Articles de revues sur le sujet « Lithuania – Intellectual life »

CONTENTS I. PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONSJoanna Korzeniewska-Berczyńska (Poland). The Communicational Aspect of Polish Political Discourse...11Oleg N. Grinbaum (Russia). The Plot Heralds or Harmony and Metaphor in the Development of the Novel Evgenij Onegin by Pushkin...20Virginija Jurėnienė (Lithuania). Lithuanian Women’s Aspirations for Presidency ... 34 II. FACTS AND REFLECTIONSIosif Sternin (Russia). The Basic Types of Speech Cultures in Modern Society ...44Hanna Mijas (Poland). A New Approach to Translating Culture in Subtitling ...53Audronė Rimkutė (Lithuania). Cultural Industries and Cultural Policy: Traditional Relation and New Challenges ...62Pavel Solovyov (Belarus). Language Picture of the World in Adjectival Figurative Comparisons ...76Natalia V. Kovtun (Russia). Russia of the “Post Square” Epoch. (On the Issue of Poetics in the Novel Kish by T. Tolstoy) ...85Izolda Gabrielė Geniušienė (Lithuania). Indeterminacy and the Search for Meaning in Geoffrey Hill’s Poetry ...99Jerzy Szczepański (Poland). The Poet and the Period – Some Aspects of the Life and Work of Franciszek Karpiński (1741–1825) ...109Natalia V. Yudina (Russia). On the Reflection of the Ethnic Stereotypes in the Mirror of the Russian Language ...121Michał Łuczyński (Poland). Czech in the Pole’s Eyes – About the Reconstruction of the Stereotype ...134Liudmila Arcimavičienė (Lithuania). ECONOMY Metaphors: What Associated Conceptions Underlie Lithuanian Business? ...143Dorota Połowniak-Wawrzonek (Poland). Interpretation of THE METAPHOR PROCESSES RELATED TO HUMAN ORGANISM AS (ARMED) FIGHT, which Appears in Modern Polish Phraseology ...154Daiva Aliūkaitė (Lithuania). Perceptual Analysis of the Dialectal Discourse: Mental Map ...164Indrė Brokartaitė-Pladienė (Lithuania). Rendering German Coinages in the Newspaper „Naujasis Tilžės Keleivis“ (1924–1940) ... 180Jūratė Čirūnaitė (Lithuania). Names of the Volyne Nobility in the 16th Century ...192Danutė Balšaitytė (Lithuania). Vowel [ы] in Russian Speech of Lithuanians ...202 III. OPINIONOlga V. Zernetskaja (Ukraine). Global Satellite News Networks: The Beginning of the 21st Century ...210 IV. OUR TRANSLATIONS Brigitte Peucker (USA). The Castrato’s Voice: Fassbinder’s In a Year of Thirteen Moons. Translated by Natalija Arlauskaitė ...220 V. SCIENTIFIC LIFE CHRONICLEConferences, eventsAnatolij Kruglashov (Ukraine, Lithuania). Ukraine-Belarus-Poland-Lithuania: Recultivation of the Intellectual Space ...230Viktorija Makarova (Lithuania). Patrick Seriot’s Lectures in Vilnius ...238Books reviewsGabija Bankauskaitė-Sereikienė (Lithuania). Tekstai ir kontekstai: transformacijų sklaida. 1 volume. 2008...241Saulutė Juzelėnienė, Daiva Aliūkaitė (Lithuania). Tekstai ir kontekstai: transformacijų sklaida. 2 volume. 2008...244Oleg Perov (Lithuania). Lithuanian non Lithuanian – Evgenij Shkliar. ЛАВРИНЕЦ, Павел, 2008. Евгений Шкляр. Жизненный путь скитальца ...246Skirmantė Biržietienė (Lithuania). BANKAUSKAITĖ-SEREIKIENĖ, Gabija, 2008. Oratorystės menas. Mokomoji knyga humanitarinių ir socialinių mokslų studentams ...250Vilnius University Kaunas Faculty of Humanities: journal of scientific lifeJūratė Svičiulienė (Lithuania). Cultural Industries: Challenges and Perspectives ...253Daiva Aliūkaitė, Jadvyga Krūminienė (Lithuania). “Texts and Contexts: Interactive Perspectives“ or the Days of the Humanities at VU KHF ...255Vytautė Pasvenskienė (Lithuania). TEXT Interface ...258Daiva Aliūkaitė, Gabija Bankauskaitė-Sereikienė (Lithuania). Seminars on Literature and Linguistics at VU KHF ...261Letters to the Editorial Board ...265 Announce...266 VI. REQUIREMENTS FOR PUBLICATION...268VII. OUR AUTHORS...276

Adam Mickiewicz University The paper aims at introducing the results of research on the cultures and languages of the aboriginal peoples of the island of Sakhalin, the Lower Amur Region (Priamurye), and northern Japan (Ainu, Nivhgu, Uilta, Ulcha, and Nanai) conducted at the turn of the 19th and 20th century by Polish political exile Bronisław (Ginet) Piłsudski (1866–1918) and at presenting his ties with Lithuania: he used to introduce himself as Samogitian and Lithuanian (besides Polish―here the so-called nested ethnic identity is involved) and especially towards the end of his life emphasised this identity by inserting the name of his Lithuanian ancestors before his Polish family name. His seemingly long-forgotten legacy is now brought back to the attention of specialists with the appearance of the consecutive volumes of his Collected Works. The argumentation and conclusion of this Vilnius University anniversary article is that Piłsudski belongs to the same degree to the history of Oriental studies in both Lithuania and Poland and that both countries involved can only be proud of such a figure in the annals of their intellectual heritage.

The school plays an important role in preparation of persons with mild intellectual disability to adult's life. A person who starts his/ her independent life, usually experiences a shift in three general roles at work, in recreational activity and in socialization. An in-depth interview was conducted among persons with mild intellectual disability at the age of 18-33 in Lithuania and Italy in 2012-2013, in order to reveal the structure of takeover of life roles and the significance to success related to the participation in labour market. The successful structure of takeover of life roles among persons with mild intellectual disability along with the prerequisites for its formation and the significance to occupational integration are analysed in the current article. The article emphasizes the importance of prevocational education in formation of skills with regard to takeover of life roles.

Tadas Daugirdas actively participated in the National revival culture but later was forgotten. His work covered several areas of cultural and intellectual life including painting, archaeology, ethnology, museology, and publicist writing. Daugirdas contributed significantly to the creation of the national flag of Lithuania. The fourteen years, from 1877 to 1891, he spent in Warsaw had the great influence on his worldview. Living in Warsaw he maintained close relationship with such people as artist and art critic Stanisław Witkiewicz, doctor and ethnologist Władysław Matlakowski, archaeologists Adam Honory Kirkor, Dmitrij Samokvasov, and Gotfryd Ossowski; he also corresponded with Mečislovas Davainis-Silvestraitis on the issues of Lithuanianism. The Warsaw period determined his future activities which he developed after his return to Lithuania. He came to Warsaw as a painter and returned to his parents’ manor in Lithuania as an archaeologist and a promoter of folk art.

The Museum of Antiquities and Interim Commission of Archaeology in Vilnius which was the most significant educative scientific and cultural centre of that time both in Vilnius and Lithuania was founded in 1855 and was active for nearly a decade. The members of the Commission initiated and organized the research of the region in the fields of archaeology, history, and natural sciences. The Commission engaged an active part of the educated Lithuanian society in collecting the heritage of local history. Historical sources and scientific studies were also published by the Commission. The meetings of the Commission were held once a month, where past activities, current issues, and future plans were discussed as well as scientific reports were presented to the attendance. Extraordinary meetings were organized for the exceptional occasions, too. The minutes of the meetings of the Interim Commission of Archaeology in Vilnius are the source, which reflects comprehensively the activity of this public organization and its diverse character. The minutes also reflect the relationship between the Commission and the Tsarist administration: the flexibility in seeking suitable conditions for its activity, and the usage of the so-called Aesopian language in actualizing the history and the heritage of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The minutes reflect amply the scientific, cultural, and intellectual life of the then Lithuania. The publication presents the translated minutes of the meetings of the Interim Commission of Archaeology in Vilnius of the first three years of its activity.

Straipsnyje analizuojamos lietuviškąjį pasaulį praturtinusio įžymaus reiškinio – profesionaliosios filosofijos radimosi Lietuvoje aplinkybės. Šiam reiškiniui pradžią davė 1507 m. atsiradusios filosofijos ir teologijos studijos Vilniaus dominikonų mokykloje. Čia puoselėta vėlyvoji viduramžių filosofija tegalėjo būti tomistinė. Tik neaišku, kokio pobūdžio ją įtvirtino Vilniuje – ar tomizmo pagrindu naujų paieškų, ar tomizmo konservavimo dvasia. Mokyklinė filosofija Lietuvoje formavo nemaža naudingų intelektualinių nuostatų. Iki įkuriant Vilniaus universitetą 1579 m., užsienio universitetus ir Vilniaus dominikonų mokyklą baigusieji Lietuvoje sudarė būrį tų asmenų, kurie pajėgė rimtai aptarti scholastikos rudens – vėlyvosios viduramžių filosofijos – problemas, taip pat Renesanso humanistų pažiūras. Pagrindiniai žodžiai: dominikonai, partikuliarinė mokykla, vėlyvoji viduramžių filosofija, tomizmas, scholastika.The Rise of Philosophy in Lithuania Romanas Plečkaitis SummaryThe first Lithuanians to be introduced to philosophy were young members of the gentry who studied in European universities at the end of the 14th century. The recently baptized Lithuania strove to adopt Western culture and to present itself as a Western state. At the end of the 14th century, Vilnius Cathedral School was founded. The elements of logic were probably taught there. The growth of the political and economic power of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania brought about the need for higher education. The need was significantly increased by the growing activity of various religious orders. In 1507, the Dominicans started teaching philosophy and theology to their novicies in Vilnius. They were able to teach late me dieval philosophy in its thomistic interpretation. We can regard 1507 as the year Lithuania benefited from a new phenomenon, professional philosophy, and the Dominicans as its initiators. The Dominicans and later the Jesuits, Franciscans, Bernardines, Carmelites, Trinitarians and other monastic orders enriched intellectual life in Lithuania by teaching philosophy in their schools. The most important event in the development of philosophy in Lithuania was the foundation of Vilnius University in 1579. The disciplines usual to second level scholastics were taught in its philosophy department. Keywords: dominicans, particular school, late medieval philosophy, tomism, scholastics.y: Calibri, sans-serif;">

One of the most significant changes in Polish historical studies after 1989 has been the increased interest in restoring the memory about the multicultural traditions of the Former Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The liberation of Poland from Russian influence and the independence of Lithuania, Ukraine and Belarus have opened a new chapter not only in the political history of Europe and the world, but also in research on the cultural heritage of these nations. Today, it is possible to ask questions about the common heritage of Ruthenians and Poles, on top of their distinctiveness, autonomy and independence. Today, it is possible to objectively assess the originality of the Orthodox culture in the Commonwealth, in addition to its dependence on other Orthodox intellectual centers as well as models of Western civilization. Researchers from Poland and abroad, young scientists and experienced specialists, representatives of the academia, the socalled academic social environment and independent researchers have been helping us in the search for answers to these difficult questions for years. We believe that the thus formed broad and international team of scholars representing various scientific disciplines and methods, confessional and cultural traditions, and having different professional and life experiences, is able to fully recreate the obliterated pages of common history of the now separate nations: Poles, Lithuanians, Ukrainians and Belarusians.

