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1
Buturlimova, O. « EVOLUTION AND ACTIVITIES OF THE BRITISH LABOR PARTY (1893-1931) : A HISTORIOGRAPHY ». Bulletin of Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv. History, no 145 (2020) : 21–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.17721/1728-2640.2020.145.4.
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The article is devoted to the analysis of the historiography of the British Labour Party in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The author tries to systematize an array of scientific literature on this theme based on the problem-chronological approach. The works were divided into four main groups: 1) the works of theorists and the Labour movement activists, 2) the studies devoted to the general history of the formation and activities of the Labour Party of this period, 3) the works devoted to the history of the relationship between church organizations and British Labour Party 4) Ukrainian researches in the field of British Labour history. The author proposes to outline 3 chronological periods in the scientific study of the history of the British Labour Party when a great amount of works has appeared. As we can see, the first period was 1930-1940’s, when the vast amount of the works of prominent leaders and active members of the Labour movement and the Labour Party were published. The second period, as we can outline, was in the 1950’s – the beginning of the 1960’s when the Labour Party lost its positions in the political sphere of Great Britain. And the third period is nowadays when in the early 2000’s Labour Party’s 100th anniversary was celebrated and besides it, the Party achieved the greatest success - it won parliamentary election three times in a row (1997, 2001 and 2005). The author concluded that the history of the British labor movement of the second half of the 19th – the first third of the 20th centuries and the theme of the party struggle for the electorate among the workers still needed to be reconsidered and re-evaluated. Although there are many works devoted to the British Labour Party history, the reasons for its strengthening, the factors of its rapid growth at the beginning of the 20th century, the causes and consequences of the crisis of 1931, etc. still remain debatable. Therefore, it is not a quiet time to talk about the completeness of the research topic. The author also noted that despite the number of historical researches of modern Ukrainian scholars, Ukrainian British studies still lack investigations with the analysis of the organizational structure of the British Labour party and its leadership.
2
Kelemen, Paul. « British Communists and the Palestine Conflict, 1929–1948 ». Holy Land Studies 5, no 2 (novembre 2006) : 131–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/hls.2007.0004.
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During the 1930s and 1940s, the Communist Party of Great Britain was a significant force in Britain on the left-wing of the labour movement and among intellectuals, despite its relatively small membership. The narrative it provided on developments in Palestine and on the Arab nationalist movements contested Zionist accounts. After the 1941 German attack on the Soviet Union, the party, to gain the support of the Jewish community for a broad anti-fascist alliance, toned down its criticism of Zionism and, in the immediate post-war period, to accord with the Soviet Union's strategic objectives in the Middle East, it reversed its earlier opposition to Zionism. During the 1948 war and for some years thereafter it largely ignored the plight of the Palestinians and their nationalist aspirations.
3
Weiler, Peter. « Labour History and the Labour Movement in Britain, and : Thomas Burt, Miners' MP, 1837-1922 : The Great Conciliator (review) ». Victorian Studies 43, no 4 (2001) : 625–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/vic.2001.0123.
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4
Atapin, Evgenii. « Evolution of British Euroscepticism in the Second Half of the 20th Century ». Vestnik Volgogradskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta. Serija 4. Istorija. Regionovedenie. Mezhdunarodnye otnoshenija, no 5 (décembre 2022) : 171–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.15688/jvolsu4.2022.5.13.
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Introduction. The United Kingdom is the most prominent example of a Eurosceptic country in the EU. For many years the United Kingdom did not feel a part of Europe. Great Britain was geographically separated from continental Europe and psychologically distant from the European integration movement established by the 1957 Treaty of Rome. The British Eurosceptic tradition rested on these geographic and psychological characteristics. Eurosceptic traditions included political, economic, linguistic, cultural and historical aspects that made it difficult for the United Kingdom to accept European integration. Methods and materials. The research methodology is based on narrative and comparative methods. The materials of the study incorporate statements of certain British politicians about attitudes towards European integration, works devoted to the analysis of Euroscepticism in the United Kingdom and manifestos of some far-right political parties. Analysis. A study of the attitude to European integration of the two main political forces of Great Britain, namely the Conservative and the Labour Parties, in the second half of the 20th century is carried out. Results. The study results in the creation of a periodization of British Euroscepticism in the second half of the 20th century. Three stages of evolution of British Euroscepticism in the period under study are distinguished: 1) the stage preceding the entry of Great Britain into the European Communities, conventionally called “Labour”; 2) the stage of the United Kingdom’s participation in the “common market”, conventionally called “Conservative”; 3) the stage of Britain’s participation in the European Union, conventionally called “Right-wing populist”. Their chronological framework is established and their main characteristics are given.
