Littérature scientifique sur le sujet « Numismatics of Greece »

<p>This article examines the use of numismatic iconography by the British colonial administration of Cyprus in order, initially, to legitimise its possession of the island and, subsequently, to promote an Eteocypriot, an "authentic Cypriot", identity as counter-poison against Greek nationalism. In this endeavour of social engineering, archaeological items and other symbols from Cyprus' past played a prominent part. The outbreak of the Cypriot guerrilla war for union with Greece in 1955 highlighted the bankruptcy of this operation. Nevertheless, British efforts to evade Cyprus' overwhelmingly Greek past - and present - continued unabated, even after the formal recognition of the island's independence.</p>

The paper looks at the ancient Greek thymiateria and aims at finding data in literary, epigraphic and visual sources that would cast light on the use of thymiateria in private and public rituals of the VIІ th century BC – IVth century AD. Systematic collection of data and its comparative historical analysis were in the core of the methodology. Among the main methods of analysing the collected sources, one should mention empirical, analytical, structural-typological and iconographical methods. A thymiaterion (an incense burner) is firstly mentioned in the Vth century BC in Herodotus’ Historia. In centuries to come, the panhellenic name of thymiaterion would dominate and enter to Roman and Germanic languages. This device was used solely with fire, charcoal or heated pebbles to burn aromatic compounds, incense and aromatic plants and flowers in particular. Thymiateria didn’t have any fixed shapes or sizes. In narrative sources, they were also named bomiskos, libanotis (libanotris), escharis, tripodiskos etc. In this paper, I examine the basic constructive elements of thymiateria. As visual sources and lyric poetry suggest, they were used in the archaic period. The earliest instance of the use of thymiateria in the ritual practice date late to the VIth century BC in the Phanagoria of the Bosporus. The thymiateria is depicted on mostly in mythological scenes on the Athenian red-figure pottery late of the Vth – IVth centuries BC found in Panticapaeum and in the surrounding area. The Greek iconography of mythological scenes on the vases was clear for the locals. The majority of visual, numismatics and epigraphic sources that reveal the use of thymiateria on the Bosporus are dating to the IVth–ІІth centuries BC, when they were spread in Hellenistic Greece and, especially in sanctuaries of Delos. Although aroma was an essential part of thymiateria culture, only Orphic Hymns cast light on the use of particular incenses (in pure form or in compound) for each gods or heroes. One important question persists: which aromas were burnt in thymiateria and from which countries were they brought to Greece? From literary sources, we know that plant-based aromas, namely incense and myrrh were brought from South Arabia and Syria. Thymiateria were used during rituals in sanctuaries and temples, during religious processions, funerals, symposiums and wedding that were accompanied by aromatic smoke. The present essay should be regarded as a starting point for the further in-depth study of thymiateria from the Northern Black sea region and Olbia in particular.

Abstract An archaeometric investigation on 13 late–medieval tournois was here accomplished through a combined approach involving X–ray fluorescence (XRF) and Raman techniques. The aim of this study was to determine, starting from the evaluation of the elemental and molecular composition, the raw materials employed for the coin’s alloy and highlight the differences in the coin’s composition according to the location of the original mint and estimated coinage age. The aforementioned aspects not only testify the monetary policy and the political condition of the time, but also would contribute to unambiguously recognize the coin’s original treasury, which is at present an ongoing controversy among the scientific/numismatic community. Finally, the identification of specific minerals by means of Raman spectroscopy allowed us to formulate hypothesis about the state of conservation, and to identify new phases resulting from the soil/burial and climatic environmental coin’s exposition.

Abstract: A re-examination of the numismatic, epigraphic, and literary evidence suggests that the silver/gold exchange rate in Persian-controlled Asia Minor fluctuated downwards in the late fifth and fourth centuries b.c.e. in response to the supply of gold and silver in neighbouring Greece. This has consequences for the economic and political history of this region. Abstract: Une réévaluation des sources numismatiques, épigraphiques et littéraires suggère que le taux de change argent / or en Asie Mineure sous contrôle perse a eu tendance à diminuer à la fin du ve et au ive siècle a. C. en réaction aux quantités d'or et d'argent présentes en Grèce voisine. Ceci n'est pas sans conséquence sur l'histoire économique et politique de cette région.

