives were part of the non-learned set. In sum, the experiments in Study 5 demonstrated that learning has to be sufficiently extended in order to induce effects on awareness. Perhaps only real expertise, and not just simple associative learning, influences the availability to awareness.

In sum, the bottom-up manipulations demonstrated clear effects on the availability of awareness, while the top-down manipulations of learning and expertise were less clear. It might be the case that the degree of learning that is necessary to increase the availability to awareness coincides with the degree of learning that is necessary for expertise effects to occur.

In the general discussion, we frame these results not only in the radical plasticity thesis, but also in other existing theories of consciousness. We redescribe the three sorts of theories that were proposed by Block [34] and highlight how our studies fit into the predictions made by these theories.

In the biological framework, and more particularly in Lamme’s theory [38], the bottom-up factors that we manipulated are assumed to influence the probability of the occurrence of recurrent processing in the brain. In this sense, our results do not falsify this theory. However, recurrent processing is supposed to be all-or-none, while we observed graded awareness reports. It is also unclear how expertise might influence the occurrence of recurrent connections. Is expertise an enabling factor, similar to attention? Or does learning contribute to the formation of these connections? No specific assumptions on learning effects have thus far been made in this theory or in other theories that share the ideas of the biological framework.

Next, we discuss a more functionalist theory that incorporates attempts to explain learning effects: the Information Integration Theory [46]. According to this theory, learning causes a “refinement and rearranging of connection patterns among neurons in appropriate parts of the thalamocortical system”. Learning determines the way information is integrated in a system (i.e. the quality of consciousness). Many elements in this account are in line with the radical plasticity thesis and our results might thus be accounted for by this theory as well. However, the account denies the importance of subjective reports, which we consider as mandatory when drawing conclusions about phenomenal awareness.

The Global Workspace Theory [54,55] also stresses the importance of subjective measures and is very similar to the radical plasticity thesis in its predictions concerning bottom-up factors. The Global Workspace Theory firmly predicts that bottom-up stimulus strength increases the likelihood that a stimulus will be consciously accessed. This was exactly what we observed in Studies 1 and 3.

However, the Global Workspace Theory also predicts that this increase is all-or-none and thus that there exists a crucial stimulus duration at which participants become aware of a stimulus. In our first study, we observed sigmoid curves for awareness, indicating that the increase in awareness as a function of stimulus duration is not all-or-none, but not linear either. On top of that, the spread of PAS responses in Study 3 suggests that phenomenal awareness had intermediate levels. Thus, we argue that awareness is a graded phenomenon, although it may also be viewed as a stage-like process. Indeed, gradedness can be at the basis of processing in stages, just like, in analogy with physics, gradual changes in temperature cause different state transitions for example when water turns into ice. A related idea was proposed in the partial awareness hypothesis [256]: consciousness can arise at different levels of the processing hierarchy. For example when masked letters are presented, participants might be fully aware of small parts of these letters, but only partially aware of the complete letter. This hypothesis thus particularly deals with the idea that gradedness can evolve from discrete events.

Furthermore
Doctorat en Sciences Psychologiques et de l'éducation
info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

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Lewis, Penelope A. « Neural mechanisms of time perception ». Thesis, University of Oxford, 2001. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.394035.

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Brooks, Kevin. « Mechanisms of suprathreshold stereomotion perception ». Thesis, University of Sussex, 2000. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.310246.

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Ohla, Kathrin. « Neuronal mechanisms of food perception ». Doctoral thesis, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Lebenswissenschaftliche Fakultät, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.18452/13985.