5
Morgan, Kevin. « Bolshevization, Stalinization, and Party Ritual : The Congresses of the Communist Party of Great Britain, 1920-1943 ». Labour History Review : Volume 87, Issue 2 87, no 2 (1 juillet 2022) : 141–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.3828/lhr.2022.6.
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This paper examines the national congresses of the Communist Party of Great Britain (CPGB) in the period of the Communist International (1919- 43). Both in Britain and internationally, communist party congresses in this period lost any independent decision-making role and became a mechanism activated and controlled from above. Not surprisingly, they have attracted little serious scholarly notice in their own right, but this paper identifies three themes deserving consideration: first, that of the congress as a field of tension between inherited notions of delegatory democracy and the Comintern’s top-down version of democratic centralism; second, that of its growing importance as a site of symbolic demonstration and ritualized group action; and third, that of bolshevization and Stalinization as processes that can be traced through these changing conceptions of the congress’s role. Each theme is considered here in a separate section. These employ a three-party periodization that supports an argument of the CPGB’s early but protracted bolshevization. Further watershed moments in the late 1920s and the mid-1930s can both in different ways be identified with Stalinization. These, however, did not so much resolve as displace the tensions with wider labour movement practices.
6
Wells, Richard. « Class Politics and the Filmmaker's Craft in Mike Leigh's Peterloo ». Labor 19, no 3 (1 septembre 2022) : 57–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1215/15476715-9794984.
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Abstract This essay offers a close examination of director Mike Leigh's Peterloo, which recounts the struggle for parliamentary reform in Great Britain between the battle of Waterloo and the Peterloo massacre of 1819. Peterloo succeeds, the essay contends, because of Leigh's approach to the craft of filmmaking. If we take Peterloo on its own terms, that is, with an understanding of the unique form of creative labor that went into it, we get a better sense of what we can learn from it, about class politics, about power, about the complicated and difficult formation of democratic movements such as that which brought those many thousands to St. Peter's Field in 1819.
7
Hanagan, Michael. « Family, Work and Wages : The Stéphanois Region of France, 1840–1914 ». International Review of Social History 42, S5 (septembre 1997) : 129–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0020859000114816.
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Exploring issues of the family wage, this paper examines labour markets, family employment patterns and political conflict in France. Up to now, the debate over the family wage has centred mainly on analysing British trade unions and the development of an ideal of domesticity among the British working classes, more or less taking for granted the declining women's labour force participation rate and the configuration of state/trade union relations prevailing in Great Britain. Shifting the debate across the Channel, scholars such as Laura Frader and Susan Pedersen have suggested that different attitudes to the family wage prevailed. In France, demands for the exclusion of women from industry were extremely rare because women's participation in industry was taken for granted. But a gendered division of labour and ideals of domesticity remained and made themselves felt in both workforce and labour movement.
8
Ackers, Peter. « Colliery Deputies in the British Coal Industry Before Nationalization ». International Review of Social History 39, no 3 (décembre 1994) : 383–414. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s002085900011274x.
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SummaryThis article challenges the militant and industrial unionist version of British coal mining trade union history, surrounding the Miners' Federation of Great Britain and the National Union of Mineworkers, by considering, for the first time, the case of the colliery deputies' trade union. Their national Federation was formed in 1910, and aimed to represent the three branches of coal mining supervisory management: the deputy (or fireman, or examiner), overman and shotfirer. First, the article discusses the treatment of moderate and craft traditions in British coal mining historiography. Second, it shows how the position of deputy was defined by changes in the underground labour process and the legal regulation of the industry. Third, it traces the history of deputies' union organization up until nationalization in 1947, and the formation of the National Association of Colliery Overmen, Deputies and Shotfirers (NACODS). The article concludes that the deputies represent a mainstream tradition of craft/professional identity and industrial moderation, in both the coal industry and the wider labour movement.
9
Weiler, Peter. « BOOK REVIEW : Sidney Pollard.LABOUR HISTORY AND THE LABOUR MOVEMENT IN BRITAIN. and Lowell J. Satre.THOMAS BURT, MINERS' MP, 1837-1922 : THE GREAT CONCILIATOR. » Victorian Studies 43, no 4 (juillet 2001) : 625–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.2979/vic.2001.43.4.625.