Ričardas Gavelis’s (1950–2002) prose contains many cultural references, including the names of famous European writers, thinkers and philosophers, such as Camus, Kafka, Beckett, Schopenhauer, Nietzsche, or Orwell. Characters of Gavelis’s novels think about these authors, discuss their texts and ideas with others, but also write letters to them, contact them telepathically or even… physically. A few Lithuanian authors’ names can be found there as well. Hence, the aim of this article is to have a closer look at those names and the context in which they appear. I am going to analyze first three novels written by Gavelis: “Vilnius Poker” (Vilniaus Pokeris, 1989), “Memoirs of a Life Cut Short” (Jauno žmogaus memuarai, 1991) and “Vilnius Jazz” (Vilniaus džiazas, 1993), as they depict the same literary vision. Lithuanian authors that are mentioned in these novels include, among others, such significant figures of Lithuanian culture as Vincas Mykolaitis-Putinas (in “Memoirs of a Life Cut Short”), a writer, a poet, and a university professor, or Justinas Marcinkevičius, considered to be „the only one real Lithuanian poet” (in “Vilnius Poker”). The characters of Gavelis’s novels criticize Lithuanian literature for propagating the stereotype of the „Lithuanian spirit” – lyrical, sentimental, experiencing deep emotions but not thinking, soft, introvert and passive, hermetic and closed in its own circle. The authors such as Camus, Kafka, Orwell, Beckett, Russell, Schopenhauer, Nietzsche, and Ortega y Gasset – thinkers, innovators, precursors – add the European context to this picture. Their presence shows us what Gavelis’s characters (and probably Gavelis himself) require from literature. The model claimed as typical for Lithuania does not cover their intellectual needs. It is also considered dangerous because it creates a picture of Lithuanian mentality as soft, submissive and easy to control.

<p><em>Creation without disassembling, using wisely, responsible planing and estimation longer-term consequences giving priority to the person, respecting his/her individuality, diversity - this is a new approach and sustainable society features.</em> <em>Quality of life include all aspects of the way we live our lives. They allow us to fulfil our needs and aspiration</em>s<em>. On the basis of results of the research EU policy materials and Lithuania and Latvia ways of realization these laws in the regional policy, that all global methods and wellbeing development actions have a direct impact for people with intellectual disabilitiess and influentto expanding possibilities self-expression, activating self-action, stimulating self-conception. Creatiwity –the way and possibility in empowering these people socialization and self – realizing. The researches in this field would answer to the questons: possible to optimize the quality of life for people with intellectual deseases in their abilities limited space.</em></p>

The intellectual legacy of Marija Gimbutas – scholar, theoretician and practical archeologist, an active, versatile and sensitive personality – has been hitherto little investigated, including in particular her Lithuanian studies. The article focuses on the relationship that Marija Gimbutas had with her family, especially highlighting her connection with her mother – Veronika Janulaitytė-Alseikienė.Gimbutas’ mother Veronika Janulaitytė-Alseikienė (1883–1971) was among the very few Lithuanian women of the peasant descent that managed to obtain the university education at the turn of the 19th – 20th centuries. In 1908, she defended her doctoral thesis in medicine in Berlin. However, due to various circumstances, including nostalgia for her homeland, she discontinued her scholarly work in Germany, returning to the Russian Empire of that time. After the WWI, together with her husband Danielius Alseika (doctor, politician and editor of numerous Lithuanian publications) Veronika established the first Lithuanian hospital in Vilnius, engaging in the medical, social and educational activities. Marija Gimbutas’ parents were a rather different personalities. Her father was an idealist ardently pursuing his social and political ideas, while her mother was a rational and practical woman, who took care of maintaining the hospital, social welfare and family matters. Since early childhood, Marija’s mother enfolded her daughter with her care, attempting to provide her with everything that she considered valuable, and devoting special attention to her education. Gimbutas’ cousin, professor Meilė Lukšienė has described her mother as a “silent soul”, since she could not fully realize her talents, but devoted all her energy to enable her daughter to do so. It is obvious that Marija inherited most of her character features from her mother, including courage, determination, inexhaustible energy,industriousness, and vitality.In spite of the passionate care that she received from her mother, in her childhood and youth Marija regarded her father as her personal ideal and as an example to follow. She considered her rational and pragmatic mother as a given, as someone providing her with good living conditions, and directed her admiration and love to her father. She felt inspired by Danielius Alseika’s ideals, his broad humanitarian worldview, his articles on the Lithuanian culture and his devoted work as editor and publisher of the Lithuanian books. She regarded her father as an embodiment of human creativity. However, he died when Marija was just fifteen years old. It took her considerable time afterwards to fully appreciate her mother’s love, her dedicated care of the children, and her hard work to ensure family’s welfare and security. The author of the article assumes that the active, vital and creative energy, which Marija saw embodied in her father’s image and political activities, subsequently inspired her impressive theory of the Indo-Europeans spreading across the whole of Europe. And only later, her down-to-earth side of life became more visible, manifesting in her theory of matristic culture of the ancient Europe.Marija Gimbutas fully and consciously appreciated her connection with her mother only after she got married and had her daughter Danutė born in 1943. Unfortunately, the development of this connection was suspended because of the necessity for her to flee from Lithuania, which was occupied by the Soviet troops in 1944. Further on, Marija’s connection with her mother and other female members of her family (her aunt Julija Matjošaitienė and her cousin Meilė Matjošaitytė-Lukšienė) was maintained from emigration. The first letter from Marija reached Lithuania only after seven years following her departure, and regular correspondence could be established only after Stalin’s death. However, when acquiring this possibility, Marija corresponded very actively: she has written over 400 letters and over 200 postcards to her mother.Another way of maintaining connection with her family was sending packages. Ample gifts were shipped from America to Lithuania; however, Marija received equally dear presents from Lithuania in return. Veronika Alseikienė saw sending gifts as an expression of her love to her daughter, as means of creating the Lithuanian atmosphere in Marija’s home and supporting her Lithuanian cultural activities in America. For Marija, things that she received were primarily means of connection with her mother.Only in the summer of 1960, there finally was hope of meeting in person. Although possibilities of visiting the Soviet Union from the USA were severely restricted, Marija Gimbutas managed to visit her mother at least seven times. These short encounters allowed her to establish a closer connection, and during long times of separation to envision her mother’s home in Kaunas.Anyway, Marija Gimbutas had a special talent of feeling her loved ones in spite of the distance that separated them. She has described her extraordinary state of mind and her telepathic ability of seeing and feeling her mother, who was hospitalized after a surgery at that time. She experienced a deep feeling of connection also on the day of her mother’s funeral, having a vision of her mother finally being able to visit her daughter’s home in Topanga – at least after her death. For Gimbutas, considerations of life and death were not merely academic studies of the ancient European religion, but constituted an inherent part of her personality. She discussed the indestructible nature of the vital energy, and the human ability to feel close proximity with the deceased, who never left us completely. The religious images and phenomena that she examined were her reality.In her letters to her mother, Gimbutas repeatedly used words like life, living, enliven, strength, vigor, indicating that she gained strength and energy from this connection. In one case, she even described the tree of life when discussing folk art ornaments on an item that she had received from her mother.The women that surrounded Marija Gimbutas from her early childhood, the connection with her mother that she maintained even in emigration, the female solidarity and spiritual community that she had with her aunt Julija Matjošaitienė and her cousin Meilė Lukšienė constituted sources of vital energy for Marija Gimbutas that supported not only herself, but also her theory of the goddesses’ civilization. The example and authority of her mother and other female relatives enabled Marija to see and recognize in her archeological findings the active and creative female side, creating prerequisites of looking for the female goddesses in the global archeological Paleolithic and Neolithic cultures. Marija Gimbutas could have hardly developed enough courage to establish women as creators of the European civilization, were it not for the strong, brave and active women that surrounded her form her childhood and presented powerful examples for her to follow.