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Die sensorischen und hedonischen Eigenschaften von Essen sind wichtige Einflussfaktoren für die Nahrungsauswahl und –aufnahme. Was macht die Anziehungskraft von Nahrungsreizen aus? Die sensorischen und hedonsichen Eigenschaften von Nahrungsreizen werden mit allen Sinnen, oftmals sogar gleichzeitig, verarbeitet. Nahrungswahrnehmung ist damit ein mutlisensorisches Phänomen. Der Geruch, der Anblick, der Tasteindruck oder Geräusche können bereits vor der Nahrungsaufnahme wahrgenommen werden und Erwartungen hinsichtlich des Geschmacks auslösen. Diese prä-ingestiven Wahrnehmungseindrücke spielen daher auch eine maßgebliche Rolle bei der Entstehung von Verlangen und Gelüsten. Während der Nahrungsaufnahme, beim Kauen und Schlucken, spielen die chemischen Sinne, Schmecken und Riechen, eine besondere Rolle. Der Gesamtsinneseindruck aus den chemischen Sinneskanälen wird auch als Flavor bezeichnet. Wobei angemerkt sein soll, dass auch nicht-chemische Sinne, Sehen, Hören und Tasten, in die Flavordefinition einbezogen werden können. Zweifelsohne stellt die Nahrungsaufnahme ein komplexes Verhalten dar, das perzeptuelle, kognitive und Stoffwechselprozesse gleichermaßen umfasst. Die vorliegende Habilitationsschrift widmet sich der Untersuchung der neurokognitiven Mechanismen der visuellen, gustatorischen und flavour Wahrnehmung von Nahrungsobjekten und umfasst Untersuchungen zur Vulnerabilität der neuronalen Repräsentationen durch kontextuelle Reize. Zusammenfassend schließt die Arbeit mit der Feststellung, dass ein umfassendes Verständnis der psychophysiologischen Mechanismen der sensorischen und hedonischen Verarbeitung von Nahrungsreizen über alle Sinne die perzeptuelle Grundlage für nahrungsbezogenes Urteilen und Entscheiden darstellt.
What characterizes food and makes it so tempting? Sensory and hedonic information about food is conveyed by all senses, activated more or less simultaneously, having led to the notion that food perception is a multisensory experience. The smell, sight, touch or sound of a food can be experienced before ingestion and elicit expectations about the "taste" of that food based on previous encounters. It is, therefore, not surprising that these so-called pre-ingestive sensory experiences play a role in the formation of cravings and the elicitation of appetitive responses. Only during consumption, the chemical senses, smell, taste and oral touch and irritation, are experienced in the oral cavity as food is masticated and swallowed and gives rise to the overall experience commonly referred to as taste. While the term taste is, strictly speaking, incorrect as it does not refer to the gustatory perception, many languages including German lack an appropriate term for the holistic flavor experience arising from the food-induced stimulation of the chemical senses, gustation, olfaction and oral somatosensation in a minimalist interpretation, or, in a broader sense, of all our senses, including hearing and vision. Undoubtedly, feeding behavior is characterized by a complex interplay of perceptual, cognitive and metabolic processes and research on the mechanisms by which these processes regulate food intake behavior is only in its infancy. In this thesis, I present a series of studies aiming to elucidate the cortical representations of the visual, gustatory and flavor components of food objects along with evidence for the vulnerability of these presentations to contextual information. Together, I reckon that an understanding of the psychophysiological mechanisms of the sensory and affective processing of food objects mediated by our senses, seeing, smelling, tasting, feeling and hearing, represents the perceptual basis of food-related decision making.
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Ng, Minna. « Selectivity of face processing mechanisms ». Connect to a 24 p. preview or request complete full text in PDF format. Access restricted to UC campuses, 2007. http://wwwlib.umi.com/cr/ucsd/fullcit?p3263467.

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Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of California, San Diego, 2007.
Title from first page of PDF file (viewed August 2, 2007). Available via ProQuest Digital Dissertations. Vita. Includes bibliographical references.
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Ellis, Errol Mark. « Mechanisms in phonetic tactile speech perception ». Thesis, University of Cambridge, 1994. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.338072.

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Ayhan, I. « Vision-based mechanisms of time perception ». Thesis, University College London (University of London), 2010. http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/623426/.

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Perceived duration of brief intervals can be altered in a specific spatial location in the visual field by adaptation to oscillatory motion or flicker (Johnston et al, 2006, 2008). In the first experiment here, the spatial tuning of adaptation-based temporal distortions was investigated by varying the spatial separation of adaptor and test. It was found that adaptation-based apparent duration compression is tightly tuned to the location of the adaptor and that the effects of adaptation on perceived duration are dissociable from those on temporal frequency although the spatial tuning of these effects was similar. In a second experiment, the frame of reference (retinotopic versus spatiotopic) of adaptation effects was investigated using pursuit and saccadic paradigms. It was observed a robust time compression following a purely retinotopic adaptation. In two different saccadic paradigms, no significant effect was observed after spatiotopic adaptation. No interocular transfer was found. In a third experiment, the effect of the luminance signal on adaptationbased duration compression was investigated using luminance-modulated and isoluminant stimuli. It was shown that the apparent duration compression following temporal frequency adaptation is specific to luminance-modulated stimuli and that the effect disappears at isoluminance. The differences in visibility between luminance-modulated and isoluminant stimuli could not explain the discrepancy. At isoluminance, duration compression was recovered for chromatic backgrounds. The final experiments investigated the effect of simultaneous surrounds on the perceived duration of inner patches. It was found that perceived duration of a mid-temporal frequency counterphase modulated flicker is almost significantly expanded if embedded within a high temporal frequency context; whereas a low temporal frequency context can only induce a mild expansion. In an adaptation paradigm, counterphase modulated flicker was found to induce smaller duration compression compared to drifting stimuli. These results provide further evidence for a difference between mechanisms modulating duration and temporal frequency.
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Ho, Ching Elizabeth Sperling George Shimojo Shinsuke. « Multiple mechanisms of apparent motion perception / ». Diss., Pasadena, Calif. : California Institute of Technology, 2000. http://resolver.caltech.edu/CaltechETD:etd-04072005-145953.

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Gunther, Karen La Vaughn. « The neural mechanisms underlying color perception / ». Diss., Connect to a 24 p. preview or request complete full text in PDF format. Access restricted to UC campuses, 2002. http://wwwlib.umi.com/cr/ucsd/fullcit?p3044771.