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Nic Dháibhéid, Caoimhe. « Historians and the Decade of Centenaries in Modern Ireland ». Contemporary European History 32, no 1 (23 janvier 2023) : 21–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0960777322000522.
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The Irish ‘Decade of Centenaries’ is, at last, drawing to a close, ending the ‘interminable round of national soul-searching’ which one prominent historian warily anticipated in 2013.1 The final major event to be commemorated is the Civil War of 1922–3, when the Irish republican movement split bitterly and violently over the terms of the treaty granting the southern part of Ireland partial independence from Britain. As it turns out, the government in charge of overseeing that commemoration is a coalition made up of the two principal political parties that emerged from the aftermath of that civil war. Where for a century these parties had formed the binaries of the Irish political division, now their peaceful cooperation in government could be seen as proof of the ‘end of history’, Irish-style. Even erstwhile political enemies – whose ancestors one hundred years ago executed and assassinated each other – could unite in a shared project of ‘inclusive’ and ‘ethical’ commemoration informed by an expert advisory panel made up of prominent academic and public historians. Their unprecedented political cooperation would be encapsulated by the peaceful swapping of the position of Taoiseach (Prime Minister) half-way through the government's term. The third great strand of the Irish Revolution, the labour movement, was fortuitously represented by the election to the Irish Presidency in 2007 of Michael D. Higgins, an academic sociologist and former Labour Party TD (member of parliament). Casann an roth, as Higgins declared in one of his many addresses during the ‘Decade’, as it is colloquially known in Irish history parlance.2 The wheel turns, and this time had come full circle, repairing the fractures in the national movement and restoring national political unity.
11
Grant, Kevin. « British Suffragettes and the Russian Method of Hunger Strike ». Comparative Studies in Society and History 53, no 1 (janvier 2011) : 113–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0010417510000642.
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In the spring of 1878 male political prisoners in the Peter and Paul Fortress of St. Petersburg went on hunger strike to protest against the oppressive conditions in which they were held by the tsarist regime. After three days, news of the strike reached the prisoners' families, who appealed for relief to the director of military police, General N. V. Mezentsev. The director dismissed their pleas and reportedly declared of the hunger strikers, “Let them die; I have already ordered coffins for them all.” It was a volatile period of repression and reprisal in the Russian revolutionary movement. The tsarist regime had cracked down on the revolutionary populists, thenarodniki, and the era of terrorism had just begun in St. Petersburg that January, when Vera Zasulich shot and seriously wounded the city's governor. The hunger strikers were among a group of 193 revolutionaries who had been recently tried for treason and sentenced to various forms of punishment, including hard labor and imprisonment in Siberia. In these circumstances the news of Mezentsev's response spread quickly beyond the strikers' families, soon reaching a would-be terrorist and former artillery officer, Sergius Kravchinskii. Kravchinskii killed Mezentsev with a dagger on a city street, then fled Russia and made his way to Great Britain, a haven for Russian revolutionaries since Alexander Herzen had arrived in 1852 and established the first Russian revolutionary press abroad. Kravchinskii likewise wrote against the tsarist regime, under the pen name Sergius Stepniak, and in 1890 he became the editor of a new, London-based periodical,Free Russia. Its first number chronicled a dramatic series of hunger strikes led by female revolutionaries imprisoned at Kara in the Trans-Baikál of eastern Siberia. These strikes had culminated in the death of one woman after she was flogged and in five suicides by female and male political prisoners who, after the death of their comrade, had ended their hunger strikes to eat poison. Having been inspired to terror by his sympathy for revolutionary hunger strikers, Stepniak, like other Russian exiles, believed that the hunger strike would win sympathy and support for Russian revolutionaries in Britain.
12
Yerokhin, Vladimir. « CELTIC FRINGES AND CENTRAL POWER IN GREAT BRITAIN : HISTORY AND MODERNITY ». Izvestia of Smolensk State University, no 1 (49) (26 mai 2020) : 226–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.35785/2072-9464-2020-49-1-226-244.