JAŠIŪNAI MANOR AS A SPACE FOR WRITING LITHUANIAN HISTORY The aim of this article is to discuss the Jašiūnai manor (Pol. Jaszuny; Russ. Яшуны; Vilniaus Governorate, Vilnius County), owned by the historian, journalist, poet, translator and collector Michał vel Michał Wincenty Feliks Baliński (1794–1864). The manor will be discussed not only as a cultural hub for intellectuals in a general sense, but also as a unique space for writing Lithuanian history. The term “space” is understood here in the broad sense, as of the manor—as well as in the more narrow sense, as of the library itself (the historian’s office). Especially important for this research was the latter concept of a “space within a space”, the “historian’s workshop”, and its epicenter—the archive (manuscript collection). The aim of the research was to reconstruct the story of the emergence and fate of this collection of documents including its contents, sources, and most importantly its thematic direction and distinctiveness. The research showed that the largest collection of historical documents once housed in the archive of the Jašiūnai manor library is now kept in the Jagiellonian Library (Krakow). This material remains important to the history of the city of Vilnius, Vilnius University, and Lithuania’s academic history. Supplementary elements include attention to the Radvila family, the period of Steponas Batoras’s rule, and the history of the Szubrawcy (rascals) Society. This last component can be considered as an integral part not only of the history of Vilnius city but also of its university. The dual nature of the Jašiūnai archive is not necessarily an asset. When the library and archive of Jan vel Jan Chrzciciel Władysław Sniadecki vel Śniadecki (1756–1830) was transferred to the manor, Baliński’s own collection, which initially focused on the history of Lithuanian cities and Szubrawcy Society (especially of the latter), wound up relegated to the background. Keeping in mind the “competition for libraries” among the intellectual manors of Lithuania in the first half of the 19th century as they sought to distinguish themselves, it is very possible to conclude that the former University rector’s installment in the manor can today be viewed as a “historical error”. Thus Jašiūnai lost some of its playfulness and distinctiveness in the context of other intellectual manors of that time. The situation would have been different if the Auszlawis (such was Balinski’s pseudonym in the Szubrawcy Society) collection had been associated not with Jan Sniadecki, but rather with the documentary legacy of Sotwaros (i.e. Jędrzej Sniadecki vel Śniadecki [1768–1838]), especially his documentation of the Szubrawcy. All the more so since the egodocuments of Balinski suggest the idea that its real hero was not Sniadecki the Elder, but Sniadecki Jr. Analysis of the Balinski archival collection only confirmed that which was shown by the previously executed so-called common biographical research of this historian and lord: he was relegated to the background by circumstances. That is to say, relegated to a life lived in the shadow of Jan Sniadecki’s personality and to the importance of the Szubrawcy ideology, especially in the early and last periods of his life. The Jašiūnai document collection housed in the Manuscripts Department of the Wroblewski Library of the Lithuanian Academy of Sciences shows that the latter circumstance was fully understood by Tadeusz vel Tadeusz Stanisław Wróblewski (1858–1925) and his peers. From here stems another “archival” conclusion regarding the uniqueness of the Wroblewski Library in our cultural and historical geography. The circumstances surrounding the transferral of the document collection from Jašiūnai remain unclear to this day, however it is very likely that Baliński’s will and testament was not taken into consideration. This shows that the owner of Jašiūnai did not have a Continuator for his work, and this can be seen in the ad te ipsum fragility of the collection.

National Programme for Social Integration of People with Disabilities for 2013 - 2019 has set a strategic objective to create a positive environment and conditions for a dignified and fully fledged life of people with disabilities in Lithuania, to guarantee equal opportunities and the quality of life of people with disabilities. The article analyses the experiences of the social workers, who work in sheltered housing accommodation with young adults with intellectual disability, when developing independent living skills in young adults with intellectual disability. Sheltered housing accommodation is social services institutions providing social care, in which persons live in home environment and conditions are created for them to manage their own personal life on their own with the support of the social workers. A qualitative-empirical study has been conducted by using the method of a semi-structured interview. The study data were processed by using the method of content analysis. The results of the empirical study are based on the experience of 11 social workers, who have been working in sheltered housing accommodation with young adults with intellectual disability for at least 3 years. The study has revealed that the following independent living skills are considered to be the most easy to be developed: cooking, simple housework, hygiene skills. The young adults also easily develop public transport use skills. The young adults most often acquire work skills by tidying their home environment. The most difficult, according to the social workers, to develop are economic skills: to manage their budget, to allocate finances, to pay for services, and to do the shopping. The young adults with intellectual disability find it difficult to develop their parenting skills. Communication skills are developed while learning etiquette and complying with it in a large range of environments, by encouraging to communicate courteously with other persons, showing personal example, taking a good example from others, taking part in different events, festivals and communal activity. The development of independent living skills occurs by engaging young adults in a practical activity. Particular attention is given to the development of healthy lifestyle skills. The young adults are encouraged to make decisions by guiding them in the right direction, while respecting their interests; the responsibility for the decisions made by them and the consequences of those decisions is also developed. Activity planning, organising and personal skills are developed.

The publications that Algirdas Julius Greimas (1917–1992) produced from 1943 to 1992 provide a record of his ideas, opinions, and scholarly methodologies. Yet we have much less information and understanding of his early years. This article draws from archival documents, correspondence, published sources, and personal interviews with Greimas and others to describe the formative experiences inside and outside the classroom which had the greatest impact on fashioning his subsequent life of ideas.The essay describes the linguistic and cultural context in which Greimas grew up, indicates the intellectual traditions in which he was trained, and highlights the individuals, methods, authors, and books of his youth which proved particularly significant for him. A narrative relates his education in Lithuania, describes his university studies in 1930s France, and concludes at a time when much of Europe was engulfed in World War II. A discussion then synthesizes the experiences recounted and explores the ways in which they informed the ensuing evolution of his outlook, ideas, and career.Four traditions played a leading role in shaping Greimas’ s development. Lithuania fashioned his character and identity, afforded him a sound humanistic education, inculcated in him traditional European folklore and a poetical spirit, and instilled in him the commitment to help build the nation’s culture and society. The Slavic heritage provided him metaphysical perspectives, exemplified a holistic approach to inquiry, and developed his revolutionary spirit. Germanic cultures furnished him historical perspectives and methodologies, engaged him in fundamental philosophical inquiry, and provided him a method and an ethic for research on language. France inspired in him a second identity, cultivated in him classical and Enlightenment ideals, and moved him with pure poetry. The various traditions nurtured in Greimas productive tensions between fidelity and openness, historicity and universality, and between reason, affect, and sensuality.

Most parents would agree that parenting is extremely complex and challenging. It is the process of promoting and supporting the physical, emotional, social and intellectual development of a child from infancy throughout a person’s life. Children are not born successful or unsuccessful. It is up to the parents and their behaviours to become what they become later. Normative or healthy parenting is a precondition for a child’s success, self-confidence, and autonomy. Meanwhile, non-normative, unhealthy parenting or overparenting may have a harmful impact on a child’s social skills and overall life. The research was aimed to gather teachers’ experiences about the existing parenting behaviours and to reveal the dominant parenting patterns that may be observed in nowadays child-raising practices. For this aim the research instrument was constructed designing of which was based on a specific focus on different areas of unhealthy, non-normative parenting. An international study was conducted that led to identification of the key aspects of the experience of teachers working with the overprotective parents and their children. 262 teachers from Portugal, Slovenia, Turkey, Romania and Lithuania participated in the survey. The study findings served to reveal the dominant behaviours of overparenting observed by the teachers The findings also allowed to define the difficulties that teachers face in dealing with overparenting parents and overparented children. The study was conducted in the framework of the international project “Overparenting – allow your children to make mistakes”, project No. 2020-1-PT01- KA204-078497.

The research, which is based on the documents of the anti-Soviet resistance of 1944–1953, makes an attempt at reconstructing the freedom fighters’ vision of independent Lithuania and analyses the image of the planned (projected) political and socio-economic model of the state, its underlying elements and principles, the evolution and context of the partisans’ political thought. Reflecting on inter-war Lithuania, life therein, resistance against the Soviets and the fierce struggle and sufferings of that time, the partisans sacredly believed in the restoration of independence and had a clear vision of the future state. The critical attitude of those who participated in the resistance towards Lithuania’s statehood had a great impact on the underlying elements of the said vision. In the partisans’ experience and understanding, social exclusion and public distrust of government institutions were among the most acute problems of the Republic of Lithuania which, in their conviction, caused the catastrophic crisis of the state and the society that resulted in the loss of independence in 1940. Leaders of the underground movement were fully aware of the ills and failures of the past and thus constructed an ideal, a dream of a comprehensively stronger and affluent state, democratic regime and fairer governance of the country. The partisans’ vision of a modern independent Lithuanian state was developed under the influence of the political thought of the rural intelligentsia, thus reflecting the outlook of an ordinary peasant farmer and akin attitudes of rural intellectuals. Realising that Lithuania existed on the divide between the Western and Eastern civilizations, partisan leaders made every attempt to emphasize their western identity and mentality, identified and positioned themselves as the outpost of Western civilization and European culture. Participants of the resistance movement followed basically social democratic, Christian ideals and values and sought to restore a modern democratic parliamentary republic free of social exclusion where social justice and solidarity would be the predominant components of state regulation. In summary, it can be stated that the present-day socio-economic model of the Nordic welfare state (that of Denmark, Norway, Sweden or Finland), which in its core is rather socialistic, is for the most part in line with the freedom fighters’ vision of the future state and was considered by them the most acceptable. Although present-day Lithuania does not fully satisfy their vision, Lithuanian resistance fighters expressed the eternal strive of people and nations for freedom, material and spiritual wellbeing and social justice.

This article investigates the rise of the peasantry as new readers and Lithuanian intellectuals’ reactions to this phenomenon as they took the initiative in directing the peasants’ cultivation as readers. These intellectuals were concerned with the development of the peasants and sought to form their reading habits, influence the readers’ choices as to reading material, and so on. This article goes on to analyze how Žemaitė’s status as a peasant writer was established during her early reception, and how the evaluation of her work depended on the imagined addressee. By analyzing the reviews and broader studies of Žemaitė’s published works in the Lithuanian press from 1895 to 1915, this article aims to show that the formation of the common people as a potential and especially important national reading public was an integral part of her canonization process. Yet another important aim of this research is to reveal how the reception of Žemaitė’s works brought ordinary village peasant onto the horizon of modern Lithuanian culture, and how this became the foundation of one of the new literary styles in Lithuania, namely realism. In this way, by canonizing Žemaitė’s works, the life of village folk became not only visible and recognizable to the Lithuanian reading public, but also came to be regarded as a credible topic for realistic prose.

The article deals with several closely related problems. Firstly, it presents a concise analysis of the particulars of the formation of the Lithuanian intelligentsia – a modern social élite in the country. It is maintained that in Lithuania (as well as in the other states of Central and Eastern Europe) the intelligentsia’s special role in society was conditioned by its modernization process and the level of its development and manifestation in public life. It was no accident that the pattern of the national ideal, shaped by the intelligentsia, as well as the proposed programme for the modernization of society were of ethnocentric nature. The second half of the study relates to the project for modernizing society, offered by Vincas Kudirka, a prominent figure in the Lithuanian national movement, a publicist and publisher. It was his belief, supported by many other Lithuanian intellectuals, that the processes of modernization – its social and economic development had to entail and presuppose the development of national self-consciousness. The proposed programme was intended for the lowest and most numerous social layer the peasantry, and it actually expressed that group’s interests. At the same time the modernization programme contained contradictions, acquired ethnocentric features and in future was liable to encourage social and ethnic tensions.