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Murray, Scott Owen. « Neural mechanisms of human shape perception / ». For electronic version search Digital dissertations database. Restricted to UC campuses. Access is free to UC campus dissertations, 2002. http://uclibs.org/PID/11984.

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Sánchez, García Carolina 1984. « Cross-modal predictive mechanisms during speech perception ». Doctoral thesis, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, 2013. http://hdl.handle.net/10803/293266.

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El objetivo de esta tesis es investigar los mecanismos predictivos que operan de forma online durante la percepción audiovisual de una lengua. La idea de que existen mecanismos predictivos que actúan a distintos niveles lingüísticos (sintáctico, semántico, fonológico...) durante la percepción de una lengua ha sido ampliamente apoyada recientemente por literatura. Sin embargo, casi toda la literatura está relacionada con los fenómenos predictivos dentro de la misma modalidad sensorial (visual o auditiva). En esta tesis, investigamos si la predicción online durante la percepción del habla puede ocurrir a través de distintas modalidades sensoriales. Los resultados de este trabajo aportan evidencias de que la información visual articulatoria puede ser utilizada para predecir la subsiguiente información auditiva durante el procesamiento de una lengua. Además, los efectos de la predicción intermodal se observaron únicamente en la lengua nativa de los participantes pero no en una lengua con la que no estaban familiarizados. Esto nos lleva a concluir que representaciones fonológicas bien establecidas son esenciales para que ocurra una predicción online a través de modalidades. El último estudio de esta tesis reveló, mediante el uso de ERPs, que la información visual articulatoria puede ejercer una influencia más allá de las etapas fonológicas. En concreto, la saliencia visual de la primera sílaba de una palabra influye durante la etapa de selección léxica, interaccionando con los procesos semánticos durante la comprensión de frases. Los resultados obtenidos en esta tesis demuestran la existencia de mecanismos predictivos a través de distintas modalidades sensoriales, basados en información articulatoria visual. Estos mecanismos actúan de forma online, haciendo uso de la información multisensorial disponible durante la percepción de una lengua, para optimizar su procesamiento.
The present dissertation addresses the predictive mechanisms operating online during audiovisual speech perception. The idea that prediction mechanisms operate during the perception of speech at several linguistic levels (i.e. syntactic, semantic, phonological….) has received increasing support in recent literature. Yet, most evidence concerns prediction phenomena within a single sensory modality, i.e., visual, or auditory. In this thesis, I explore if online prediction during speech perception can occur across sensory modalities. The results of this work provide evidence that visual articulatory information can be used to predict the subsequent auditory input during speech processing. In addition, evidence for cross-modal prediction was observed only in the observer’s native language but not in unfamiliar languages. This led to the conclusion that well established phonological representations are paramount for online cross-modal prediction to take place. The last study of this thesis, using ERPs, revealed that visual articulatory information can have an influence beyond phonological stages. In particular, the visual saliency of word onsets has an influence at the stage of lexical selection, interacting with the semantic processes during sentence comprehension. By demonstrating the existence of online cross-modal predictive mechanisms based on articulatory visual information, our results shed new lights on how multisensory cues are used to speed up speech processing.
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Kentridge, Robert William. « Central mechanisms in the perception of reward ». Thesis, Durham University, 1998. http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/4905/.

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The perception of reward is crucial in many psychological processes. Wise (1982) has suggested that the neurotransmitter dopamine is involved in producing 'hedonic' responses to rewards. Dopamine is also involved in the control of movement and hunger. Testing dopamine's role in reward perception is therefore complicated by these other actions; the effects of manipulations can often be interpreted as actions on hunger or motor control, rather than on reward. Two methods are described in this thesis which isolate reward effects. The effects of dopaminergic drugs on the rewarding impact of exploration were investigated. The use of exploration eliminates the influence of hunger, while the impact of motor deficits was reduced by using choice measures. Control experiments assessed effects on activity and emotionality. Results indicated that dopamine was involved in exploratory reinforcement independently of its roles in hunger or simple motor control. Tests of whether dopamine is involved in hedonia, or merely in engaging responses to reinforcers, used the 'behavioural contrast' paradigm. Contrast occurs when animals over-react to unexpected changes in reinforcement and allow response elicitation effects to be dissociated from effects on hedonia. Although the dopamine anatagonist a-flupenthixol did not affect contrast induced by changes in reinforcement value, the introduction or withdrawal of the drug could, itself, induce contrast effects. It is concluded that dopamine is involved in hedonia independently of any involvement in response elicitation. A speculative model of the nature of dopamine’s involvement in hedonia is proposed and its implications for our understanding of Parkinson’s disease and schizophrenia, in which dopamine dysfunctions are implicated, are discussed.
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Watkinson, R. K. « Temporal mechanisms for the perception of pitch ». Thesis, University of Essex, 2006. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.423710.