Publicamos una pequeña serie de monedas, relacionadas con las piezas conocidas inicialmente como de ejemplares “tipo Auriol”. Se trata de varias imitaciones greco-massaliotas, relacionadas con el ciclo numismático griego del Occidente mediterráneo. La importante novedad de las mismas se fundamenta en el lugar de hallazgo, pues este se ha producido en una zona interior de la Península Ibérica, donde hasta el momento no se había documentado el descubrimiento de numismas de este tipo. Palabras clave: moneda, imitaciones, edetanosTopónimos: Massalia, Emporion, AuriolPeriodo: Edetanos ABSTRACTThe text presents a small series of coins, similar to those initially known as "Auriol type". These are various Greek-Massalian imitations, related to the Greek numismatic cycle of the Western Mediterranean. 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The years 1289–1313 witnessed particularly prolific minting activities at different southern and central Greek mints on behalf of different polities. The coin issues are of great economic and political relevance, and therefore of interest to modern historians. Our understanding of these is based on traditional sources, either numismatic (types and finds), or historical. This paper aims to investigate the possibilities of adding further details to the picture through archaeometry. Specifically, tournois pennies of the three main mints of the region (Clarentza, Thebes, Naupaktos) excavated at Ancient Corinth were analysed according to two different non-destructive methods, X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF) and laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS). The resulting relative silver percentages and the fingerprints of the trace elements have supported our attempts to put the different coin types in chronological order and to add detail to the context and intent for each one of these. A vivid picture of monetary production emerges. The different issuing authorities were usually intent on maintaining a decent standard while variously trying to put pressure on rivals or to harmonise their productions with their allies. All the analysed mints were commercial in character, though they were subject to the great political changes affecting Greece in this period, the ambitions of the Angevin dynasty, the various challenges which it faced in Athens, the Peloponnese and the western Mainland, and finally the destructive arrival of the Catalans. In times of need, specifically military, these same mints could therefore rely on further bullion which reached them through internal or external political channels.

The topic of the book by Olga Kubica, a professor at the University of Wroclaw, is the interaction between ancient Greek and Indian civilizations in the far East of the Hellenistic world in the epoch from the conquests of Alexander the Great to the emergence of the Kushan Empire. The influence of ancient artistic traditions on the fine arts of northwestern India (the so-called “Gandhāra school”) is well known, and it has been suggested on this basis that the influence of Greece extended to the philosophical and religious views of Indians. It was seen, in particular, in the themes and structure of the early Buddhist treatise “Milinda’s Questions” (Pali Milindapañha). However, the author of the monograph proves that the actual interaction of Greek and Indian cultures in the intellectual sphere was not so large and profound and therefore the term “Greco-Buddhism”, widespread in Oriental studies, has no sense. This conclusion is based on an deep analysis of extensive material, including not only texts, but also archaeological sites, numismatic data and other sources. Analyzing the material, the author uses, along with the usual philological methods of working with sources, also methods of sociology and cultural studies, considering the Greeks in Bactria and northwestern India as a social group that obeys all the laws of behavior of such objects interacting with society as a social system.

'Antigonos Gonatas: Coinage, Money and the Economy' is a presentation and systematic analysis of the precious metal coinages in the name of `king Antigonos'. Most of these issues, including (a) gold staters and silver tetradrachms with the types of Alexander III and (b) silver with individual Antigonid types (tetradrachms, `Pans' and 'Poseidons'; a few drachmae, `Pans' and 'Zeus'; pentobols, `Zeus'), are traditionally assigned to the Makedonian king Antigonos Gonatas (r. 283/277-239 BC). However, their relative chronology and their respective presence in hoards allow for their wider distribution from Gonatas to his later homonym, Antigonos Doson, and for their production at a single mint, demonstrating thus a strong sense of dynastic continuity among Gonatas' successors(chapter 2). It is argued that the numismatic iconography aligns itself with the main threads of the Antigonid international policy established by Gonatas: the Antigonids, following the example of the Temenids, deliberately emphasised their Hellenic identity and piety, in order to become assimilated to the military and political `debates' both in mainland Greece and on an international level. The introduction, in particular, of the second Antigonid tetradrachm type, the Poseidon-head, meant the resumption of the naval claims of Monophthalmos and Poliorketes in the Aegean concomitantly to Gonatas' victorious naval battle against the Ptolemaic fleet at Andros (chapters 2.1,2.4). The analysis of the numismatic material (chapters 3-6) is a prerequisite for a tentative estimation of its approximate quantity and for a better assessment of its distribution pattern. The disproportion between the low annual production rate of these issues and the Antigonid financial requirements may be explained by the use of other precious metal coinages following the Attic weight standard (chapter 7). It is therefore argued that the exercise by the Antigonids of pro-active economic and administrative control was limited and that the introduction of the Antigonid individual issues was inspired by political alongside economic forces.