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The article deals with history of interrelations between political centre and Celtic fringes of Great Britain in modern and contemporary times. As soon as nationalist movements in Celtic fringes became more active from the mid 1960s, the need appeared to analyze the history of interrelations between central
power and Celtic regions in order to understand causes of Celtic people’s striving for obtaining more rights and even state independence. The article ascertains that attitude of central power to Celtic fringes was complicated by ethno-cultural differences between Englishmen and Celtic people, which resulted in discrimination of Scotland, Wales and Ireland by London's policy towards Celtic regions. Since British industrialization evolved the central power in Great Britain, it created conditions for balanced comprehensive
development of industrial economy only in English counties, whereas Celtic regions were permitted to develop only branches of economic activity which were non-competitive to English business. The level of people’s income in Celtic fringes was always lower than in English parts of Great Britain. There was an
established practice that English business dominated in Celtic regions and determined the economic development of Celtic regions. The English as distinct from Celts had prior opportunities to be engaged on more prestigious and highly paid positions. Celtic population’s devotion to preservation of their culture
and ethno-cultural identity found expression in religious sphere so that Nonconformity and Presbyterianism accordingly dominated among Welshmen and Scotsmen. Political movements in Celtic fringes put forward ethno-cultural demands
rather than social class ones in their activities.
During the first half of the XX century the opposition between Celtic fringes and central power in Great Britain showed that in parliamentary elections Celtic population gave their votes mainly for the members of Labour Party. From the mid-1960s nationalist movements in Celtic fringes became more active. They began to make slogans of political independence. The author of the
article comes to conclusion that interrelations of central power in Great Britain towards Celtic fringes can be adequately described by notions of I. Wallerstein’s world-system analysis and M. Hechter's model of internal colonialism.
13
Cohn, Samuel Ross. « Clerical Labor Intensity and the Feminization of Clerical Labor in Great Britain, 1857-1937 ». Social Forces 63, no 4 (juin 1985) : 1060. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2578607.
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Cohn, S. R. « Clerical Labor Intensity and the Feminization of Clerical Labor in Great Britain, 1857-1937 ». Social Forces 63, no 4 (1 juin 1985) : 1060–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/sf/63.4.1060.
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Schwartz, Laura. « A Job Like Any Other ? Feminist Responses and Challenges to Domestic Worker Organizing in Edwardian Britain ». International Labor and Working-Class History 88 (2015) : 30–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0147547915000216.
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AbstractThis article focuses on the Domestic Workers’ Union of Great Britain and Ireland (est. 1909–1910), a small, grassroots union organized by young female domestic servants in the years leading up to the First World War. This union emerged against a backdrop of labor unrest as well as an increasingly militant women's movement. The article looks at how the Domestic Workers’ Union drew inspiration from the latter but also encountered hostility from some feminists unhappy with the idea of their own servants becoming organized. I argue that the uneven and ambivalent response of the women's movement toward the question of domestic worker organizing is significant not simply as an expression of the social divisions that undoubtedly characterized this movement, but also as reflecting a wider debate within early twentieth-century British feminism over what constituted useful and valuable work for women. Attitudes toward domestic worker organizing were therefore predicated upon feminists’ interrogation of the very nature of domestic labor. Was it inherently inferior to masculine and/or professional forms of work? Was it intrinsically different from factory work, or could it be reorganized and rationalized to fit within the industrial paradigm? Under what conditions should domestic labor be performed, and, perhaps most importantly, who should do it?
16
Vuković, Ivan. « Development of European Union and joining perspective of Croatia ». Tourism and hospitality management 13, no 2 (juin 2007) : 507–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.20867/thm.13.2.7.