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Pääkkönen, Ari Kullervo. « Motion-deblurring mechanisms of human visual perception ». Thesis, University of Edinburgh, 1993. http://hdl.handle.net/1842/20083.

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The temporal integration period of the visual system for both stationary and moving objects is known to be over 100 ms in daylight. One might expect from this that motion blur should considerably degrade our percepts of moving objects. However, we are able to see moving objects with clarity. Some authors have suggested that there are special motion-deblurring mechanisms to prevent motion degradation. The proposed mechanisms are motion-tuned: integration follows the motion path of the object. The aim of this work was to study the properties of visual motion blur and their implications for possible deblurring mechanisms. In the main experiment, blur discrimination thresholds for moving, Gaussian-blurred edges were measured in order to separate the effects of motion blur and static spatial blur. The data was modelled by assuming a linear transform of the physical image of the edge to its neural representation. The results show that motion produces equivalent spatial blur. The velocity dependence of this blur is linear, and its extent can be predicted by a temporal impulse response with a standard deviation of about 5 ms in normal room light, which gives an estimate of about 0 to 225 ms for the blur-producing motion integration time. Supported by the results of two-dot resolution experiments, it is proposed that this blur results from camera-like summation and not from the use of larger spatial filters for moving than for stationary objects. When the author repeated the main experiment six months later after many other experiments mainly with small reference blurs, changes in thresholds and model parameters were found that indicate low-level learning and neural plasticity in the blur discrimination system. An even more surprising result came from the experiment where the contrast polarity in relation to the direction of motion was changed opposite to that in the main experiment. Learning effects for moving edges were not transferred from one polarity to the other, indicating that spatial analysis of moving objects may be served by two separate subsystems, possibly related to the on and off systems of the visual pathway.
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Simmons, David R. « Spatiotemporal properties of stereoscopic mechanisms ». Thesis, University of Oxford, 1992. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.334291.

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Goddard, Paul Andrew. « Visual mechanisms of motion detection ». Thesis, University of Newcastle Upon Tyne, 1997. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.244472.

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Seemungal, Barry Mitra. « The mechanisms and loci of human vestibular perception ». Thesis, University College London (University of London), 2005. http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1445054/.

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This thesis' primary aims were to characterise the what, where and how of vestibular cortical processing. A secondary aim was to assess the effects of early visual deprivation on vestibular perception, in particular the what and where.;The What: Using an angular vestibular navigation paradigm with physiological range stimuli, we quantitatively demonstrated that healthy subjects were able to actively reproduce spatial and kinetic parameters of a passively travelled trajectory (displacement, time, velocity and acceleration). Early blind subjects showed no deficit in the perception of raw vestibular signals but were relatively impaired in more complex spatial vestibular navigation tasks. Congenitally blind subjects did not show the normal prolongation of the vestibular signal coming from the labyrinth (i.e. velocity storage mechanism) at perceptual level and two blind subjects who had superior navigational ability also had ultra-short vestibular time constants. Based upon a questionnaire assessment of these subjects, we concluded that frequent exposure to specific activities (e.g. down-hill skiing for one subject!) may be protective in allowing a normal navigational capacity in these subjects. The mechanism for the ultra-short time constants and their role in superior navigational performance remains unclear.;The Where: Using repetitive transcranial stimulation (rTMS) to the right posterior parietal cortex we disrupted the perceptual encoding of vestibular signals during a passive yaw-plane rotation. We found no effect of rTMS on vestibular encoding with occipital cortical stimulation in sighted or blind subjects.;The How: We hypothesised that vestibular signals may be encoded via an internal model at perceptual level. Using a novel paradigm, we found that by perturbing the internal estimate of displacement of a previously travelled trajectory (yaw plane rotation), we could alter the perception of motion duration but not velocity, of the rotation, a finding consistent with our hypothesis. The last experiment in this thesis was developed in an attempt to bridge the gap between brainstem and perceptual vestibular function. We quantitatively show that brainstem thresholds to angular acceleration are lower than for cortical (perceptual) thresholds. The hypothesis that we aim to test in the future is that patients who show a large dichotomy between brainstem and cortical thresholds to angular acceleration may be either objectively compromised by worse balance function or subjectively worse as defined by their symptoms of dizziness and disorientation.
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Kaestner, Milena. « Neural mechanisms of binocular motion in depth perception ». Thesis, University of York, 2018. http://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/21900/.