Research into the depiction of cattle in Minoan Art ha'i concentrated on representations of interaction between men and cattle, in particular, the images of bull sports. This emphasis has detracted from other types of cattle imagery. In this thesis the representation of the cow and calf in Minoan glyptic is assessed. Discussion of representation and meaning are of equal value, as a full understanding of the potential meaning of an image is dependent upon a detailed knowledge of what is represented. Specific anatomical and behavioural details described in the images are therefore compared with known physiological and behavioural characteristics. The Bronze Age representations are found to be very accurate and detailed in their description of the relationship between the cow and calf. Both the aesthetic and social contexts of the image are discussed in detail. The majority of representations of cows and calves are found on seals and sealings. The size, shape and restrictions of the medium as well as the range of potential uses of the stones (administrative, amuletic, jewellery) are considered. Fauna! evidence from Bronze Age Crete and accounts of cattle in Linear B texts confirm the importance of bovines as an integral part of the agricultural system as well as providing evidence of the range of cattle exploited. In discussing the potential meaning of the image, the survey draws on Bronze Age Aegean, Near Eastern and Egyptian evidence and later Greek (in particular Cretan) examples. Evidence from unrelated societies in which the cow is prominent is used as evidence of the diversity of possible meaning. The thesis concludes that it is not possible to categorise the image as specifically religious or secular; the range of potential meanings reflect the importance of the animal in all aspects of Minoan society.

This thesis considers the use of numismatic imagery in the Byzantine Empire during the period 610-867, with its main focus centred in the period 685-842. Though charting the iconographic trends and changes on the coinage of the period and the possible reasons behind them is the principal raison d’être of the thesis, it also tackles methodological issues such as the use and abuse of dies studies and ways of determining who decided what images appeared on coins. The main body of the text is arranged chronologically with the methodological issues appearing throughout. Exceptions to this format are the first chapter, which considers the economic context of coin circulation in the period and the gold purity of the coins of the period, and the third chapter, which considers the production at the mint of Cherson, which produced anonymous coins not identifiable by date, but still part of the context. Finally, the thesis contains two appendices, the first paper appendix presents a catalogue of the coins held at the Barber Institute of Fine Arts for the period 685-842, and the second CD-ROM appendix presents the data from the All That Glitters ... project, testing the purity of Byzantine gold coins with x-ray fluorescence.

The messages in the imagery on Byzantine coins, although often neglected by scholars, were a key means of projecting imperial power. Emperors could project power via dress, ceremonial, and displays, but these methods would not have reached all subjects. Byzantine coins had the advantage of reaching all subjects, as the Byzantine economy was fundamentally monetized. Military symbols (figures, dress, and weapons), whose study has been rather overlooked, formed an important part of this imagery. Whilst military symbols disappeared from Byzantine coins in the early eighth century, and were absent for some three centuries, they were reintroduced in the mid-eleventh century and appeared until 1394/5. Their importance is indicated by the fact that military types comprised over half the overall total of types for some emperors. This study examines military symbols on Byzantine coins from the eleventh to the fourteenth centuries, and notes also imperial representations in other media. The numismatic sources for this study are the collections in the Barber Institute of Fine Arts, and Dumbarton Oaks. The general conclusions are that military symbols were used most frequently from 1204 to 1261, less frequently from 1261 to 1394/5, and least frequently from 1042 to 1204. The variety of military saints portrayed increased at first, but declined in the fourteenth century, until only St Demetrios remained, but in the highest status: riding with the emperor.

