Littérature scientifique sur le sujet « Lexicographie, grammaire, verbe »

This paper gives a brief introduction to the question of verbal complementation, within the framework of Verbal Valency theories. Verb complements are analyzed as morpho-syntactic and semantic elements, in which grammatical categories and constructions clearly determine verbal meanings. Complements are entirely different according to the differents verbal types they are assigned to: GIVE verbs, SAY verbs, KNOW verbs, WANT verbs, and so on. Pronouns, rather than lexical nouns, are used in order to check the grammaticality of associations between verbs and complements. A brief survey is given of verbal sub-types behaving like auxiliaries, modal verbs or «support verbs», and having no valency grammar, and thus no complements. An important difference is proposed between understanding the meaning of a verb in a given text and building up the meaning of a verb, as lexicographs usually do, by gathering out its different significations in different contexts.

This paper gives a brief introduction to the question of verbal complementation, within the framework of Verbal Valency theories. Verb complements are analyzed as morpho-syntactic and semantic elements, in which grammatical categories and constructions clearly determine verbal meanings. Complements are entirely different according to the differents verbal types they are assigned to: GIVE verbs, SAY verbs, KNOW verbs, WANT verbs, and so on. Pronouns, rather than lexical nouns, are used in order to check the grammaticality of associations between verbs and complements. A brief survey is given of verbal sub-types behaving like auxiliaries, modal verbs or «support verbs», and having no valency grammar, and thus no complements. An important difference is proposed between understanding the meaning of a verb in a given text and building up the meaning of a verb, as lexicographs usually do, by gathering out its different significations in different contexts.

From the perspective of the theory of lexicographic functions, this paper analyses in a metalexicographic manner the system of processing inflection data on the verbs of the Serbian language in M. Benson?s SerboCroatian-English Dictionary (BENSON 1993). The processing system is perceived through the prism of the needs of users whose native language is not Serbian in three situations: reception, production (which includes translation situations) and the situation in which the dictionary is used for gaining knowledge on verb inflection in the Serbian language. In the analysis of the dictionary, it has been noted that the processing system is made up of four lexicographic methods: 1) inflected forms of the verbs with a suppletive present base form and apophony in that base compared to the infinitive base form were included as headwords of particular dictionary entries with cross-references to the infinitive, but this was not done systematically and consistently; 2) as for the thematic verbs which are included in 36 separate accentual-conjugation types, type marks were provided with the verb, with cross-references to the introductory pages of the dictionary, where those marks were textually interpreted; 3) as for the thematic verbs which are not included in the aforementioned types, as well as all athematic verbs, inflection data were listed in the grammar section immediately after the headword; 4) for a smaller number of verbs, the model verb from which the inflection data should be analogically derived is listed in the dictionary entry itself. However, if a sound change in the present tense appears in verbs to which the third and fourth lexicographic method was applied, then a partial paradigm of the present tense in its full or shortened form was provided before the cross-reference to the typical verb in the form of a mark or a specific verb. The analysis showed that the first aforementioned lexicographic method meets the reception-related needs of the users of Benson?s dictionary. However, considering that it was not consistently applied, it does not satisfy those needs in all cases. The remaining three methods completely meet production-related needs, but it remains uncertain whether the applied methods are clear to the average user and, if so, to what extent. Therefore, the paper also offers a simplified version of Benson?s system of processing verb inflection, which would be more harmonized with the users? needs. However, Benson?s dictionary cannot serve as a handbook for gaining knowledge on verb inflection in the Serbian language, because the introductory pages and the grammatical appendix neither offer the rules on the formation of verb forms nor include complete paradigms of basic inflection types. The results of the analysis in the conclusion are applied to the draft of a new, proposed, French-Serbian dictionary, which additionally points to the advantages and shortcomings of applied lexicographic methods.