Algirdas Landsbergis (1924–2004) is a playwright, prose writer, and journalist who, with the approach of the second Soviet occupation, like many other creators and intellectuals, was forced to leave Lithuania first to Germany and later to the United States. Most of Landsbergis’ texts were born outside Lithuania, although full of longing for home and images of Lithuania. The author’s work is characterized by mythical parallels; the intertwined mythological images function as a subtextual, symbolic plot and reveal an individual, unique creative style, opening the door to deeper meanings of texts. In a general sense, it can be said that myths encrypt the author’s way of thinking, self-awareness, the relationship between the individual and the world, the essential human experience and its importance. For this reason, the aim is to analyze what images of mythology can be found in Landsbergis’ poetry and how their meanings can relate to different periods of the author's life. In the article, mythological images of six poems published in 20th-century periodicals are analyzed („Tolimam draugui“, „New Yorko krantinės“, „Langas į kiemą“, „Rožė“, „Rankos“, „Kadais iškeliavusieji“).

The debates about female fashion in the new Republic of Lithuania in the 1920s and 1930s saw papal representatives, bishops, leading public intellectuals, and members of Catholic youth movements argue about deep décolletés and short skirts. In this predominantly Catholic country, objections made against modern fashion may initially look like a conservative stand against modern developments. Studying more closely the debate around women's fashion as it developed in a particular subset of the Catholic population in Lithuania—educated youth in the Ateitis Catholic student association, this article examines the interconnected arguments that were woven together to evaluate what women should wear in interwar Lithuania and shows that Catholics in this northeastern European country aimed to create a modern national and rational woman. At issue were not just Catholic moral norms but also national identity and the challenges posed by mass consumer culture. The new ideal being proposed was a modern Catholic female intelligentsia, a gender ideal that embraced the opportunities offered in the first decades of the twentieth century, such as suffrage, education, urban living, more active participation in civic life, while retaining more conservative moral norms, questioning consumer culture, and debating woman's nature and mission.

European historiography changed considerably during the nineteenth century. Formation of historical source study as a separate science, on the one hand, and awareness of the connection between the historical narrative of the past with political interests, on the other hand, gave impetus to the writing of historical works on national history, the so-called grand narratives. They relied on historical sources, but chose what served the actual political interests, and ignored or interpreted otherwise what they did not fit. The territorial organization of living space has become a priority task of national development in the nineteenth century, and the recognition of land, borders, and people as own should have been historically grounded. The difficulty for Ukrainians was that the traces of Ukrainian-Russ statehood were lost in ancient times, while the neighbors, primarily Russians and Poles, tried to draw both the territory and the past of Ukraine into their own concepts of the creation of modern nation. The creation of the Ukrainian grand narrative was influenced by external factors: the division of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the collapse of its once unified political, cultural and intellectual space, and the policy of the Russian authorities, aimed to separate «Little Rus’» from western civilization. Russian censorship successfully removed memory of Polish-Ukrainian ties from historical works and replaced it with the image of the invading Poles. The traumatic, post-war experience, idealization of images of Cossack soldiers was the favorable ground for this. As a result, in Ukrainian historical grand narrative the «Polish-Lithuanian» period was interpreted as an external occupation, a break in the «correct» history of Ukraine. The whole complex of everyday life, cultural and political influences of Ukrainians in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth remained beyond history. Its main content was recognized by the Polish-Ukrainian conflicts. The views on the legacy of the Commonwealth in the Ukrainian society of the nineteenth century can also be analyzed from the perspective of the intellectual biographies of their creators and take into account the experience of relations with the Poles, the private image and repression of the Russian government. An unbiased rethinking by professional historians of the past of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth from the point of view of the interactions of various cultural spaces in the nineteenth century was not a matter of time. Keywords Ukrainian-Polish relations in the nineteenth century, Ukrainian-Russian relations in the nineteenth century, Ukrainian historiography of the nineteenth century, intellectual biography, cultural and intellectual heritage of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

Dr. Zita Virginija Šimėnaitė (1950–2016)Dr. Zita Šimėnaitė passed away on the 1st of August, 2016. She was a researcher who made a great contribution to the still developing field of Lithuanian lexicography. Between 2005 and 2014, she conducted work of the Lexicographical Centre in the Institute of the Lithuanian Language in Vilnius. Her academic and intellectual life was devoted to her two great passions: collaborating with other linguists in creation of new scientific dictionaries of the Lithuanian language, and artistic photography. She made a valuable contribution to the great dictionary of the Lithuanian language (Lietuvių kalbos žodynas; LKŽ) via enriching files, editing and developing numerous entries, as well as preparing an electronic version of the dictionary (www.lkz.lt). She co-authored the phraseological dictionary of the Lithuanian language (2002) and the dictionary for learners of the Lithuanian language (2000, second edition 2010). She conducted many projects in the field of monolingual and translational lexicography. She also popularized ideas and work of Lithuanian lexicographers during symposia and conferences in her home country and abroad. She actively participated in the scientific exchange and cooperation between the Institute of the Lithuanian Language and the Institute of Slavic Studies, Polish Academy of Sciences in Warsaw. Dr Zita Virginija Šimėnaitė (1950–2016)Dnia 1 sierpnia 2016 r. zmarła dr Zita Šimėnaitė, badaczka mająca wielkie zasługi dla pomnażania dorobku leksykografii litewskiej. Od 2005 do 2014 r. kierowała pracami Centrum Leksykograficznego Instytutu Języka Litewskiego w Wilnie. Swoje życie poświęciła realizacji dwóch wielkich pasji: tworzeniu we współpracy z innymi lingwistami naukowych słowników języka litewskiego oraz fotografii artystycznej. Wniosła cenny wkład w uzupełnianie kartoteki, opracowanie licznych haseł i redagowanie wielkiego słownika języka litewskiego (Lietuvių kalbos žodynas; LKŽ) oraz przygoto­wanie jego wersji elektronicznej (www.lkz.lt). Współtworzyła słownik frazeologiczny języka litewskiego (2002) oraz słownik do nauki języka litewskiego (2000, drugie wydanie 2010). Zrealizowała wiele projektów z zakresu leksykografii jednojęzycznej i przekładowej; przybliżała koncepcje i dzieła litewskich leksykografów na sympozjach w kraju i za granicą, uczestniczyła w wymianie naukowej między Instytutem Języka Litewskiego a Instytutem Slawistyki PAN.

The 90th anniversary of birth of the famous Lithuanian literary scholar and folklorist, professor of the Vilnius University Donatas Sauka (1929–2015) is celebrated in 2019. The article discusses various contexts of the folklore research and academic activities by Donatas Sauka, revealing his own attitude towards folklore as well. Donatas Sauka is rightly placed among the most original and creative Lithuanian folklore researchers. His works and lectures that he gave to the students of the Vilnius University encourage regarding folklore as an integral part of the human life in the traditional community, and emphasize an imperative of grasping the mentality of the folklore creators. According to him, “a collection of folklore, if read intently provides an important source on the social and psychological experience”. Donatas Sauka also merits praise for his unique writing style that combines the research precision and poetic reflection. His most important folklore research works include the monograph Tautosakos savitumas ir vertė (‘Uniqueness and Value of Folklore’, 1970) and the textbook for students Lietuvių tautosaka (‘Lithuanian Folklore’, 1982).The current text rests on the posthumous edition of Donatas Sauka’ diaries and recollections Apie laiką ir save (‘On Time and Myself’, 2019), in which the author remembers and evaluates his personal experiences and those of an entire generation of the Lithuanian intellectuals living under the Soviet occupation, submits auto-commentaries for his books, and reveals details on his research work.

AbstractIn 1966, Ephraim Elimelech Urbach and a group of religious intellectual figures established the Movement for Torah’s Judaism, in order to change some elements in the religious life in Israel. The hegemony of religion in Israel belonged at that time to Orthodox Judaism and its political parties, especially the Lithuanian Yeshivot circles. The new movement challenged the “gap between the people and the Torah and the gap between the halacha and the political, economic and social reality”, and called “to revive the halacha through the clear assumption, that the problems of the State are included again in the field of Torah”.Urbach’s movement was an attempt to establish a Jewish “midstream movement”, and actually to reestablish the Breslau School, in Israel. The movement opposed the domination of Lithuanian orthodoxy in Israel’s religious life, as well as the very way of neo-orthodoxy, which represented the idea of “a technologist with the permission of the Torah”. They were also opposed to Reform Judaism. Although they opposed the secular way, they were obligated to cooperate with the secular majority in all the national-public missions. Their three main motions for the agenda were: the method of ruling halacha; changing problematic prayers; and establishing a modern rabbinical seminary.After the establishment of the movement, only a few hundred members joined it. The movement did not succeed in influencing large audiences. The movement also failed in establishing the rabbinical seminary. After a decade, the movement ceased its activities.

Solomon Maimon (1753–1800), one of the most significant Jewish philosophers of modern times, in his writings tried to critically approach the tradition of Jewish thought and compare its teachings with the views of European philosophers. In re­cent decades, he and his views have attracted close attention of historians of phi­losophy. Recently, seven volumes of his works were published in Russia, translated from German and Hebrew. One of his most famous books is his Lebensgeschichte (Autobiography), an autobiography written by him in the 1790s and revealing both the stages of his life path and spiritual development, as well as his understanding of various problems of philosophy, religion, ethics and mysticism. This book has en­joyed a reputation as a classic in the genre of “intellectual biography” for two cen­turies. The article discusses the main features of this book, as well as its perception in the 19th – early 20th centuries. The stereotypical image of Maimon as a free­thinker Jew, a fighter against religious superstitions and social inequality, almost overshadowed his significance as an original philosopher, whose views were ap­preciated by I. Kant and J.G. Fichte. This attitude towards Maimon was fully re­flected in the translations of his Autobiography. Our article pays special attention to the Russian translations of this book. We are publishing for the first time docu­ments related to an attempt to publish in the 1930s a complete commented transla­tion of Maimon’s book. Famous Soviet philosophers and translators participated in the preparation of this translation (Boris G. Stolpner, Isaak M. Alter, and others), but the book was never published for political reasons.