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Motion in depth (MID) can be cued by two binocular sources of information. These are changes in retinal disparity over time (changing disparity, CD), and binocular opponent velocity vectors (inter-ocular velocity difference, IOVD). This thesis presents a series of psychophysical and fMRI experiments investigating the neural pathways supporting the perception of CD and IOVD. The first two experiments investigated how CD and IOVD mechanisms draw on information encoded in the magnocellular, parvocellular and koniocellular pathways. The chromaticity of CD and IOVD-isolating stimuli was manipulated to bias activity in these three pathways. Although all stimulus types and chromaticities supported a MID percept, fMRI revealed an especially dominant koniocellular contribution to the IOVD mechanism. Because IOVD depends on eye-specific velocity signals, experiment three sought to identify an area in the brain that encodes motion direction and eye of origin information. Classification and multivariate pattern analysis techniques were applied to fMRI data, but no area where both types of information were present simultaneously was identified. Results suggested that IOVD mechanisms inherit eye-specific information from V1. Finally, experiment four asked whether activity elicited by CD and IOVD stimuli could also be modulated by an attentional task where participants were asked to detect changes in MID or local contrast. fMRI activity was strongly modulated by attentional state, and activity in motion-selective areas was predictive of whether participants correctly identified the change in CD or IOVD MID. This suggests that these areas contain populations of neurons that are crucial for detecting, and behaviourally responding to, both types of MID. The work presented in this thesis detail a thorough investigation of the neural pathways that underlie the computation of CD and IOVD cues to MID.
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Hong, Ha Ph D. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. « Neural mechanisms underlying core visual perception of objects ». Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2015. http://hdl.handle.net/1721.1/98725.

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Thesis: Ph. D., Harvard-MIT Program in Health Sciences and Technology, 2015.
Cataloged from PDF version of thesis.
Includes bibliographical references (pages 221-235).
Visual perception of objects is a computationally challenging problem and fundamental to human well-being. Extensive previous research has revealed that the inferior temporal cortex (IT), a high-level visual area, is involved in various aspects of visual perception. Yet, little is known about: how IT neural responses to objects support human perception of the objects; and how IT responses are produced from retinal images of objects. The goal of this research is to tackle these two related questions and find out explicit, quantitative mechanisms that describe human core visual perception of objects, a remarkable ability achieved with brief (<200ms) image viewing duration. We first operationally define the core visual perception by measuring behavioral reports of human subjects in hundreds of visual tasks. These tasks are designed to systematically assess subjects' ability to estimate key visual parameters of an object in an image, such as the object's category, identity, position, size, and viewpoint angles. Combined with a rich dataset of monkey visual neural responses to the same task images, we systematically explore a large number of explicit hypotheses that might explain the human behavioral reports. Here, we demonstrate that weighted linear sums of IT responses robustly predict the human pattern of behavior. Moreover, we show that performance-optimized hierarchical neural networks explain a large portion of neural responses of high-level visual areas including IT. These results establish a working mechanistic model of core visual perception by providing an end-to-end understanding of the human visual system from images to neural responses to behavior.
by Ha Hong.
Ph. D.
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39

Narukawa, Masataka. « Studies on umami perception and intracellular transduction mechanisms ». Kyoto University, 2006. http://hdl.handle.net/2433/144117.

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Kyoto University (京都大学)
0048
新制・課程博士
博士(農学)
甲第12384号
農博第1565号
新制||農||927(附属図書館)
学位論文||H18||N4142(農学部図書室)
24220
UT51-2006-J376
京都大学大学院農学研究科農学専攻
(主査)教授 松村 康生, 教授 内海 成, 教授 伏木 亨
学位規則第4条第1項該当
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Sun, Jennifer Yun-Man Perona Pietro. « Three-dimensional shape from shading : perception and mechanisms / ». Diss., Pasadena, Calif. : California Institute of Technology, 1996. http://resolver.caltech.edu/CaltechETD:etd-09132006-155558.

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Rainville, Stéphane Jean Michel. « The spatial mechanisms mediating the perception of mirror symmetry in human vision / ». Thesis, McGill University, 1999. http://digitool.Library.McGill.CA:80/R/?func=dbin-jump-full&object_id=36688.

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The present thesis reports psychophysical and modeling studies on the spatial properties of visual mechanisms mediating the perception of mirror symmetry in human vision. In a first set of experiments, patterns were filtered for power spectra that decayed with spatial frequency according to variable slopes. Results revealed that symmetry detection is optimal if contrast energy is roughly equated across log-frequency bands (i.e. 1/f2) and that, under such conditions, spatial scales contribute equally and independently to symmetry perception. In a second study, random-noise patterns were filtered for various orientation bands. Results showed that symmetry perception is possible at all orientations, is mediated by oriented mechanisms, and is computed independently in different orientation channels. Data also revealed that the dimensions of the spatial integration region (IR) for symmetry vary with orientation in a way that approximately matches the spatial distribution of information in the stimulus. Finally, symmetry detection was measured for bandpass textures of variable spatial density and variable contrast polarity. For such patterns, it was found that symmetry is computed at a spatial scale proportional to stimulus density and that mechanisms insensitive to contrast polarity (i.e. second-order) are involved in the scale-selection process.
Overall, results from empirical and modeling work revealed an intimate link between symmetry perception and the properties of spatial filters. In particular, I argue that the size of the IR tends to vary such that a fixed amount of information is integrated irrespective of the spatial properties of the stimulus. Implications for the functional architecture of symmetry perception are discussed, and a paradigm for future research in symmetry perception is proposed in which spatial filtering is extended to higher orders of spatial complexity.
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Nelson, Ximena J. « Mechanisms underlying visual perception and vision-based decision-making ». Thesis, University of Canterbury. Biological Sciences, 2004. http://hdl.handle.net/10092/5844.