Bohorič’s Contribution to Slovene Lexicography Lexicography was one of Bohorič’s central activities devoted to the 16th-century Slovene literary language. He is believed to be the author of three types of dictionaries: (1) a lost trilingual glossary with Latin as the source language, compiled for pedagogical use (Nomenclatura trium linguarum, ca. 1580); (2) the index in DB 1584 (perhaps also the shorter one in DB 1578), which contains also dialectal synonyms as well as equivalents from Croatian dialects and thus enables understanding of the central-Slovene lexicon; (3) six Slovene-Latin-German glossaries included in the grammar Arcticae horulae ſucciſivae (1584): the first three described nomina (nouns and adjectives) of all three genders, while the other three described verbs of the main three conjugation types (-am, -em, -im). In terms of their informativity, the glossaries included in the grammar are of several different types. In addition to grammatical information contributing to a better knowledge of the 16th-century Slovene literary language, they also provide lexicological information closely related to the modes of lexicographic presentation. Both features are an important contribution to the beginnings and further development of Slovene lexicography. Slovene headwords are semantically defined by their foreign-language equivalents. In addition, their semantic structure is outlined by one-word or phraseological subentries (with attested meanings, sub-meanings, and terms for specific types, such as štala ‘barn’—volovska štala ‘oxen barn’, ovčja štala ‘sheep barn’, kozja štala ‘goat barn’; set phrases with established use). Entries with subentries and the order of entries itself also bring into focus various types of semantic relations between lexical items, including synonymy, where pairs of loan and native synonyms stand out in particular (e.g. punt—zaveza ‘bond’, gmerati—množiti ‘to multiply’); antonymy (e.g. čast ‘honor’—nečast ‘disgrace’); the semantic difference between the source word and its derivative (e.g. kamen ‘stone’—kamčič ‘little stone’). Verbal entries with added subentries demonstrate various types of formation of aspectual pairs, e.g. sejati—obsejati ‘to sow’, nagniti—nagibati ‘to lean’. In cases where members of the pair differ by the type of action (e.g. gibati se—ganiti se ‘to move’), the semantic difference is added to the aspectual one. A re-comparison of Bohorič’s glossaries and Megiser’s dictionaries—his quadrilingual dictionary with German as the source language (MD 1592) and multilingual dictionary with Latin as the source (MTh 1603)—that included data on how widely the usage of this lexicon was spread, confirmed the hypothesis that the glossaries were one of Megiser’s main lexicographic sources of Slovene equivalents. (This data is one of the results of the complete excerption of the Slovene texts in book publications in the period of 1550–1603). Megiser’s consideration of Bohorič’s glossaries is most clearly evident in approximately 90 words that cannot be found in other works. In addition, the glossaries proved to be a useful reference work for citing widespread and commonly used lexicon. A typological difference between the compared lexicographic works is reflected in differences in their informativity as well as in the number of foreign-language equivalents and included Slovene equivalents. The increased number of Slovene synonyms in Megiser’s multilingual dictionaries was the result of Megiser’s inclusion of the Register (1584) and his ever-improving knowledge of the Slovene literary language and some Slovene dialects (e.g., Carinthian). Keywords: Adam Bohorič, lexicography, glossaries in Bohorič’s grammar, dictionary informativity, Megiser’s multilingual dictionaries