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In this paper we researched European Union starting with the Agreement from Maastrich from year 1992, even though the European Union has a long traditional history and its origin is founded on regulations of economical integrations in Europe beginning from the 1950’s through the Roman treaty from year 1957 and the forming of the European Union Committee in year 1965. Further we follow her expansion and introduction of the European economic and monetary policy, to last, the joining perspective of Croatia. According to the Agreement from Maastrich, European Union lies on three posts: 1) Legal-political and regulative post, 2) Economical post, where the forming of European economical and monetary policy is in the first plan, especially the introducing of Euro as the unique European currency, 3) Post of Mutual foreign security policy within European Union. In that context we need to highlight the research conducted here and in European Union, including the world, regarding development of European Union and its economical, legal, political and cultural, as well as foreign diplomatic results, which are all perspectives of European Union. All the scientists and researches which were involved in exploring the development of EU with its modern tendencies and development perspective, agree that extraordinary results are achieved regards to economical, legal, political, foreign-security and diplomatic views, even tough many repercussions exist in progress of some particular members and within the EU as a whole. The biggest controversy arises in the perspective and expanding of European Union regarding ratification of the Constitution of EU from particular country members, but especially after the referendum was refused from two European countries, France and Netherlands. According to some estimates, the Constitution of EU would have difficulty to be adopted in Switzerland and some other Scandinavian countries, but also in Great Britain and other very developed countries. However the European Community and European Union were developing and expanding towards third European countries, regardless of Constitutional non-existence, where we can assume that if and when the Constitution of EU will be ratified, the EU will further develop as one of the most modern communities. This will enable economical development, especially development of European business, unique European market and free trade of goods and services, market of financial capital and labour market in free movement of labour. Being that EU has become one of the most largest dominating markets in the world, it offers a possibility to all new members to divide labour by using modern knowledge and high technology which insure economical, social and political prosperity. This results to forming a society of European countries which will guarantee all rights and freedom of development for all nations and ethnic groups. As well as, all European countries with somewhat less sovereignty, but in international relations will be stronger and significant, not only in sense of economics, but also in politics and military diplomatic relations. Therefore, Croatia has no choice and perspective if she does not join the European Union till year 2010, but until than it needs to create its strategy of economical and scientific-technological development, including demographic development, which will insure equal progress of Croatia as an equal member of European Union.
17
Madgwick, R., A. L. Lamb, H. Sloane, A. J. Nederbragt, U. Albarella, M. Parker Pearson et J. A. Evans. « Multi-isotope analysis reveals that feasts in the Stonehenge environs and across Wessex drew people and animals from throughout Britain ». Science Advances 5, no 3 (mars 2019) : eaau6078. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aau6078.
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The great henge complexes of southern Britain are iconic monuments of the third millennium BCE, representing great feats of engineering and labor mobilization that hosted feasting events on a previously unparalleled scale. The scale of movement and the catchments that the complexes served, however, have thus far eluded understanding. Presenting the largest five-isotope system archeological dataset (87Sr/86Sr, δ34S, δ18O, δ13C, and δ15N) yet fully published, we analyze 131 pigs, the prime feasting animals, from four Late Neolithic (approximately 2800 to 2400 BCE) complexes to explore the networks that the feasts served. Because archeological evidence excludes continental contact, sources are considered only in the context of the British Isles. This analysis reveals wide-ranging origins across Britain, with few pigs raised locally. This finding demonstrates great investment of effort in transporting pigs raised elsewhere over vast distances to supply feasts and evidences the very first phase of pan-British connectivity.
18
Hamilton, Roberta, et Samuel Cohn. « The Process of Occupational Sex-Typing : The Feminization of Clerical Labor in Great Britain ». American Historical Review 92, no 1 (février 1987) : 132. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1862833.
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Monaco, C. S. « THE EXTRAORDINARY MOVEMENT OF THE JEWS OF GREAT BRITAIN 1827–1831 ». Journal of Modern Jewish Studies 8, no 3 (28 septembre 2009) : 337–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14725880903263069.
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Vargas, Zaragosa. « Tejana Radical : Emma Tenayuca and the San Antonio Labor Movement during the Great Depression ». Pacific Historical Review 66, no 4 (1 novembre 1997) : 553–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3642237.
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LONG, JASON. « Rural-Urban Migration and Socioeconomic Mobility in Victorian Britain ». Journal of Economic History 65, no 1 (mars 2005) : 1–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022050705050011.
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This article analyzes rural-urban migration in Great Britain in the latter half of the nineteenth century. Using a new dataset of 28,000 individuals matched between the 1851 and 1881 population censuses, I examine the selection process and treatment effect of migration, controlling for the endogeneity of the migration decision. I find that urban migrants were positively selected—the best of the rural labor pool—and that the economic benefits of migration were substantial. Migrants responded to market signals, and labor markets were largely efficient; however, not all gains from migration were exploited, potentially indicating some degree of inefficiency.
22
WARREN, ALLEN. « Sir Robert Baden-Powell, the Scout movement and citizen training in Great Britain, 1900–1920 ». English Historical Review CI, no CCCXCIX (1986) : 376–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ehr/ci.cccxcix.376.
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Silverman, Victor. « Popular Bases of the International Labor Movement in the United States and Britain, 1939–1949 ». International Review of Social History 38, no 3 (décembre 1993) : 301–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0020859000112106.