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The jumping spider Evarcha culicivora (Araneae, Salticidae) is unique because, although spiders are incapable of feeding directly on vertebrate blood, E. culicivora has a behavioural mechanism enabling it to feed on blood indirectly. E. culicivora is a small East African jumping spider that preys on blood-fed female mosquitoes in preference to any other prey, including male mosquitoes and female mosquitoes that have not fed on blood, as well as the far more numerous and similar looking midges in the vicinity of Lake Victoria. E. culicivora distinguishes its preferred prey of blood-fed mosquitoes using visual and olfactory cues, independently of one another. The optical cues by which E. culicivora identifies its preferred prey were investigated using lures made from dead prey and by the novel use of 3D animation software to create virtual mosquitoes that were systematically altered. It is apparent that the primary factors influencing the prey-choice decisions of E. culicivora include the mosquito's size, its behaviour, the shape of its abdomen, the appearance of its antennae, and possibly the colour of the mosquito's blood-filled abdomen. E. culicivora's preference for blood-fed female mosquitoes appears to be specifically due to the blood within the mosquito rather than the prey's size. This is the first report of a spider actively seeking out blood meals by preferentially preying on blood-fed mosquitoes. However, small juveniles of E. Culicivora have a further dietary specialization: they prefer blood-fed females of the genus Anopheles. In the absence of odour cues, juvenile E. culicivora distinguish blood-fed Anopheles mosquitoes from mosquitoes belonging to other genera, doing this with eyes of a diameter less than 200 microns. The primary optical cue by which juveniles of E. culicivora identify Anopheles is by the mosquito's characteristic resting posture. This is the first report of any predator seeking out Anopheles, the vectors of malaria, as preferred prey. Furthermore, small juveniles of E. culicivora, but not large juveniles or adults, have an effective Anopheles-specific predatory tactic for capturing Anopheles that is not used when capturing mosquitoes belonging to other genera. Evarcha culicivora has a further behavioural trait that is unique among salticids; they are attracted to the odour of a particular plant, Lantana camara. However, when in the vicinity of L. camara, E. culicivora exhibits a profound behavioural change in which it becomes indiscriminate in its choice of prey. A proximate cause of the behavioural change was found to be β-caryophyllene, a volatile produced by L. camara. This is the first report of a single environmental chemical cue affecting the prey-choice behaviour of a spider.
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Murphy, Aidan Peter. « Neural mechanisms for reducing uncertainty in 3D depth perception ». Thesis, University of Birmingham, 2015. http://etheses.bham.ac.uk//id/eprint/5613/.

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In order to navigate and interact within their environment, animals must process and interpret sensory information to generate a representation or ‘percept’ of that environment. However, sensory information is invariably noisy, ambiguous, or incomplete due to the constraints of sensory apparatus, and this leads to uncertainty in perceptual interpretation. To overcome these problems, sensory systems have evolved multiple strategies for reducing perceptual uncertainty in the face of uncertain visual input, thus optimizing goal-oriented behaviours. Two available strategies have been observed even in the simplest of neural systems, and are represented in Bayesian formulations of perceptual inference: sensory integration and prior experience. In this thesis, I present a series of studies that examine these processes and the neural mechanisms underlying them in the primate visual system, by studying depth perception in human observers. Chapters 2 & 3 used functional brain imaging to localize cortical areas involved in integrating multiple visual depth cues, which enhance observers’ ability to judge depth. Specifically, we tested which of two possible computational methods the brain uses to combine depth cues. Based on the results we applied disruption techniques to examine whether these select brain regions are critical for depth cue integration. Chapters 4 & 5 addressed the question of how memory systems operating over different time scales interact to resolve perceptual ambiguity when the retinal signal is compatible with more than one 3D interpretation of the world. Finally, we examined the role of higher cortical regions (parietal cortex) in depth perception and the resolution of ambiguous visual input by testing patients with brain lesions.
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Nowparast, Rostami Hadiseh. « Biological mechanisms underlying inter- and intra- individual variability of face cognition ». HKBU Institutional Repository, 2016. https://repository.hkbu.edu.hk/etd_oa/444.