The main aim of the article is to analyse which types of syntactic information should be included in bilingual dictionaries where Lithuanian is the target language. The article discusses specific features of bidirectional dictionaries and differences between the syntactic information given in bilingual and monolingual dictionaries. Also discussed are principles for selecting syntactic information on Lithuanian as a target language, general syntactic features which are relevant in lexicography, ways of presenting government and valency and the importance of contrastive analysis for bilingual lexicography. Although syntactic information on lemmas and their equivalents is not a new subject in lexicographic theory and practice, syntactic information on Lithuanian as a target language has not yet been investigated, as no dictionaries for foreign users of Lithuanian have been compiled and published. The investigation is mostly based on experience and empirical data from the “Norwegian-Lithuanian dictionary”.The analysis leads to the conclusion that the most important information to provide about Lithuanian equivalents in bilingual dictionaries is verb government and valency. The most valuable information for the users of bilingual dictionaries illustrates the syntactic differences between the source and the target language, and this information can be identified by applying a contrastive method. The relevant syntactic information can be given next to the equivalents or in the examples. Case marking, obligatory use with prepositions as well as subordination of infinitive constructions can be shown next to the equivalents. As a minimum, the syntactic information on Lithuanian verbs should state if the verb takes another object case than the accusative. It is necessary to provide equivalents with the obligatory components of valency, while facultative components might be shown in the examples. Syntactic information should be provided for phrases as well as for single-word equivalents. In the examples one can show the variety of the syntactic features of the Lithuanian equivalents and highlight the differences between the syntactic features of the Norwegian lemmas and their Lithuanian equivalents. Examples can also be used to show specific syntactic constructions which do not exist in Lithuanian and provide information on congruous syntactic features of both languages.It is hardly possible to present the syntactic features of both languages equally detailed in bilingual bidirectional dictionaries. As lemma lists and examples are usually compiled on the basis of the source language, it usually turns out that the target language is provided with less information, and it is complicated to analyse and highlight the grammar of all the equivalents of the source language.

The aim of this paper is to present a pilot study which applies the framework of Corpus Pattern Analysis (CPA, Hanks 2004) to analyse some Lithuanian verbs which form part of the basic vocabulary. CPA draws on the insights of the corpus-driven language analysis and contextual and functional theory of meaning: a meaning of a word is associated with a specific lexical and grammatical environment, e.g. corpus patterns which represent an interconnection of lexical and grammatical elements. The CPA procedure is one of the several corpus-driven methods differing from the pattern grammar (Hunston, Francis 2000) in the way that CPA not only uses typical grammatical categories (e.g. word classes) but also introduces semantic values (e.g. semantic types) to distinguish different senses of a word. Semantic types are often the main separator of meanings, especially when two verb senses are associated with the same grammatical pattern. Concerning learners’ dictionaries, CPA could provide learners with more detailed usage data, and this could lead to a better understanding of meaning differences, important both for language reception and language production. After introducing the CPA methodology, we present the CPA analysis of two Lithuanian verbs, namely, the inductive procedure followed to observe and define meaning-related patterning. We also discuss the problematic issues related to the application of CPA as identified in this study and mentioned by other CPA practitioners. First, observing and defining corpus patterns is a challenging task for lexicographers, especially because of the pattern / meaning division and generalizations related to semantic types. The second problematic aspect is automatization in the process of pattern recognition. The third issue relates to foreign language learners as a target group: meaning-related patterning observed in the data has to be presented in a learner dictionary in a user-friendly way.

This article studies functional and semantic Tense/Aspect complexes in Russian and English, focusing on their similarities and differences. In Russian, Tense-Aspect meanings of the verb forms correlate with the semantic components of Aktionsart, while in English both Imperfective and Perfective aspects of the verb semantics are realized by the constituent category of Tense/Aspect. The inner asymmetry of the verb forms and meanings is acknowledged for each of the contrastive languages, especially for the two languages compared. The material of the study is retrieved from grammar books and manuals and from literary text samples, principally concerns the use of Tense/Aspect forms of the Russian verb and the forms of the English Perfect. The novelty impact of the study is determined by focusing on the irregularity of the aspectual meanings of English Perfect forms and Tense/Aspect forms of the Russian verb, whereas they are mostly due to lexical meanings of the verbs influenced by intralinguistic specificities of the semantics of lexical indicators as well as mechanisms of communication on the whole. Aspectual meanings both for the Perfective and Imperfective Aspect in languages under comparison used to make up lexical and grammatical aspectual categorical complexes. In terms of Aspect and Tense, peculiarities are found as functional and semantic ones, highly dependent on the situation and context of communication, thus involving extralinguistic factors which also concern the extralinguistic environment of Tense/Aspect verbal forms in use. The comparison of functions and the semantics of Aspect and Aktionsart in the Russian language with those of English Perfect asymmetry is proved to emerge, being caused by cross-linguistic structural and typological differences, particularly, the existence or not the similar forms, their varying semantic load, analytical or synthetic tendencies and others. The asymmetry is especially vividly seen translation and lexicographic field to compose varying kinds of bilingual dictionaries.