This thesis argues that the iconography on Seleucid coins was created in order to appeal to the various ethnic groups within the empire and thereby reinforced the legitimacy of the dynasty. It first examines the iconography of Seleucus I and argues that as Seleucus became more secure in his rule he began to develop a new iconography that was a blend of Alexander’s and his own. This pattern changed under Antiochus I. He replaced the Zeus of Alexander and of Seleucus with Apollo-on-the-omphalos. At approximately the same time, a dynastic myth of descent from Apollo was created and promulgated. It is argued that in addition to the traditional view that Apollo was readily identifiable to the Greco-Macedonians within the empire he was also accessible to the Babylonians through the god Nabû and to the Persians as a Greek (or Macedonian) version of the reigning king. This ambiguity made Apollo an ideal figure to represent the multi-ethnic ruling house. This also explains the dynasty’s reluctance to deviate from the iconography established by Antiochus I. This thesis continues to explore the role of Apollo and other gods in creating an iconography which represented Seleucid power ending with the reign of Antiochus III. This thesis also incorporates the numismatic representations of the king as divine into the debate on ruler cult. This evidence suggests that the Seleucids may have had some form of ruler cult before the reign of Antiochus III.

The history of Hellenistic Bactria (northern Afghanistan, and areas of Tajikistan and Uzbekistan) is particularly obscure and its reconstruction contentious. Unlike other Hellenistic kingdoms very little evidence survives from literary sources and inscriptions; the best primary source is the large quantity of coins issued under the Graeco-Bactrian kings who ruled the area from the third century to the mid first century BC. With limited details of the find spots of the coins and only a few published hoards, their use has often been limited to a superficial analysis of their iconography. This thesis presents the results of a die study, an approach to studying the coins that can give many insights into the way they were produced. The coins of six kings (Euthydemus I, Demetrius I, Euthydemus II, Pantaleon, Agathocles, and Antimachus I) are included. Different mints and rhythms of production can be identified, and the overall size of the coinages estimated. Using a thorough understanding of their production this thesis proposes a new, soundly-based, history of the Graeco-Bactrian kingdom under these kings.

L’étude présentée ici est consacrée aux ethné de la région « thraco-macédonienne » de la fin du VIe et du début du Ve siècle av. J.-C. Ces ethné (tribus) mentionnés en passant par les sources anciennes ont été un élément important dans la région du Nord de l’Egée ayant des multiples interactions avec les Grecs et les Perses qui s’établissaient dans la même région. La manque des références littéraires a laissé les chercheurs sans beaucoup de repères, étant donné que les trouvailles archéologiques qui puissent être attribuées à ces peuplades avec certitude sont également très rares. Uniquement les monnaies offrent un matériel conséquent et c’est pour cette raison que la majorité de l’étude présente est consacrée à l’évidence numismatique. Pour la première fois un corpus des séries parallèles des monnaies attribuées à ses ethné est présenté ici, accompagné par une étude des coins et des trésors. La combinaison de ces éléments a amené à une nouvelle datation des séries monétaires, ce qui, à son tour conduit a une reconsidération de l’histoire de la région
The present study is dedicated to the ethné of the “Thraco-Macedonian” region at the end of the 6th and the beginning of the 5th century B.C. These ethné (tribes), which are mentioned only in passing in ancient sources were an important element in the region of the Northern Aegean, interacting in multiple ways with the Greeks and the Persians who had established themselves in the region. The absence of extended literary references has left the specialists without many points of reference, given that archaeological finds that could be attributed with any degree of certainty to these ethné are equally rare. Only the coins offer a subsequent material and it is for this reason that the study of the numismatic evidence takes up an important part of the present thesis. It is for the first time that a corpus of the parallel series of coins attributed to the ethné is here presented, accompanied by a study of the dies but also of the hoards. The combination of these elements has lead to a new dating of the monetary series, which in turn leads to a reconsideration of the history of the region