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Given the importance of correctly perceiving and remembering faces for successful social interaction, face processing is one of the most widely studied cognitive domain in behavioral, neurophysiological and neuroimaging research, particularly, based on a group-mean approach. However, above mean differences, inter- and intra-individual variability in face processing provide valuable information for investigating the underlying mechanisms and binding the behavioral and neural substrates for better understanding of face processing.. In my dissertation I investigated the biological mechanisms underlying face cognition from an inter- and intra-individual variability perspective at the genetic, neural, and behavioral levels. The neural activities related to face processing are measured by event-related potentials (ERPs) and their trial-by-trial latency variability are estimated using a novel and well-established method, Residue Iteration Decomposition (RIDE).. Study 1 demonstrates the reliability of RIDE in extracting single-trial parameters of the P3b component, which is used in the investigation of the neural basis of intra-subject variability (ISV) in face processing speed in Study 2. In the Study 2, individual differences in ISV of face processing speed, measured at both behavioral and neural levels during a face processing task, are studied in their genetic variation. The results suggest that individual differences in ISV are related not only to the COMT Val158Met polymorphism, but also to the type of cognitive processing (e.g., memory domain). Moreover, we showed that ISV in reaction time can be partially explained by ISV in the speed of central cognitive processes.. Furthermore, the individual differences approach in Study 3, provided valuable and novel information beyond the common group-mean approach applied in the N1/N170-related research. Based on this approach, not only we could replicate previous findings that the N170 predicts individual differences in face cognition abilities, but also we could decompose individual differences in the N170 into a domain-general and a face-specific part with different predictive powers. Moreover, we showed that top-down modulations on the N170 have separable and qualitatively different relationships to face cognition abilities.. In summary, the integrated results from different studies in my dissertation demonstrate the psychological importance of the information provided by inter- and intra-individual variability in face processing in the investigation of its underlying biological mechanisms.
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Blanc-Goldhammer, Daryn. « The Neural and Perceptual Mechanisms Underlying Spatial Integration ». Thesis, University of Oregon, 2019. http://hdl.handle.net/1794/24536.

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The visual system integrates information over space to see surfaces, contours and edges. This integration can be described by a divisive normalization framework in which surrounding contextual information normalizes response to a central target. We ran a set of studies examining perceptual illusions with the intention of better understanding the neural mechanisms responsible for how the visual system integrates information over space. We measured surround integration using the Simultaneous Tilt Illusion. In the first study, we determined the extent to which the probability that different surround regions were co-assigned to the same object as the center impacts how much they are integrated. We found that the magnitude of the illusion was a sum of regional surround effects weighted by their dependency to the center. These results are consistent with a system that uses prior experience with natural scene statistics to integrate regions of space. In the second study, we measured the relationship between individual differences in spatial integration and autistic traits. We found no evidence for reduced normalization in people who score high on autistic traits. In the third study, we determined the extent to which arousal modulates spatial integration. Although we did not observe an effect of natural fluctuations in arousal, as indexed by pupil diameter, we observed a reduction in the magnitude of the illusion following an alerting tone. While more work is still needed to verify this effect, it suggests that we context information less under moderately alert states. We interpret these results in the context of the neural and perceptual mechanisms underlying spatial integration. Specifically, these results seem to indicate that the normalization process is gated by our expectancies about the structure of a scene and by our internal brain state. These results are consistent with a system that uses prior experience with scene statistics to represent patterns more efficiently.
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Walker, Ashley. « One tone, two ears, three dimensions : an investigation of qualitative echolocation strategies in synthetic bats and real robots ». Thesis, University of Edinburgh, 1997. http://hdl.handle.net/1842/535.

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The aim of the work reported in this thesis is to investigate a methodology for studying perception by building and testing robotic models of animal sensory mechanisms. Much of Artificial Intelligence studies agent perception by exploring architectures for linking (often abstract) sensors and motors so as to give rise to particular behaviour. By contrast, this work proposes that perceptual investigations should begin with a characterisation of the underlying physical laws which govern the specific interaction of a sensor (or actuator) with its environment throughout the execution of a task. Moreover, it demonstrates that, through an understanding of task-physics, problems for which architectural solutions or explanations are often proposed may be solved more simply at the sensory interface - thereby minimising subsequent computation. This approach is applied to an investigation of the acoustical cues that may be exploited by several species of tone emitting insectivorous bats (species in the families Rhinolophidae and Hipposideridae) which localise prey using systematic pinnae scanning movements. From consideration of aspects of the sound filtering performed by the external and inner ear or these bats, three target localisation mechanisms are hypothesised and tested aboard a 6 degree-of-freedom, binaural, robotic echolocation system. In the first case, it is supposed that echolocators with narrow-band call structures use pinna movement to alter the directional sensitivity of their perceptual systems in the same whay that broad-band emitting bats rely on pinnae morphology to alter acoustic directionality at different frequencies. Scanning receivers also create dynamic cues - in the form of frequency and amplitude modulations - which very systematically with target angle. The second hypothesis investigated involves the extraction of timing cues from amplitude modulated echo envelopes.
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Vigano, Gabriel Joseph. « Mechanisms of visual feature binding ». Thesis, The University of Sydney, 2015. http://hdl.handle.net/2123/13984.