‘The meaning of texts is dealt with by a dispersal of analysis at mutually congruent series of levels, beginning with contexts of situation and proceeding throughcollocation, syntax (includingcolligation) to phonology and phonetics⃜ Stylistics with some notice of phonaesthetic features, lexicography and the place and use of translation are to be included to complete the spectrum’ (Firth, 1957: 30).

Introduction. This article is a development of an earlier study on the grammatical categories of the verb in Hungarian in comparison with Russian. The subject of study in this work is the grammatical category of voice, one of the most common verbal categories, typical for Russian verbs and absent in the Hungarian language, as well as the ways of its transmission when translated into Hungarian. The purpose of this work is to analyze the grammatical forms of the Hungarian and Russian verbs expressing voice relations and to establish the corresponding equivalents of the category of voice in Russian in the Hungarian language. Materials and Methods. The research material is verbal vocabulary selected from lexicographic works (dictionaries of the Hungarian and Russian languages), linguistic and journalistic sources, grammars of the Hungarian language. The article considers both the written form of the modern Hungarian language and examples from live colloquial speech. The methodological framework of this study is based on researches on general linguistics, the theory of morphology, contributing to the formulation of the problem, determining the degree of its development in the research literature, as well as familiarizing with the conceptual approaches to the voice as an ambiguously interpreted grammatical category of the verb. The methods used in the study are comparative-typological, synchronous-descriptive and functional-semantic methods. Results and Discussion. In the course of study it revealed how inflectional and derivational means helping to express the grammatical semantics of the category of voice in Russian can adequately convey the categorical meaning in the Hungarian language, in which the category of voice is absent. The comparative study of two languages helps to identify the features inherent in each of them, which generally contributes to solving the problems associated with the practice of their teaching. The results of the work based on the data of the ongoing research may be useful in the analysis of other grammatical categories on the material of various languages. Conclusion. Despite the fact that verbs in the Hungarian language do not have a passive voice, the means and forms of its expression are represented in it by a developed and diverse system. The study allows making a step forward in understanding the typological specifics of the voice category and make a certain contribution to the general theory of this phenomenon, since it was the first study of the verb forms of two heterogeneous, genetically unrelated languages based on a comparative analysis in grammatical, semantic and functional aspects.

Based on primary sources and relevant literature, the authors in this paper present the commentary that Atfi Ahmed Bosnevi, an Ottoman author of Bosnian extraction from the first half of the XVIII century, composed upon the celebrated Persian-Ottoman dictionary in verse Tuḥfe-i Shāhidī by Ibrahim-dede Shāhidī. The original work subject to commentary is briefly introduced and analyzed as a significant work in the evolution of Persian lexicography in the Ottoman Empire. However, Atfi's commentary upon Tuḥfe remains in the primary focus of the authors in all relevant aspects: his commentary approach and relation to the original text, his method of commenting as well as the contents of his work revolving around Persian grammar and its tripartite structure according to the traditional Oriental and Arabic linguistic heritage: verbs, nouns, and particle. Although a later addition to the tradition of Tuḥfe commentaries, Atfi’s work ranks among more comprehensive and successful commentaries in which the author strives to preserve the original text from repeated distortions caused to extensive copying, often by non-well-qualified individuals. After furnishing all the necessary information on Ottoman and Persian prosody at the opening of each chapter, Atfi analyzes the Persian lemmata with precious instructions concerning their orthography and pronunciation and their meaning by way of Turkish and Arabic equivalents. The authors conclude that Atfi subjected the original text of Tuhfa to rigorous and thorough philological treatment. Nonetheless, his commentary sometimes feels a bit restrained as Atfi is not particularly keen on widening his commentary out of the contours of the original work even if an occasion calls for it. As a result, his treatment of specific grammatical questions in Persian is selective. His commentary does not function as a combined dictionary and grammar of Persian, and that was not the author’s purpose and motivation for writing his commentary.