The article discusses life and work of Vyacheslav Bogdanovich (1878–1939/1940?), an outstanding figure of Belarusian national movement, a senator of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The son of a Belarusian Orthodox priest, he became one of the most recognized intellectual leaders of his nation, a talented writer, a skilled polemicist and a politician. V. Bogdanovich is the author of many different works. Special attention is paid to his articles devoted to the poetry of Yanka Kupala and Yakub Kolas as well as hagiographic studies related to the mission of the Orthodox patrons of Belarus – Anthony, John and Eustafij. The problem of autocephaly of the Orthodox Church in Poland, which became disastrous for V. Bogdanovich, affected all aspects of his multilateral activities. It also had a direct impact on his description of such topics as “Belarusian spiritual heritage”, “languages of the Orthodox Church”, “the people and the intelligentsia”, “the church and the state”. The last days of V. Bogdanovich’s life were tragic. He was released from Polish detention in September 1939, less than a month later he was arrested in Vilnus by the NKVD and went missing.

Throughout the 16th and 17th centuries, many builders, artists, and architects living on the shores of Italian lakes decided to settle in Poland. Upon arrival, they pursued brilliant careers in various areas of life. Over time, they became Polonized. This was also the case for Giovanni Battista Trevano, who was active in Krakow in the first half of the 17th century and whose lifetime achievement was to become the royal architect of the Vasa kings. This article presents Trevano’s artistic oeuvre and provides insight into his social, economic, and intellectual status in the new community, including the architect’s offspring, who pursued successful careers in army, church, and state offices throughout the 17th and 18th centuries. These new findings are based on manuscripts that have recently been discovered by the author of the article in both Polish and Swiss archives. They allow for expanding the knowledge of the Trevano family’s genealogy and biography, and correcting some unjustified views in the discourse. On the basis of research on new archival sources, one can conclude that Giovanni Battista Trevano was a prominent architect, who is credited with introducing in Poland the early Baroque style, which soon became dominant in northern European art.

The article analyzes the leadership phenomenon of the Lithuanian scientist and social figure M. Luksiene during the period of the Lithuanian Education Reform (1988-1997). It is based on the analysis of scientific literature, the qualitative analysis of M. Luksiene’s texts as well as expert surveys. The article aims to describe M. Luksiene’s leadership as a unique leadership phenomenon and to highlight the phenomenal features of the leadership. The problem: what was M. Luksiene’s leadership during the period of Education Reform. The subject matter – M. Luksiene’s leadership during the period of Education Reform. The Goal is to uncover the distinctness of M. Luksiene’s leadership during the period of Education Reform. tasks: 1) on the basis of scientific literature on leadership to define the concepts of leadership and leadership as a phenomenon; 2) to highlight the conditions during the Lithuanian Education Reform as a prerequisite for leaders to emerge; 3) through empirical examination to disclose the distinctness of M. Luksiene’s leadership. The research methods. The research is based on one type of empirical research, i.e. the case investigation, in which the object of investigation is composed of one social phenomenon – M. Luksiene’s activity during the Lithuanian Education Reform. The investigation is carried out at a personal level. The research is also based on qualitative research strategy and its specific methods: analysis of scientific literature, the qualitative analysis of M. Luksiene’s texts, expert survey. On the basis of the analysis of the research data the following conclusions are drawn: M. Luksiene’s appearance as an emerged leader is a case of a leadership where under the prevailing social and political circumstances, in the absence of bright, nonstandard-minded leaders, the distinctive intellectual and attitudinal maturity of M. Luksiene’s personality has led to her emergence as a leader. It is a case of harmony between maturity of a person as a leader and historical circumstances. The analysis of written word – diaries – suggests that M. Luksiene was engaged in distinctive public activities worth staying in human memory since her childhood. In her childhood she developed a sense of obligation, social sensibility, the perception of time and self, – all the features characteristic to self- awareness of authentic leadership. The analysis of the texts from the period of Education Reform suggests that M. Luksiene as a leader admits her weaknesses, but successfully brings people together to act for common purpose; she raises the corporate matters over personal; she is able to discern the favorable historical conditions for dramatic change in education and takes the initiative to take advantage of these conditions in a positive way; she justifies the change conceptually, shapes a clear vision surpassing day-to-day thinking; she sees the importance of education as a social system in building the State. The analysis of data from the expert survey suggests that in the activities of M. Luksiene both the transformational and the charismatic as well as authentic leadership have revealed themselves. Her personality traits commonly held as unique are: love of life; intelligence and simplicity; respect for the human being, self-devotion, strength; the ability to negotiate and reach an agreement; demanding high standards from herself and others; rare and unique combination of age, depth and breadth of thinking, experience (memory) and will; unique interconnection between the pre-war-war-postwar and years of Soviet stagnation experiences, and at the same time not lingering in the past but creating modern and compelling visions of the future, as well as their active implementation. All of the key features and characteristics of M. Luksiene have one common attitudinal, cultural and educational basis, or goal: to create an open, democratic educational system, in which the center of focus is a human being. Therefore, M. Luksiene is not only to be regarded as a charismatic leader, but also as the creator of the Lithuanian state with highest humanistic culture.

H. A. Wolfson arrived in the United States at 16 from the Lithuanian region of the Russian Empire and at Harvard as a freshman five years later. He remained at Harvard until his death in 1974, as Emeritus Professor of Hebrew Literature and Philosophy. Among the most important historians of western religious philosophy, he published on contemporary issues only until 1925 and even then only rarely. Nevertheless, his 1918 article, “Pomegranates”, deserves attention. Wolfson clearly followed debates about the American ethnic future. He carved out an original and unexpected position on that issue, and on the American Jewish future within that context. He perceptively rejected Horace Kallen’s views of a “multi-national America”, and like Israel Zangwill’s Melting Pot, he stressed that full cultural and political assimilation would occur in the United States. But unlike Zangwill, he argued that Jewish religious creativity would find a long-term place in American life, once freed of its national trappings. Strongly supporting a Hebraic renaissance and a Jewish homeland in Palestine, he also emphasized with great force that the “we”—the east-European Jewish intellectuals and the Zionists—had greatly misunderstood the promise of Reform Judaism for the diaspora.

The article explores the Froben prints stored at the Rare Books Department of the Library of the Russian Academy of Science (Biblioteka Akademii Nauk) in Saint Petersburg. For three generations in the 16th century, Basel printers the Frobens influenced European intellectual life like no other publishing establishment, contributing to the spread of early Latin and Greek Christian literature, which determined both the development of theology and the humanities. Some copies of Froben prints are conspicuous for the history of their use which is intrinsically connected with various kinds of religious polemics in 16th and 17th century Eastern Europe. The focus of the article is the copies of Froben’s Opera omnia of St Augustine which underwent censorship in monastic libraries of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the 16th and 17th century. The article traces the history of a number of Froben copies which belonged to notable Polish Protestants of the 16th and 17th centuries (Andrzej Trzecieski, Nicholas Radziwill the Black (“Czarny”), Andrzej Dobrzanski). The examination of the connections of Eastern European Protestants, which enabled vigorous exchange of books with Western Europe, bringing, for instance, a book from the library of the great Dutch cartographer Gerhard Mercator to the hands of a provincial Polish pastor, is carried out. Finally, the article addresses the marginalia left by Simeon of Polotsk on one of his books. These marginalia throw some new light on the question of Simeon’s genuine theological views. By examining the history of the copies from the Library of the Russian Academy of Science through the marginalia left in the 16th and 17th centuries by people of various religions, the article assesses Froben copies as a source on confessional and intellectual history of the period.

Within the rapidly expanding field of emigration and migration literature, Dalia Staponkutė’s essay collections are notable for their intellectualism and probing anthropological gaze. They have drawn the attention of literary critics for their intense and intentional hybridity, positive understanding of émigré experience, grounding of the concept of identity in the author’s native language. The author of this article offers a broader study of the resonances of Staponkutė’s subject, of the wanderer’s conceptualization of spatial and temporal metaphors.The essay narrator’s focus slides from the Lithuania-Cyprus, NorthSouth geographic and cultural landscape to the temporal zone of the wanderer’s introspection and self-invention. Staponkutė articulates the state of personal freedom, particularly the philosophizing observer’s freedom, through the spatial images of the island and of the margins of empire. Rather than inertly holding onto inherited or learned ideas about identity or human roles (nationality, language, parenthood, the intellectual’s responsibility toward her homeland), Staponkutė tests freedom of thought and behavior against personal life experience. In order to survive in a globalizing, leveling world, she arranges a personal myth from her experience as mother, philosopher, traveler, and communicator while resisting traditional attitudes and stereotypical ideas about these roles. The biographical in Staponkutė’s essays embodies Alphonso Lingis’ thoughts about personal myth – the need to describe the world as one finds it, to create an individual means of transforming one’s surroundings into an organized semantic structure. The intensity of lived time, the attempt to be fully there, where one is (i.e., to live and create freely), and the perpetually present horizon of death both allow and force Staponkutė to retreat from the field of the traditional tension between self and other. In it, the wanderer qualitatively renews his aesthetic relationship with the world, the direction of his wanderings toward the homeland apparently restoring a lost romantic dimension, and love of, servitude.

The presented articles analyze the foreign policy concepts of Polish political emigration after the Second World War, which were published and discussed in the columns of the literary and political magazine “Culture”. The founder and editor-in-chief of the magazine was a Polish emigrant figure: journalist and publicist, public intellectual Jerzy Giedroyc, and the literary and political magazine “Culture” was published in Paris between 1947 and 2000. Playing an important role in Polish literary life, the magazine also became a lively discussion platform on the future of Europe, in particular, the future of Polish-Ukrainian interstate and interethnic relations. In fact, J. Giedroyc, together with his friend and colleague J. Myroszewski, created, substantiated and developed the idea of recognizing Poland’s post-war eastern borders and reconciling Poles with Ukrainians, Belarusians and Lithuanians. Another important component of the Polish foreign policy concept was the thesis that a free Poland could not exist without a free Ukraine. This concept of Poland’s foreign policy was not perceived in the 50s and 70s of the twentieth century by either Polish political emigrants or the politicians of the Polish People's Republic. However, after the victory of Solidarity in the 1989 Polish elections and the formation of a new post-communist government, the independent Republic of Poland took the ideas of J. Giedroyc and J. Myroszewski as the basis of its foreign policy towards Ukraine. The process of shaping Polish foreign policy since 1989 has been quite complex and controversial, as from the very beginning it was necessary to develop a clear position on the changes taking place in the West and, more importantly, in the East. The crisis, and later the collapse of the USSR, put on the agenda of the Polish political elite the need to approach the formation of a new foreign policy of the Third Commonwealth with special attention. Therefore, the main goal of the new Eastern policy was to respond to the changes taking place abroad.