In the eleventh century the arrival of the Turks from Central Asia resulted in complex socio-economic and political changes in Upper Mesopotamia (al-Jazīra), Diyār Rūm (Asia Minor) and part of Syria (Diyār Shām). The social, cultural, military and economic life of the Turks intertwined with the native culture and heritage of Greeks, Armenians and Syrians living in those territories. Having as starting point the multifaceted encounters some of the important issues I am addressing in my thesis are the important trade routes that crossed Turkmen-dominated areas in the late middle ages; monetary traffic; mines and mints in operation under the Turkmen rule. As the history of that multicultural environment can best be understood and explained through the coin evidence, a big part of my project will cover numismatic evidence. In this context, my study will focus on the socio-economic and cultural relations and interactions between the Byzantines, old inhabitants, the Turkish newcomers and the western powers in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries in the light of the coins and investigate some questions: Why did the Turkmens issue the Greek and bilingual (Greek-Arabic) coins and seals? Why did the Turkmens borrow images (particularly Byzantine style imagery) from the cultural heritage of the areas they ruled?

The article shows the image of Heracles – the greatest hero of ancient Greece – in early Russian art, as well as in the writings of chroniclers, scholars and enlighteners of the 10–19th centuries. It is established that throughout the history of Ancient Rus and then of Russia, Hercules was perceived with an exceptionally positive side, despite the pagan roots of his image. Condemnation occasionally was the fact of his deification by the Greeks and Romans. The image of Heracles was positively adopted by the Orthodox Church, which relied on the Byzantine doctrine, where Heracles was also viewed as a charitable fighter of monsters and a defender of people from evil. As a result or research it was revealed that Heracles had exceptional popularity in Russian art and literature, where he performed in a classical Hellenistic manner. He remained the standard of physical strength, human power and at the same time – a model of nobility, the ruler of the twelve great labours. The article contains materials from the author's monograph with the working title «Twelve of Labours of Heracles in ancient literature and numismatics».

Abstract appearance of Finley’s seminal work is a good time co reassess che role of coined money in the ancient Greek economy. Given the pre-eminence of Finley and the authority of the \Vork from which the above quotation comes, one must inevitably suppose that this unfortunate pronouncement has been one of the major causes of the lack of dialogue between economic historians and the students of ancient coinage. The conferences that inspired this volume sought to bring numismatists back into the fold of mainstream ancient history, as well as encouraging historians to listen to what numismatists have to say, and the resulting papers have provided stimulating examples ofhow numismatic research can proceed in new directions, and also how numismatic material can and should be integrated into the writing of social, political, and economic history.

Abstract Martin tackled head-on the relationship between king and subjects, coinage and sovereignty, in the classical Greek world. Taking as his focus the coinage of Thessaly before, during, and after the Macedonian conquest in the fourth century BC, he found no evi dence for the subjection of the region to the Macedonian kings having had any effect on the ability of the Thessalians to produce coin. In a summary review of the other coinages of Greece at the same rime he perceived a similar pattern. His conclusion was unequivocal: ‘It is my contention that the numismatic, historical, documentary, and literary evidence uniformly fails to support the idea that there was operative in rhe classical Greek world a strongly tt’lt connection between an abstract notion of sovereignty and rhe right of coinage which implied the necessity to enforce a uniform monetary circulation.’2 Such a conclusion, if correct, is of fundamental importance for two reasons: first, for our appre ciation of rhe abstract concept or concepts of sovereigntyi and the place of coin issue in the rhetoric of imperialism in the Greek world; and, second, for the practical numismatic purpose of dating many coinages of ancient Greek states. Among numismatists, as well as historians working in all periods of Greek history, it has been common to invoke what Martin has dubbed the lex Seyrig, a “law’ which dictates that no state issued coin in its own name if it was ruled by another.