Notre thèse se veut une étude du rapport entre la grammaire et la lexicographie généraliste française, de 1789 à 1914. Le choix de cette période s’explique par certains aspects novateurs de la lexicographie de l’époque : entre autres, « démocratisation » du rôle du dictionnaire, approbation de la Loi Guizot en 1833 (enseignement primaire gratuit), publication de grands ouvrages (Littré, Grand Larousse). Sans avoir la prétention de retrouver une grammaire complète à l’intérieur d’un dictionnaire, nous nous sommes proposé de vérifier s’il est possible d’élaborer une « grammaire du verbe » (hypothèse initiale). Nous avons donc mené une recherche globale et systématique de tous les mots qui, directement ou indirectement, pouvaient se rapporter au sujet de notre étude ; nous avons analysé les dictionnaires en accordant une attention particulière à la microstructure, mais sans oublier d’étudier soigneusement les annexes grammaticales (avec ou sans tables verbales), qui ne sont présentes que dans les premiers dictionnaires analysés. Par le biais de tableaux comparatifs, nous avons considéré tout aspect concernant le verbe (typologies, modifications, formations des temps, etc.), en soulignant à chaque fois les analogies et les différences entre les dictionnaires eux-mêmes et les grammaires de référence (Port-Royal, Beauzée e Lhomond). La nouveauté de ce travail consiste en une recherche sur le verbe menée à partir d’ouvrages lexicographiques, et non de grammaires. Les dictionnaires du corpus nous ont permis de vérifier l’hypothèse initiale, en particulier le Bescherelle, le La Châtre et le Grand Larousse. Nous avons cité à plusieurs reprises ces trois ouvrages en les regroupant comme un « trio » présentant une microstructure très riche. Il suffit de consulter les articles consacrés à « verbe », « conjugaison », « mode », etc., pour se rendre compte que nous y retrouvons, de façon plus ou moins « cachée », des extraits de grammaire : les articles foisonnent en exemples, mais aussi en précis didactiques
Our thesis aims to investigate the relationship between grammar and French general lexicography between 1789 and 1914. The choice of this period is related to some innovative lexicographical aspects, such as the "democratization" of the dictionary’s role, the approval of the Guizot Law in 1833 (focusing on free primary school) and the publication of major works such as the Littré and the Grand Larousse. Without claiming to find a full grammar in a dictionary, we wanted to see if we could elaborate a "grammar of the verb" (starting hypothesis). Therefore, we conducted a comprehensive and systematic research for all words which, directly or indirectly, could relate to the subject matter; we analyzed the dictionaries, with a main focus on microstructure, but without forgetting to study the grammatical attachments (with or without verbal tables), which are included only in the first dictionaries of our corpus. By comparative tables, we took into account all aspects that affect the verb (types, modifications, tense formations, etc.), focusing on similarities and differences between the dictionaries themselves and the reference grammars (Port-Royal, Beauzée and Lhomond). The innovation of this work lies in a research on the verb starting from lexicographical works, not grammars. All the corpus’ dictionaries allowed us to verify the starting hypothesis; in particular, the most complete were the Bescherelle, the La Châtre and the Grand Larousse. We have mentioned these three works several times by grouping them as a "trio" with a very rich microstructure. In fact, by examining the articles dedicated to "verbe", "conjugaison" or "mode", we will find, in a more or less hidden way, true grammar extracts: articles contain many examples, but also educational recommendations