The article is dedicated to the outstanding public figure, doctor, patriot, writer and composer Modest Levytskyi. Without exaggeration, his activity became a service to the people of Ukraine. Paradoxically, but dialectically, society (and pedagogy in particular) mostly turns its attention to titans, those who have left dozens of volumes of works behind. They were praised for years, and the inheritance became the subject of careful and scrupulous analysis. Nevertheless, the history of the state is rich in the names of those whose selfless work has become the key to educating generations of young people by Ukrainians. They had no place in the Soviet pantheon of education, because they were located in territories that fell under the jurisdiction of other states. Modest Levytskyi lived and worked in Volyn. And this territory was under Polish rule for many years. He was a Ukrainian, but he could not fully feel like one, because those who were not polonized after hundreds of years of the Polish-Lithuanian commonwealth were disparagingly called "lower rank". The processed literature gives an idea of the events of the beginning of the last century: constant wars, revolutions, coups. All these cataclysms swept across the land on which Levytskyi lived. He was well aware of the danger of assimilation of Ukrainians on his own native, but captured land. Although Modest was called "father ..." "and grandfather of Volyn" during his lifetime, sometimes it seems that for modern science (literature, medicine, pedagogy, art) he is a representative of those who were called "shadows of forgotten ancestors". Nevertheless, it is within our reach to tell the public about this unique personality. Now the nuclear globalized era gives us heroes for one day, but Modest did not give us an inheritance in hard coins. One of the writers wrote that human life becomes hell and torment there where two days, two cultures, two religions intersect. In front of Modest, the nineteenth century replaced the twentieth, the First World War took place, several coups, and the bloodiest tyrants in the history of mankind rushed to power. And only a few hundred intellectuals had hope for the independence of Ukraine in their hearts. This is probably a feat to defend the dream of reviving a nation that has been trampled into oblivion for centuries, when it seemed like he whole world was against it. And the memory of a courageous and honest person, teacher, artist, even if not in thick luxurious folios, is in the quiet truth, and in this mention of the life given to Ukraine.

Rapidly changing modern world imposes new challenges on the system of education, the school, teachers and society. Researchers (Aitken, 2008; Bond, 2011; Niemi, 2012; Bond & Sterrett, 2014) emphasise that changes emerging in all spheres of life, first of all, rest on the school and the teacher and require from the latter a set of new and broader competencies. Assurance of implementation of a shifting vision, goals and objectives of education also call for new competencies of educators (Barkauskaitė, 2005). According to G. Mažeikis (2007), changes and market requirements for the structure of competencies encourage reassessment of the already possessed competencies as well. A particular focus is laid on the ability to change (Mažeikis, 2007) or to adopt new competencies. A well-marked orientation of the researchers towards emphasizing leadership, as a separate ability, in the structure of competences (Miller & Cable, 2011) is clearly diverted to the models of leader’s competency (Jokinen, 2005; Hollenbeck & McCall, Silzer, 2006; Bolden & Gosling, 2006; Sydänmaanlakka, 2013). Over the last few decades the idea of new leadership, which has been raised in the research area, has been associated with The Transformational Leadership Theory (Leithwood & Poplin, 1992; Avolio & Bass, 1995; Dubrin, 2004; Bass & Bass, 2008; Yukl, 2013). According to that it raises the purpose of this study – to contribute to the abilities of transformational leadership competency conditioning pedagogical professionalism from the perspective of teacherspractitioners. The analysis of scientific literature revealed that concepts of teacher professionalism depend on social, cultural, economic and political context and the phenomenon is determined differently in different countries connecting it with the professional standards of respective profession. In this study pedagogical professionalism is grounded on the Description of Teacher’s Professional Competences of the Republic of Lithuanian (2007) as on the standard of teacher’s profession approved at the national level. The analysis of scholarly literature allows to state that the transformational leadership competency consists of abilities, which may be grouped into five components: • Idealized Influence (attributed): to provide followers with a sense of vision and mission; to demonstrate/instil pride in followers for being members of a group; to give up own interests for the sake of the group’s benefit; to demonstrate self-confidence and a sense of power; to serve as a personal example; • Idealized Influence (behavioral): to clearly formulate goals; to demonstrate confidence in followers; to base activities on fundamental moral values; to possess a clear vision and to be able to convey it; to initiate changes; to constantly apply self-reflection and improve; • Inspirational Motivation: to inspire followers to commit to, to assume responsibility and to become a part of the shared vision; to encourage seeking of higher results; to create positive microclimate; to motivate; to inspire followers to give up own interests for the sake of the group’s benefit; to promote and create culture of collaboration; to critically think and to address problems in an innovative way; • Intellectual Stimulation: to act creatively and to encourage and support followers’ creativity; to develop and empower followers for learning; to encourage followers’ self-dependence; to provide feedback to followers; • Individualized Consideration: to help followers achieve maximum within the limits of their own abilities; to acknowledge individuality of followers; to diagnose individual progress; to consider followers’ needs and interests; to provide conditions for followers’ self-realisation; to approach followers as personalities rather than members of the group. According to the theoretical and empirical study we conclude that the abilities necessary in teacher’s practical work: communication and collaboration, cognition and understanding of learners, acknowledgement of individuality, facilitation of learners’ progress, innovativeness, creativity, a role of a teacher-leader are directly related to such components of transformational leadership competency as intellectual stimulation, individualised consideration, inspirational motivation. Teachers-practitioners place strong emphasis on abilities that include individual cognition of learners. The importance of those abilities is disclosed both through tailoring of the educational process to individual needs of learners and through diagnosing of progress. Another group of abilities, which is frequently mentioned by the informants, includes communication and collaboration skills.

The aim of the article is to analyse and evaluate the contribution of Professor Eduardas Volteris (1856–1941), an archaeologist, ethnographer, folklore writer, and bibliographer, in the development of cultural relations and cultural expression of the Lithuanian academic intelligentsia in independent Lithuania. The sources analysed in the article evidence the significance of Eduardas Volteris’s organisational and research work in the process of the establishment of higher education in independent Lithuania between 1920 and 1922. His ambition to prioritise the humanities in higher education in Lithuania, his initiative to promote academic relations of the evolving academic community, and his wish to support the cultural transnationalism greatly benefited the development of the cultural perspective in independent Lithuania. Eduardas Volteris sought that the studies of general global humanities at the newly- established Lithuanian University be linked with the nurturing of Lithuanian cultural heritage and its dissemination. It was thanks to the implementation of these attitudes voiced by Eduardas Volteris and other intellectuals that the Faculty of Humanities of the University of Lithuania became an important basis for the development of cultural identity in the society. Prof. Volteris attempted to involve the professors and students of Kaunas in heritage studies and public cultural life. Volteris’s experience in and contribution to the organisation of academic and cultural cooperation was extensive. The professor encouraged the establishment and activities of the Lithuanian-Latvian Unity Society, a cultural relations organisation. Although the organisation was not numerous, its activities helped to expand the cultural contacts of the academic community not only in the Baltic region; it also took part in international intellectual and cultural organisations and facilitated the dissemination of different cultures in Lithuania. Eduardas Volteris was interested not only in the culture of the city, the land, and the people, in the names of the mounds, the local language. His cultural research was also linked to the cultural policy of the modern state, the ambition to understand the characteristics of modernity through the people’s attitudes and culture. Volteris can be attributed to the elite of the creators of collective historical and cultural memory in the edification of the Lithuanian public. The participation of the academic intelligentsia in the development of the historical self-awareness of the society was crucial has been throughout the years of existence of independent Lithuania. The impact of scholars in the field of mass cultural expression has become particularly relevant in the current context of new geopolitical tensions, Russia’s growing imperial ideology, and its policy of direct aggression, which is based on its own constructed narrative of history. In this contemporary context, Eduardas Volteris’s aspirations and the work he started in modernising Lithuania between the two world wars remain a source of valuable experience.