В статье анализируются нумизматические материалы из раскопок некрополя Фанагории в 1975–2021 гг. Интерпретация этих находок лежит в дискурсе неоднократно рассматриваемой проблемы о назначении монет в могилах античной эпохи. Впервые публикуемые здесь монетные находки из некрополя этого одного из крупнейших центров Северного Причерноморья безусловно представляют важный источник для изучения денежного обращения региона и особенностей местного погребального обряда. С другой стороны, монеты являются важным хронологическим индикатором как для датировки захоронений, так и для периодизации истории фанагорийского некрополя в целом. Считалось, что традиция класть деньги в могилу в качестве «обола Харона» появилась у греков в середине/конце 5 в. до н. э. Эту датировку подтверждали и материалы боспорских некрополей (Пантикапей и Волна 1). Однако некрополь Фанагории дал пантикапейский диобол 480–460 гг. до н. э., который является на данный момент самой ранней монетой, использованной в погребальной практике Боспора. Всего 128 монет найдено некрополе Фанагории за рассматриваемый период (не считая клада из 3695 позднебоспорских статеров, не связанного с ритуалом). Из них 8 – серебряные: 5 боспорских монет 5–1 вв. до н. э., денарий Траяна, 2 статера Рескупорида V. Все остальные монеты медные. Из 95 автономных монет, 66 отчеканены в Пан тикапее (включая кошелек с 7 монетами 3 в. до н. э.), Фанагории – 26, Ольвии – 1, Ами се – 1. Боспорским царям принадлежат 30 монет, от Полемона I до Фофорса, монеты которого являются позднейшими из боспорских. Кроме двух монет Митридата III и Котиса I с отверстиями, а также двух пробитых монет Феодосия I, использованных в качестве подвесок среди бус, все остальные монеты являются «оболами Харона», представляя важное свидетельство как местного погребального обряда, так и денежного обращения античного Боспора. Процесс исследования монет в погребальном контексте Фанагории позволяет аккумулировать информацию для правильной интерпретации данных о местном (и общегреческом) погребальном обряде. Информация, полученная при изучении монет из этого некрополя, может быть включена в пополняемую базу данных по нумизматическим материалам из других некрополей Боспора и юго-западного Крыма. Однако полная интерпретация погребальных ритуалов Фанагории, где монеты, по-видимому, играют важную роль, зависит от точности полевых наблюдений. The present article analyses numismatic materials from the excavations of the Phanagorian necropolis in 1975–2021. These finds are repeatedly discussed in light of the purpose of coins in ancient graves. Published for the first time, the coin finds from the necropolis of one of the largest centres of the Northern Black Sea region are, without doubt, an important source for studying the monetary circulation in the region and the traits of its funeral rites. Coins are also an important chronological indicator for both the dating of burials and for the historical periodization of the Phanagorian necropolis altogether. It was understood that the tradition of putting money in graves as “Charon’s obol” appeared in the Greek World during the second half of the fifth century BC. Such dating was also confirmed by archaeological finds from the Bosporan necropoleis (Panticapaeum and Volna 1). The Phanagorian necropolis, however, yielded a Panticapaean diobol dating to 480–460 BC, currently the earliest coin used in the burial practice in the Bosporos. A total of 128 coins were found at the Phanagorian necropolis during the aforementioned excavation period (excluding the hoard of 3,695 Late Bosporan staters, which are not associated with ritual practice). Eight of them are silver coins: five Bosporan coins dating to the 5th–1th centuries BC, a denarius of Trajan, two staters of Reskuporides V. The rest are copper coins. Of the 95 autonomous coins, 66 were minted in Panticapaeum (including a purse with seven coins dating to the third century BC), 26 – in Phanagoria, one in Olbia and one in Amis. Thirty coins are associated with Bosporan kings, from Polemon I to Thothorses, whose coins are dated the latest out of Bosporan coins. Except for the two perforated coins of Mithridates III and Cotys I, as well as two, also perforated, coins of Theodosius I, which were used as pendants, all other coins are “Charon’s obols”, which provides important evidence of both the local funerary rites and the monetary circulation of the ancient Bosporos. The study of coins in Phanagorian funerary context allows to accumulate information necessary for a correct interpretation of data on the local (and common Greek) funeral rites. Information obtained during the study of coins from the Phanagorian necropolis can be included in the continuously renewed numismatic “database” from other necropoleis of the Bosporos and southwestern Crimea. However, a complete interpretation of Phanagorian funerary rites, in which coins seem to play an important role, depends on the accuracy of field observations.