Ce travail porte sur le potentiel sémantique et constructionnel du verbe "casser". Il s'inscrit dans le cadre de la Grammaire cognitive de Langacker (1987) dont il exploite les moyens de représentation et notamment le Network Model (1987), qui, sur la base de relations de catégorisation et des notions de schémas et prototypes, permet de rendre compte de façon structurée des différents usages d'un item lexical. Ces usages sont justement identifiés à l'aide d'un corpus de textes littéraires et journalistiques. D'autres données sont aussi exploitées ; il s'agit d'expérimentations réalisées auprès de locuteurs du français (épreuve de classification de phrases) et de locuteurs bilingues français-slovaque dans le but de cerner mieux la sémantique de "casser" et "briser" et la relation qui les unit. Pour décrire son potentiel constructionnel, c'est à "couper" que "casser" est confronté. Ces deux verbes partagent un comportement syntaxique parallèle pour certains emplois, c'est-à-dire les emplois abstraits de "casser" et l'ensemble des emplois de "couper". Ce phénomène est décrit en termes de transitivité et d'ergativité telles que ces notions sont définies par Davidse (1998)
This work deals with the semantic and constructional potential of "casser". It fits into the Cognitive Grammar framework (Langacker, 1987) and ore particularly the Network model that provides two types of categorisation relationship and the concepts of schema and prototype that helps giving account of the various usages of a lexical item. These usages have been identified thanks to a corpus of literary and journalistic texts. Moreover, experiments have been made with French speakers (sentences classification) and french-slovak bilingual speakers in order to better define the semantic of the French verbs "casser" and "briser" and the relationship that unites one with the other. For the description of the constructional potential, "casser" is compared to "couper. They share the same syntactic behaviour as far as abstracts uses of "casser" and all the uses of "couper" are concerned. This phenomenon is described in terms of transitivity and ergativity as they have been described by Davidse (1998)

Cette étude consiste à réexaminer l'application possible et ses limites des théories linguistiques à la lexicographie. L'objectif plus concret est d'examiner les problèmes d'ordre théorique et méthodologique que soulevé le traitement lexicographique des verbes dans les dictionnaires bilingues, en occurrence, français-coréen, du point de vue syntaxique, et les apports possibles, pour la lexicographie, des résultats récents de la linguistique, notamment fournis par les travaux du laboratoire d'automatique documentaire et linguistique. Apres avoir prêté attention à l'évaluation générale des problèmes, ont été considérées certaines difficultés rencontrées dans l'application du lexique grammaire, qui est une description formalisée pour l'ensemble du lexique français sur la base de ses propriétés syntaxiques. En ce qui concerne l'équivalence, les classes de constructions verbales des deux langues considérées ont été comparées avec le postulat de traduction "construction a construction". A travers ces réflexions, deux orientations saillantes se dégagent pour modifier la structuration de l'article des verbes: - d'une part, dégrouper des structures d'emploi très hétérogènes qui sont regroupées dans la même structure, - d'autre part, regrouper des structures d'emploi connectables qui sont éloignées l'une de l'autre
This study is bent on considering the possible applications and limits of linguistic theories to lexicography. More precisely the goal is to examine the theoretical and methodological problems raised by the lexicological treatment of verbs in bilingual dictionaries, in this case, french-korean, on a syntaxical basis, and the possible contributions of recent linguistic results to the lexicography, especially those furnished by the automatic documentary and linguistic laboratory. After having paid attention to the general evaluation of the problems, certain of the encountered difficulties have been considered in the application of the lexico-grammar. As far as equivalence is considered, the classes of verbal constructions of both studied languages have been compared to the translation postulate of "construction to construction". Through these reflections, two main directions have been drawn for modification of the structuration of the verb's article: - first of all, the dispersion of highly heterogeneous structures that are concentrated in the same structure, - and secondly, the concentration of structures of connectable usage that have been dispersed