Due to the social and national policy of the government in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, the majority of the Lithuanian intelligentsia was forced to seek civil service not in ethnic Lithuania but rather in other governorates of the Russian Empire. Rimantas Vėbra, who studied the social structure of the Lithuanian intelligentsia of the nineteenth century, concluded that almost 60 per cent of people from Lithuania who had completed higher education worked outside the boundaries of the North-western Region. This article discusses the problem of the shortage of the intelligentsia differently from what has been discussed in previous studies before: not by identifying the problem of the “lost intelligentsia” and its roots, but by addressing the question of how much the Lithuanian intelligentsia itself tried to address the problem, why and what methods were proposed to overcome it. The main source of the study is the Lithuanian periodical press and works of fiction, which reflect the collective thinking of the intelligentsia deeper than letters or diaries, and, most importantly, show the reflection of ideas, the context of their dissemination, and allow at least a partial assessment of the discussions and impact of ideas. In the public discourse of the problems of the intelligentsia, the issue of the shortage of the Lithuanian intelligentsia was seen as a tragedy of the nation, primarily due to the inability of the intelligentsia to organize and mobilize the masses of society to work for the benefit of the nation. Fears about the employment of the intelligentsia outside ethnic Lithuania were periodically voiced in the illegal Lithuanian press at the end of the nineteenth century; however, the views on this problem did not differ significantly. A rather peculiar promotional campaign was conducted in the public discourse of that time, defined by its moralization, castigation, and the encouragement to stay in Lithuania. A Lithuanian intellectual who had left the country was seen primarily as someone who renounced his duties to society and was compared to a person without moral principles. In the early decades of the twentieth century, the consideration of the problem of the shortage of intelligentsia changed direction and a search for specific solutions to this problem began. On the one hand, the Lithuanian intelligentsia hurried to assess the changes, first of all in education and partly in the national policy of the Russian government. Therefore, the Lithuanian intelligentsia encouraged the public to establish private schools, hospitals, and associations of an economic nature. On the other hand, people became aware that it was impossible to prevent the loss of the intelligentsia under the existing conditions of employment in Lithuania. For this reason, the Lithuanian intelligentsia, especially its younger generation, sought means to strengthen the spiritual ties of the young people in higher education with their homeland, so that even if they chose to work in the inner governorates of the Russian Empire they would remain nationally engaged and socially active. At the same time, there were suggestions in the public discourse of the intelligentsia of that time to boost engagement in the career guidance of young people, taking into account more favourable employment and working conditions in ethnic Lithuania. The representatives of the Lithuanian intelligentsia who wrote for the periodical press encouraged young people to prioritize professional activities in the fields of law and medicine and to actively join the teaching profession. Meanwhile, in ethnic Lithuania, various groups of the Lithuanian professional intelligentsia were organised: the first associations of medical workers and teachers were established and specialized professional publications were launched. It was hoped that the cooperating representatives of the Lithuanian professional intelligentsia would make a cultural, moral, and, perhaps, political impact on the life of Lithuania. In parallel, other measures that could slow down the migration of the Lithuanian intelligentsia were considered in the public discourse of the problems of the intelligentsia: the intellectuals were advised not to give up job opportunities in rural areas. The expectations were that the increase of intellectuals in rural areas would stimulate faster modernization of the Lithuanian village and would encourage it to faster absorb all economic and cultural achievements. However, in the first decades of the twentieth century, the solutions to the problem of the shortage of Lithuanian intelligentsia considered in the public discourse were isolated cases. Also, they were more theoretical in nature than a precisely elaborated programme for strengthening the Lithuanian intelligentsia in ethnic Lithuania. In other words, when assessing the public discourse on the problem of the shortage of Lithuanian intelligentsia, we should first of all talk about the search for ideas and solutions rather than their coordinated implementation. In addition, it should also be noted that in the public discourse of the issues of the intelligentsia, ways to overcome the problem of its shortage were searched and discussed most actively from 1905 to 1907, which, in turn, may have promoted a lift in the general mood of society related to the events of 1905, in the hope of significant changes in the policy of Russian government. However, as the hopes of the Lithuanian society, and more precisely of the Lithuanian intelligentsia, faded (the network of professional schools in ethnic Lithuania remained essentially unchanged, no fundamental shifts took place in the employment of Lithuanians in the civil service), it was concluded that a successful solution to the problem of the shortage of the Lithuanian intelligentsia could only be found after a change of the political situation in the Russian Empire, and at the same time in Lithuania.

The magazine Aušrinė was intended for the young generation of the Lithuanian intelligentsia and as it was created by the representatives of this generation it allowed understanding of the collective thinking of this group of society. In the first half of the twentieth century, the young generation of the Lithuanian intelligentsia defined the intelligentsia not so much by formal characteristics as by its cultural, and, more precisely, by its national role. The collaborators of Aušrinė were convinced that the future of the Lithuanian national movement and the Lithuanian nation depended on the intelligentsia and its role. However, unlike other periodicals of the time, the editors of this magazine mostly focused not on the dissemination of ideas of Lithuanian nationalism, but looked for ways to strengthen social activism of the intellectuals, their relations with the homeland and with other sections of society. It was the environment of Aušrinė that tied student summer holidays to learning about regions, history, and culture of Lithuania, encouraged students to actively participate in the activities of farming societies, enlightenment societies, and to bring together local youth societies. In parallel, this magazine addressed the issue of the harmonisation of the individual needs of the intelligentsia and the community needs. Among other things, the collaborators of Aušrinė claimed that the Lithuanian intellectuals would not be able to properly perform their social functions unless they cared more about the nurturing of individuality: moral self-development and intellectual education. By introducing the column “Educational Affairs”, the editors of this magazine provided a list of literature recommended to the students, knowing that it would help the young generation of the Lithuanian intelligentsia “to seriously, consciously, and consistently develop a worldview, to accurately determine the path of an active life”. The discussion in the magazine Aušrinė shows that in the vision of the nation’s future, the young generation of the Lithuanian intelligentsia encouraged regarding women not only as wives and mothers in order to implement projects of the national intelligent family, but as partners in social activities. The editors of the magazine emphasized the need for women’s participation in the process of building a national intelligentsia and encouraged them to be socially active.

The aim of the article is to study the impact of the ideas of modern liberalism put forward by the scholars and lecturers of the University of Lithuania, which was established in Kaunas in 1922, in developing the educational voice of the intelligentsia in the society. The study looks into archival and other published sources on the democratic sociocultural environment set up at the University of Lithuania, analyses the impact of the ideas of cultural liberalism expressed by scholars in organising the training and cultural education of the population. The article uses the documents related to the pedagogical and cultural performance of the university operating in Kaunas, personal collections, minutes of meetings of organisations established by intellectuals, official letters and other correspondence, and periodicals. The sources employed in this work tell about the significant organisational and scientific contribution of researchers not only to organising the studies in Kaunas but also to mobilising a qualified, socially active, and democratic academic community. The contribution of the university professors from different fields of science and their value-based approach were of great importance in the development of the sociocultural life of the university. Vaclovas Biržiška, Petras Leonas, Albinas Rimka, and other intellectuals based their theoretical ideas and public actions on democracy, social solidarity, tolerance, other principles of social progress, and the recognition of the value and rights of every person. The ideas of democracy, the development of an educated personality and a modern society were the spiritual basis of many intellectuals’ educational activities in society right from the founding of the University of Lithuania, even though only some of them consistently favoured the doctrines of modern liberalism. Professors from Kaunas University sought to apply scientific knowledge and disseminate their experience by organizing direct training for adults at different levels of education and from different social strata. They established public adult education institutions. The scholars of Kaunas did not limit themselves to the education of the residents of their city, promotion of their educational interests, and development of their cultural horizons. Together with other intellectuals, authors of literary and artistic works, publicists and educators who promoted democratic position, they took part in the work of the Lithuanian Cultural Union, which had been functioning since 1924. This union brought together several dozens of public organisations and companies and cooperated with publishers of liberal cultural magazines.

Based on a biographical narrative interview, this article analyzes the policies of discursive positioning enacted by Adele, a history teacher born in the Lithuanian countryside in 1951, while telling her life story. Showing how she consistently disrupts two rival narratives, the misalignments between which inform public debate in Lithuania’s divided memory culture, I interpret her account as a bottom-up example of agonistic memory. To date, this mode of remembering the past has usually been described as the project of creative intellectuals. In order to prepare the ground to include the memory practices of the rank and file, I suggest (1) reconceptualizing agonistic memory as a relational concept and (2) using agonistic memory as a sensitizing concept in an analysis of oral history accounts focused on the positions articulated by interviewees in response to public memory discourses.

The Danzig Academic Gymnasium (1558–1817) was one of the first Protestant schools at the college level in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. It became one of the most famous educational institutions in Europe of the 16–18th centuries. For almost 260 years, it attracted one of the best professors and students of the era. We concentrate on the achievements in science, the role of the City Council Library in the academic life in and outside of the Gymnasium, and highlight the activities of the Danzig Naturalist Society. In this survey, we feature important representatives of the scientific disciplines present in the Gymnasium, both faculty and their students, as well as Gdańsk scientists in general. We outline the lasting impact of the Danzig Academic Gymnasium on the intellectual life in Gdańsk, the Pomerania region, and some intellectual circles in Europe.