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SummaryThis paper examines the working class in the United States and Britain in order to find a new perspective on the origins and break-up of the World Federation of Trade Unions. While most previous works have focused on the roles of institutions and leaders, this research uncovers the important role played by the thoughts, actions, and inactions of average workers in international affairs. American and British workers, as key constituents of two of the most important organizations making up the WFTU, were not passive observers of world events. Rather, they were critical not only of how the world union movement functioned, but also of the process which came to be termed the Cold War.
24
Williams, Dana M., et Matthew T. Lee. « Aiming to Overthrow the State (Without Using the State) : Political Opportunities for Anarchist Movements ». Comparative Sociology 11, no 4 (2012) : 558–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15691330-12341236.
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Abstract The anarchist movement utilizes non-statist and anti-statist strategies for radical social transformation, thus indicating the limits of political opportunity theory and its emphasis upon the state. Using historical narratives from present-day anarchist movement literature, we note various events and phenomena in the last two centuries and their relevance to the mobilization and demobilization of anarchist movements throughout the world (Bolivia, Czech Republic, Great Britain, Greece, Japan, Venezuela). Labor movement allies, failing state socialism, and punk subculture have provided conditions conducive to anarchism, while state repression and Bolshevik success in the Soviet Union constrained success. This variation suggests that future work should attend more closely to the role of national context, and the interrelationship of political and non-political factors.
25
Bielby, William T., Samuel Cohn et Ruth Milkman. « The Process of Occupational Sex-Typing : The Feminization of Clerical Labor in Great Britain. » Social Forces 67, no 2 (décembre 1988) : 551. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2579206.
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Campbell, Alan, et John McIlroy. « The National Unemployed Workers' Movement and the Communist Party of Great Britain Revisited ». Labour History Review 73, no 1 (avril 2008) : 61–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1179/174581808x279118.
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Novichenko, Irina. « Rochdale Pioneers : Myths and Facts ». ISTORIYA 13, no 11 (121) (2022) : 0. http://dx.doi.org/10.18254/s207987840023121-2.
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The history of the Rochdale Pioneers, the founders of the consumer co-operatives in Great Britain, is repeated by all who turn to the history of the co-operative and labour movements. This “story” is always the same, researchers retell approximately the same facts. The article attempts to trace how the “typical story” about the Rochdale Pioneers developed in Russian and British historiography and how it is seen in the light of recent research. The documents of the “Rochdale Society of Equitable Pioneers” and the data from recent studies of British historians helped to consider the background of the event; the circumstances of the creation of the Society, the number of founding pioneers, their professional affiliation, age composition, adherence to Owenist and other socio-political ideas; relations with other cooperatives and authorities; the rules and objectives set out in the Statute of 1844 and subsequent statutes; the main directions of the Society's activity in 1844—1860s; the fate of the founding pioneers. Particular attention is paid to the evolution of the principles of the Rochdale co-operative system and to the efforts to preserve the heritage of the Pioneers.
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GOTTLIEB, JULIE. « Body Fascism in Britain : Building the Blackshirt in the Inter-War Period ». Contemporary European History 20, no 2 (8 avril 2011) : 111–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0960777311000026.
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AbstractIn recent years scholars have devoted a great deal of attention and theorisation to the body in history, looking both at bodies as metaphors and as sites of intervention. These studies have tended to focus on the analysis of bodies in a national context, acting for and acted upon by the state, and similarly the ever-expanding study of masculinity continues to try to define hegemonic masculinities. But what if we direct our gaze to marginal bodies, in this case Blackshirt bodies who act against the state, and a political movement that commits assault on the body politic? This article examines the centrality of the body and distinctive gender codes in the self-representation, the performance and practice, and the culture of Britain's failed fascist movement during the 1930s. The term ‘body fascism’ has taken on different and much diluted meaning in the present day, but in the British Union of Fascists’ construction of the Blackshirted body, in the movement's emphasis on the embodiment of their political religion through sport, physical fitness and public display of offensive and defensive violence, and in their distinctive and racialised bodily aesthetic illustrated in their visual and graphic art production we come to understand Britain's fascist movement as a product of modernity and as one potent expression of the convergence between populist politics and body fixation.
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Birrell, Susan. « The Loneliness of Learning to Labor ». Journal of Sport History 41, no 1 (1 avril 2014) : 5–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.5406/jsporthistory.41.1.5.