La tesi principal d’aquest treball consisteix a hipotetitzar que la implementació d'una gramàtica formal sobre un prototipus lexicogràfic ha de resoldre moltes de les limitacions descriptives que solen patir els diccionaris tradicionals. Si el model lingüístic és adequat, des del punt de vista explicatiu, l 'aplicació ha de reflectir, de manera simple, el sistema d'unitats i de relacions lèxiques d'una llengua particular. Si l'aplicació reflecteix el sistema lèxic d'una llengua, se n'ha de poder extreure una classificació coherent de les unitats lèxiques. I si l'objectiu és l'aplicació d'un model teòric, el model seleccionat ha de respondre a una sèrie de característiques imposades per la noció d'aplicabilitat lexicogràfica. Com a conseqüències d'aquesta hipòtesi, m'he proposat tres objectius de naturalesa distinta: Un objectiu teòric, un objectiu descriptiu i un objectiu aplicat. L'objectiu teòric consisteix en l'establiment, a priori, de la nació d'aplicabilitat de models gramaticals en lexicografia per poder seleccionar un formalisme gramatical que s'ajusti a les característiques desitjades per a la implementació. Entenem per criteris d'aplicabilitat tots aquells elements que ens permeten destriar (a) quin model teòric és susceptible de trasllat a un àmbit aplicat, (b) quins principis ha de garantir aquest model per mantenir la coherència amb les bases de la lexicografía teòrica, i (c) quines característiques ha de tenir per poder fer-ne ús en lexicografía pràctica. El model teòric seleccionat és la Gramática Léxico­ Funcional (GLF), introduïda en el panorama de la lingüística per Joan Bresnan i Ronald M. Kaplan (1982). Pel que fa a l'objectiu descriptiu, he optat per limitar l'estudi deis aspectes gramaticals del lèxic a un sistema lingüístic (el català), a una classe d' unitats (els verbs) i a un nivell de repre sentació del component lèxic (I'estructura argumental). En el marc de la GLF, he triat un nivell de descripció autònom que formi part del component lèxic de la gramática i que sigui bàsic per a la projecció de les unitats lèxiques en la sintaxi. El subcomponent de la GLF que regula la informació lèxico-sintàctica és l'estructura argumental. D'acord amb els fonaments teòrics que em proporciona la Teoria de l'Estructura Argumental, he establert i he defensat un criteri per a la classificació dels verbs des del punt de vista lèxico-sintàctic (el criteri argumental). La construcció d'un corpus de treball d'exemples corresponents a estructures argumentals diverses d'una mostra selectiva de verbs catalans m'ha permès portar a la pràctica la classificació regulada pel criteri argumental. L'objectiu final d'aquest treball és l'aplicat, consistent en el disseny d'un producte lexicogràfic basat en un formalisme teòric i capaç de descriure el lèxic d'una llengua. Concretament, he optat per presentar el disseny d'un prototipus de diccionari, la nomenclatura del qual està formada per una mostra d'unitats lèxiques verbals, que es corresponen exactament amb els lemes del corpus de treball. Es tracta, a més, d'un prototipus d'abast parcial pel que fa a la informació lèxica inclosa, en què l'estructura argumental i les relacions entre les estructures argumentals de cada lema verbal configuren el contingut informatiu que s'articula al voltant de cada entrada del diccionari.
In the area of applied linguistics, theoretical and methodological innovations have three basic characteristics: a) they are interdisciplinary, that is, they touch on other linguistic disciplines and areas of investigation; b) they have a descriptive orientation, that is, they use real language data; and c) they assume linguistic theories in designing applications. To this effect, lexicography is now making its way by developing new research areas. Without giving up its traditional dedication to dictionary making and related practical applications, there are some studies on specialized lexicography, on metalexicography, on teaching languages or on linguistic engineering, which turn lexicography into a real applied, because it combines theory and practice. Since neither traditional nor many new dictionaries can represent some grammatical phenomena satisfactorily using codification, this work adopts the following hypothesis. lmplementation of formalized grammar on a dictionary prototype can overcome a great deal of the descriptive limitations of traditional dictionaries. From this point of view, three aims are proposed for this thesis: the first one is theoretic, the second one is descriptive, and the third one is applied. The theoretical goal is to establish the concept of applicability of linguistic theories to lexicography and to choose a grammatical formalism, which corresponds to the applicability criteria. The second goal is to make a good description of argument structures of Catalan verbs. The applied goal is to design a dictionary prototype based on a grammatical formalism, which allows us to represent grammatical information of the argument structure of the verbs. This prototype will be able to increase the descriptive accuracy and systematization of general language dictionaries. This work is organized into three volumes. The first one contains four sections on the following topics: a) grammatical codification in lexicography, with its problems and its alternatives, and the criterion of applicability; b) The linguistic theory that was used, Lexical Functional Grammar (Bresnan 1982); c) The Theory of Argument Structure (Grinshaw 1 990) and the criteria for describing and classifying Catalan verbs and d) The analysis and conclusions. The second volume is the dictionary prototype, with a consulting guide. The final volume contains lists of verb classes, references for working corpus and processing data.