Introduction – Polish GrungeThe main objective of this article is to examine the grunge scene of the 1990s in Poland in the context of acculturation and assimilation processes. Polish grunge was, on the one hand, the expression of trends that were observable in music industry since the late 1980s. On the other hand, it was symptomatic of a rapid systemic transformation. Youth culture was open for the diffusion of cultural patterns and was ready to adopt certain patterns from the West.Thus, we suggest that the local grunge scene was completely modelled on the American one: the flow of cultural practices and subcultural fashion were the manifestations of the assimilation processes in Poland, observable not only in art (i.e. rock music), but also in the domains of politics and economy, as well as in the broader social sphere. We explore how young people were ready to adopt only the surface level of the phenomenon as they were familiar with it through the media coverage it received. Young people in Poland circa the early ‘90s primarily wanted to gain access to an imaginary Western lifestyle rather than learn about real living conditions in capitalist societies, and they could do this through their involvement in grunge culture.Grunge as a Cultural PhenomenonGrunge as a popular music trend arose in the USA during the late 1980s and early 1990s, in the work of bands such as Nirvana, Pearl Jam, Stone Temple Pilots, Soundgarden, and Alice in Chains. Grunge was initially opposed to consumerism and capitalist values. Nevertheless, A&R scouts recognised the commercial potential of this music: for example, Nirvana’s Nevermind was released by Geffen Company, and Pearl Jam’s Ten by Epic. As Grzegorz Brzozowicz and Filip Łobodziński put it (313),the success of Nirvana was a post-mort triumph of punk rock and, more importantly, it indicated the potential of alternative music, which suddenly stepped outside an aesthetic ghetto and became a hot stuff. This influence was also visible as regards fashion and customs – Dr. Martens’ shoes, flannel shirts, frayed jeans, and wool caps became an outfit common for the young (…). Grunge influenced visual art, film and photography.In Poland, grunge as a subculture and sub-genre of rock music emerged in the early 1990s following the international commercial success of bands such as those listed above, and it entailed the assimilation of the Western cultural patterns. Although assimilation processes were typical primarily for youth culture, they were observed in the wider context of the changes and adaptations that Polish system underwent after the fall of the centrally planned economy and subjugation to the communist party power after the Yalta agreements (1945-1989/1990).In this context, the concept Centre/Periphery (Gopinathan, Saravanan and Altbach; Hannerz; Langholm; Pisciotta) appears as the field for the dissemination of popular culture. Popular culture is a battlefield for creating and negotiating the meanings that are inherent within cultural practices (Barker). Cultural practices play a double role in the dissemination of ideas or objects. Firstly, they come as a result of adaptation in a defined culture, and secondly, they make new cultural patterns stabile, visible, and easy to practice by people as flexible patterns of behaviour. This point is clearly visible in the context of the East European states that underwent rapid acculturation processes in which new patterns of economic and social solutions were established in centre-planned economies: the tensions of the “old” and the “new” patterns dominating in the political and social systems of those countries (e.g. Poland, the Czech Republic, Latvia, Lithuania, etc.) were visible and affected societies to a considerable degree (Pisciotta). Thus, the practices generated in cultural Centres tend to disseminate easily and to “conquer” other cultural systems, especially in the Periphery.In the case of popular culture, the flow of influences usually takes a one-dimensional form and is disseminated from the Centre to the Periphery. As Marek Jeziński (162-163) argues, both Centre and Periphery are functional systems. These systems have generated their own mythology, which separates one from another. However, as in the case of mythological systems in general, Centre and Periphery tales overlap frequently, and there are evidence that the bands that originated in the Periphery were assimilated by the Centre. For example, Nirvana and Pearl Jam were both successful in market terms and both built their own status based on the Peripheral components that were skilfully overtaken by the Centre narrative. While the Peripheral narratives are concentrated mainly on the undermining of the definition of situation and present dysfunctional character towards cultural system as such, the Centre narratives aim to maintain the definition of situation supporting mainstream values and their prevailing position in a system (Jeziński 164). Grunge is the epitome of such an implementation of cultural patterns. That is, grunge started as a fringe peripheral cultural phenomenon. The major records companies, however, recognised its potential and provided the space in the music market to support the new bands. Most of the groups in the US started as independent local acts related to independent record companies that built their status.In relation to the assimilation of grunge culture in Poland, we can distinguish two key phenomena. The first is concerned with the adaptation of general subcultural components, e.g. fashion and group identification. Here, the acculturation processes run as a primary form of mimicry, as the Polish grunge scene adopted elements typical of the grunge subculture, such as oversize sweaters, flannel shirts, Dr. Martens shoes or Converse trainers, long hair, and beanies. A newly formed subculture was different from the others popular in the 1990s. For example, punk and metal subcultures implied strong group identity, style homogeneity, rigid group limitations, and firm membership rules. Conversely, it seems that the grunge subculture was based more on a level of liquid and fragmented patchwork identity than on very inflexible group values and internal ideology or political attitudes (cf. Muggleton). Such patchwork identity formation was a result of a rapid clash between the adaptation of grunge cultural patterns from the West and the Polish economic transformation of the early 1990s.Poland underwent rapid changes that were also visible in the politics, culture and social domain, joining liberal democracies and liberal free market economies of the West. These changes resulted from a transformation of the system as a whole: from a central planned system to decentralisation of the power at both local and state levels (Sarnecki). Equally important were the changes in the political culture of Poles and their value system: they accepted the democratic changes but simultaneously, the mentality of Poles remained traditionalist (which is visible in surveys— the most important values for them were “family” and “work”), and their attitude towards the processes of cultural and institutional changes was impermanent (Garlicki; Jasińska-Kania).During the transformation, the changes were visible in the everyday lives of Polish citizens: examples include the shortages in the market that were evident after the socialist regime ended, and the easy availability of Western clothes such as jeans, shirts, denim jackets in ordinary stores. Consequently, the economic rates in the 1990s were higher in comparison to the previous decade (Bałtowski and Miszewski). Those changes resulted in a phase shift in the modernisation process, where patterns of economic and cultural development and were faster than the enculturation and socialisation processes.On the one hand, the free market allowed for almost unlimited commodification with unprecedented access to goods and services. On the other hand, the low cultural capital and economic possibilities of the citizens evolved rapidly. The communist-shaped social division fell apart, and the new class designations based of consumption/commodification patterns were established (Jeziński; Wojtkowski). Those factors resulted in high cross-generational mobility, lower entrance barriers, and higher openness indicators (cf. Polska klasa średnia; O ruchliwości społecznej w polsce).Hence, in cultural conditions based on capitalist consumption practices, the grunge subculture evolved with a commodified sense of style rather than with a firm identity. Yet, in the case of grunge style, relatively high costs of subculture commodities (e.g. Dr. Martens shoes, Converse trainers, or band t-shirts) led to DIY practices such as buying cheaper no-name shoes, and sewing badges with the names of bands and albums on jackets or backpacks.The second phenomenon encompasses the adaptation of music patterns. The Polish grunge scene was not as diversified in terms of genre variations as its US counterpart. In the beginning, the Polish grunge scene was more distressed geographically, with no specific Centre-Periphery relations. However, one of the most important bands, Hey, was established in the Northwest. When one looks at Polish grunge evolution as a ‘clash’ of American genre and the specific character of a time and place where Polish bands were recording, she or he will notice multiple similarities with the US scene.Firstly, we could name two approaches to grunge music among Polish performers: ‘intellectual’ and ‘rebel’. The ‘intellectual’ approach encompasses the group Hey. This band was established in Szczecin (the Northwest Poland), but after the success of their first album – Fire (1993), they moved to Warsaw. Hey released 11 studio records, but only the first three could be classified as “grunge” (cf. Sankowski). On the level of musical references, Fire sounds like a mixture of early Pearl Jam combined with Alice in Chains. With English lyrics and song topics that were typical for grunge— e.g., The Choice (“You’ve got a gun/You can use it now”)—similarities with Pearl Jam, in particular, are striking. The band evolved, and on their second album, Ho! (1994), Hey mixed equally Polish and English lyrics with the dynamic and specific Seattle sound (cf. Prato). Hey’s most distinctive feature comparing with other Polish grunge bands is its highly developed melodic approach to music and the poetic, sensual style of its lyrics. The third record, ? (1995), closes the band’s early stage. The next album, Karma (1997), opens the period when the amalgamation of electronics, hard rock and grunge dominated Hey’s music, with the album [sic!] (2001) representing the turning point in the group’s music style. The band suspended their work in 2017 and will probably never reunite.Over time, Hey gained one of the most dedicated audiences in Polish rock music. The music industry and critics have acknowledged Hey as one of the best Polish groups in the post-communist period. Hey has received the most nominations in the history of Fryderyki, the key Polish music awards. The group and Nosowska have won twenty-three times in multiple categories. As the longest-operating grunge-origin band in the country, Hey could be considered as a most important trend setting and scene-forming group.The more “rebellious” approach to grunge encompasses bands such as Illusion (1992-1999, 2014-present) and Houk. The former was based on the grunge and hardcore mixture of influences from Alice in Chains, Soundgarden, and Rage Against the Machine (especially in terms of rap-oriented lyrics). With the preservation of certain consistency, the band named first three albums: Illusion (1993), Illusion II (1994), and Illusion III (1995). Illusion marks the band’s aggressive style and lyrics simplicity but the studio production flattens the whole and gives an impression of a post-punk DIY venture rather than a coherent composition. The second record, however, is entirely conceptualised and thought out in terms of music and lyrics. Sharp riffs, hard rock tuning of instruments and aggressive lyrics that were focused on Polish life gave the album a needed consistency. The band’s third record is the most varied stylistically and politically engaged in their history. The harder-edged tunes from previous releases are accompanied by more psychedelic compositions (Wrona) that recall Alice in Chains’ slow songs and Layne Staley’s voice.Houk’s music similarly to other Polish grunge bands was the amalgamation of various genres and their style evolved in time. Initially, the band was regarded as an example of alternative rock music. The first album Soul Ammunition (1992) was named by music monthly Tylko Rock as a debut of the year (polskirock.art.pl). The combination of grunge, hardcore, hard rock, reggae and socio-politically engaged lyrics helped the group to establish a strong fan base. The band’s unique style was recognised internationally and Houk supported New Model Army and Bad Brains during the performances in the mid-1990’s (polskirock.art.pl). The band’s second studio release Generation X (1995) was recorded prior the multiple membership reorganizations that finally ended the grunge-orientation period of Houk’s history. One of the songs, Sleep, was dedicated to Kurt Cobain and reflected Nirvana’s approach to songwriting, which can be heard in songs such as “Lithium” (1991). Such a commemoration of Cobain’s figure is characteristic of Polish grunge culture’s establishment of strong ties with the American equivalent. Here and in many similar cases, Cobain serves not only as a grunge hero (or even a martyr) but also as a commodified pop culture figure (cf. Strong). Concerning both spheres - that is, the adaptation of grunge subculture and a development of the music scene -Polish grunge follows a different pattern to the US genre. Grunge was introduced to Poland after it was popularised and commodified by the major labels and media industry in the USA, so the adopted version was the mainstream one rather than the underground movement. Hence, the simplistic dichotomy between “underground” and “mainstream” culture does not function in terms of the Polish grunge culture, and probably is misstated even when it comes to the American phenomenon. Grunge could be perceived in Poland as both the first and the last “true” subcultural trend. At the same time, though, it was an affirmation not of ‘the rebel’ and ‘the underground’ but of capitalism and the cultural values of the West. Indeed, the Polish grunge culture couldn’t be fully aware of what grunge was warning us against while Polish society faced the rapid market and cultural transformation that allowed for its opening to Western trends.Conclusion – Is Grunge Really Dead?Although the popularity of grunge phenomenon in Poland was relatively short, the most important groups of this sub-genre - Illusion, Hey, Ahimsa, Houk, and Kr’shna Brothers - widely contributed to the emergence of the new wave of fashion for rock and hard-rock music in Poland in the mid-1990s. The most successful group of the era, Hey epitomises the transformation of grunge in Poland. Starting as a typical grunge band (modelled heavily on the US groups), they underwent a serious transition, substantially changing their music into more mainstream-oriented rock (that is, as music that was considered acceptable by rock music and AOR-focused radio stations). At the same time, grunge as a rock sub-genre underwent the contrary changes: it broke into the mainstream relatively quickly in the first half of the 1990s, establishing new rock stars of the scene (Illusion, Houk, Ahimsa, Hey), but in the late 1990s it went back to being a rock niche again. It seems that today grunge serves as a point of reference (in fact, it was an important period of rock history) for the new bands that intentionally use this sub-genre as a form of commodified, media-friendly nostalgia.ReferencesBałtowski, Maciej, Miszewski, Maciej. Transformacja gospodarcza w Polsce. 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