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Visual feature binding is the method by which coherent objects and scenes are perceived. Advances in the science of perception have indicated that visual features such as colour, motion, and orientation are to some extent, processed separately in primate early visual cortex. However, the mechanism by which these features are integrated remains unclear. Phenomenologically, the process of binding features to form objects appears to be an efficient and automatic process. Some research also shows a high temporal resolution for binding features together, in addition to populations of neurons that jointly code for features. However, dominant theories of feature binding and the majority of the binding literature indicate that the feature binding process is severely limited by a relatively low temporal resolution, especially when compared to other perceptual properties such as feature detection. To identify and resolve the discrepancy in the feature binding literature, I investigate the feature binding process and its inter-relationship with perceptual surface segregation. Surface segregation has been postulated as the method by which features can be rapidly bound together, giving them impression of a high temporal resolution. In Chapter 2, displays are used that alternate between two arrays of differently coloured, oppositely moving dots. The alternation frequency is modified in order to gauge the temporal resolution of binding. This is combined with surface segregation cues such as coherent motion, consistency of dot configuration, and colour. In Chapter 3, coloured, oriented gratings are used to investigate colour-orientation binding. Angular separation, spatial and temporal coincidence, and stimulus presentation duration are varied. Across these experiments, a number of these surface segregation cues are manipulated in order to measure the corresponding effects on feature binding, perceptual interpretation of the stimulus, and its neural representation. The results of the psychophysical experiments indicate that feature binding, surface segregation, and temporal integration are inextricably linked. These findings are reinforced by data gathered through functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) of human subjects. Both surface segregation and feature pairs were found to modulate neural activity in early visual cortex, providing evidence that similar neural substrates are recruited for both feature binding and surface segregation. Overall, the two complementary sets of experiments using stimulus conjunctions of colour-motion and colour-orientation stimuli provide converging evidence and insight into the dynamics of the underlying binding mechanisms. A discussion of the implications of the research follows, concluding that rapidly formed surface representations can be maintained across presentation intervals by temporal integration. Attentional selection of one feature (e.g. orientation) can then be used to boost the response to the paired feature (colour) in order to identify and extract the correct feature pairing. Based on the known properties of the visual system, several potential neural mechanisms are proposed that are consistent with both the psychophysical and neural data, in addition to suggested future directions for the study of visual feature binding.
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Tang, Nicole K. Y. « Distorted perception of sleep in insomnia : phenomenology, mechanisms and intervention ». Thesis, University of Oxford, 2003. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.288523.

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Bridge, Holly. « Neuronal mechanisms underlying the perception of slant and binocular orientation ». Thesis, University of Oxford, 2000. http://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:bd680f76-7794-41ab-8f05-e4a22df5424a.

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Krol, Magdalena E. « The role and mechanisms of top-down optimisation of perception ». Thesis, University of Manchester, 2011. https://www.research.manchester.ac.uk/portal/en/theses/the-role-and-mechanisms-of-topdown-optimisation-of-perception(19b58dfe-67ce-48df-a6b8-5d1299afc493).html.

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According to the predictive coding approach to perception, the brain uses predictions based on previous experience to optimise perception, by allocating more computational resources to important or unexpected stimuli. Overall, predictions allow faster and more accurate recognition, but occasionally, when the prediction is incorrect, it may lead to a misperception. The aim of this thesis was to investigate the influence of top - down processes on perceptual decisions. I utilised misperceptions as a signature of those top - down influences and Signal Detection Theory to assess their size, type and direction. I used Electroencephalography to determine the stage of information processing at which different types of predictions influence sensory processing.The empirical studies are clustered around Topic 1: Influence of Predictions on Perception, Topic 2: Types of Predictions and Topic 3: Value as Modulator of Perception.Studies clustered in Topic 1 analysed and quantified the influence of predictions on perceptual decisions and showed that misperceptions can be triggered by wrong predictions only in very specific circumstances. In particular, misperceptions occurred only if there was some degree of correspondence between the wrong prediction and the sensory input. Otherwise, predictions were easily rejected, increasing the overall accuracy. I also demonstrated that misperceptions were most likely to happen in a window on the continuum of input quality where the stimulus - related uncertainty was highest. Topic 2 comprised experiments investigating different types of predictions and their interaction. Behavioural (but not EEG) results revealed interference between passive and active expectations. The early event related (ERP) components N1 and P2, as well as the P300, were all modulated by expectations. Expected events either increased or decreased the P300 amplitude, depending on whether the expected item was predictable and thus ignored, or awaited and thus flagged for further processing. This suggests that P300 might be an index of top - down resource allocation. Experiments within Topic 3 studied the influence of values, as examples of executive processes, on perceptual decisions, using either natural or acquired high - value stimuli. The results suggested that the process of recognition is adjusted in a top - down manner to account for the cost and benefit values related to different outcomes. The trade - off between processing time and accuracy is not fixed, but can be adjusted to optimise recognition in the task at hand. Furthermore, value can change the focus of perception, resulting in different elements of the sensory input being amplified or ignored. Overall, these results showed that misperceptions are 'intelligent mistakes' - a by - product of a top-down, prediction - based optimisation strategy that decreases the computational load, while increasing accuracy and improving the allocation of computational resources.
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