La nostra tesi si propone di indagare il rapporto tra grammatica e lessicografia generalista francese, tra il 1789 e il 1914. La scelta di questo periodo è legata ad alcuni aspetti innovativi della lessicografia dell’epoca, quali la “democratizzazione” del ruolo del dizionario, l’approvazione della Legge Guizot nel 1833 (che riguarda l’insegnamento primario gratuito) e la pubblicazione di grandi opere come il Littré e il Grand Larousse. Senza la pretesa di ritrovare una grammatica completa all’interno di un dizionario, abbiamo voluto verificare se fosse possibile elaborare una “grammatica del verbo” (ipotesi iniziale). Abbiamo quindi condotto una ricerca globale e sistematica di tutte le parole che, direttamente o indirettamente, potessero rapportarsi all’argomento in questione; abbiamo analizzato i dizionari focalizzandoci principalmente sulla microstruttura, senza però dimenticare di studiare accuratamente le appendici grammaticali (con o senza tavole verbali), che sono presenti soltanto nei primi dizionari analizzati. Con l’ausilio di tabelle comparative, abbiamo preso in considerazione tutti gli aspetti che riguardano il verbo (tipologie, modificazioni, formazioni del tempo, ecc.), sottolineando di volta in volta le analogie e le differenze tra i dizionari stessi e le grammatiche di riferimento (Port-Royal, Beauzée e Lhomond). La novità del presente lavoro consiste in una ricerca sul verbo condotta partendo da opere lessicografiche, non da grammatiche. Tutti i dizionari del corpus ci hanno permesso di verificare l’ipotesi iniziale; in particolare, i più completi si sono rivelati essere il Bescherelle, il La Châtre e il Grand Larousse. Abbiamo citato più volte queste tre opere raggruppandole come un “trio” con una microstruttura molto ricca. Basta consultare gli articoli dedicati a “verbe”, “conjugaison” o “mode” per rendersi conto che si ritrovano, in modo più o meno nascosto, degli estratti di grammatica: gli articoli abbondano di esempi, ma anche di indicazioni didattiche.
Our thesis aims to investigate the relationship between grammar and French general lexicography between 1789 and 1914. The choice of this period is related to some innovative lexicographical aspects, such as the "democratization" of the dictionary’s role, the approval of the Guizot Law in 1833 (focusing on free primary school) and the publication of major works such as the Littré and the Grand Larousse. Without claiming to find a full grammar in a dictionary, we wanted to see if we could elaborate a "grammar of the verb" (starting hypothesis). Therefore, we conducted a comprehensive and systematic research for all words which, directly or indirectly, could relate to the subject matter; we analyzed the dictionaries, with a main focus on microstructure, but without forgetting to study the grammatical attachments (with or without verbal tables), which are included only in the first dictionaries of our corpus. By comparative tables, we took into account all aspects that affect the verb (types, modifications, tense formations, etc.), focusing on similarities and differences between the dictionaries themselves and the reference grammars (Port-Royal, Beauzée and Lhomond). The innovation of this work lies in a research on the verb starting from lexicographical works, not grammars. All the corpus’ dictionaries allowed us to verify the starting hypothesis; in particular, the most complete were the Bescherelle, the La Châtre and the Grand Larousse. We have mentioned these three works several times by grouping them as a "trio" with a very rich microstructure. In fact, by examining the articles dedicated to "verbe", "conjugaison" or "mode", we will find, in a more or less hidden way, true grammar extracts: articles contain many examples, but also educational recommandations.

The paper proposes lexicographic parameters of Russian verbs description in a dictionary of semantics and grammar. The paper pays special attention to connection between semantic clustering of verbs and their morphologic paradigm.