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Abstract This paper presents a case for reading sport films like The Loneliness of the Long Distance Runner (1961) within an intertextual framework. To that end, Tony Richardson’s classic film is read alongside Paul Willis’ equally classic cultural studies text Learning to Labor (1977). Both reflect critical responses to a particular historical and cultural moment in post-World War II Great Britain. For deeper insight into the character of Colin Smith, these texts are also read next to the Alan Sillitoe (1959) novella on which the film is based. The compelling focus of each is on acts of resistance, yet in the end, each recounts an ironic tale of the reproductive power of rebellion. Taken together they explore in different ways the troubling suggestion that, satisfying as these acts might be, they can operate as a form of entrapment.
30
Kybich, Yana. « Peculiarities of the British Approach to the European Integration Process ». Історико-політичні проблеми сучасного світу, no 40 (15 décembre 2019) : 58–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.31861/mhpi2019.40.58-66.
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The article examines the prerequisites for Britainʼs participation in European integration processes since the 1950ʼs. The evolution of the “special” policy of the British governments regarding the countryʼs participation in the system of political and military-political cooperation of the European Union, the nature of its influence on the processes of European integration in the sphere of foreign policy and security are considered. The peculiarities of the UKʼs participation in European political integration are analyzed in terms of balancing the two main strands of its foreign policy – the traditional Atlantic course, which underlies the Anglo-American “special relations” and the European course (deepening participation in European regional policy). The most common concepts of differentiated European integration are outlined, such as Europe à la carte (sectoral, selective integration) or the concepts of European Menu, Europe of Different Speeds and Variable Geometries, which have been successfully used by UK governments to counteract federalization and deepen integration of the United Kingdom, avoiding full integration, for example, in currency issues or applying restrictions on the free movement of labor (limited Schengen agreement). In general, the complex of conditions and peculiarities of historical, socio-political, economic and socio-psychological nature have been investigated, which have had their specific influence on the formation of the unique political attitude and behavior of Great Britain and became the basis of the “special” position of Great Britain in European integration processes, and as a consequence transformations of the present geopolitical position of Great Britain.
Keywords: Great Britain, European integration, EEC, European Union, concept, “special” position.
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Scalmer, Sean. « The Labor of Diffusion : The Peace Pledge Union and The Adaptation of The Gandhian Repertoire ». Mobilization : An International Quarterly 7, no 3 (1 octobre 2002) : 269–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.17813/maiq.7.3.f066785l1n7388t8.
Texte intégralRésumé :
The history of the Peace Pledge Union of Britain illuminates the process of social movement repertoire diffusion. In the late 1950s and 1960s British pacifists successfully used nonviolent direct action, but this was based upon a long-term engagement with Gandhism. Systematic coding of movement literature suggests that the translation of Gandhian methods involved more than twenty years of intellectual study and debate. Rival versions of Gandhian repertoire were constructed and defended. These were embedded in practical, sometimes competing projects within the pacifist movement, and were the subject of intense argument and conflict, the relevance of Gandhism was established through complex framing processes, multiple discourses, and increasing practical experimentation. This article offers methodological and conceptual tools for the study of diffusion. A wider argument for the importance of the reception as will as performance of contention is offered.
32
Lipold, Paul F., et Larry W. Isaac. « Striking Deaths : Lethal Contestation and the “Exceptional” Character of the American Labor Movement, 1870–1970 ». International Review of Social History 54, no 2 (août 2009) : 167–205. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0020859009000674.
Texte intégralRésumé :
SummaryThe decades between the Great Railway Strike of 1877 and the post-World- War-II institutionalization of organized labor in the US have been impressionistically characterized by labor scholars as the most violent and bloody to be found in any Western, democratic nation. A variety of different forms of labor repression have been identified and studied. Yet because of a lack of systematic data, none have been able to examine directly the incidence and contours of the ultimate form of violent repression in collective contention. We create the conceptual space for pursuing bloodshed and a new data set featuring deaths resulting from labor strikes as a new and promising direction in the American exceptionalism debate and in studies of comparative strikes. Through a painstaking search of the historical record, we produce the first systematic quantitative gauge of striking deaths between 1870 and 1970. These data permit a mapping of fatalities resulting from labor strikes across time, geographical region, and industry. After describing configurations of strike-based mortality, we suggest what these patterned variations may mean and identify additional questions that these data may help resolve in subsequent studies. We urge comparable data collections in other countries that would permit direct comparative-historical assessments of the magnitude and role of bloodshed in different labor movements.
33
Deery, Phillip, et Neil Redfern. « No Lasting Peace ? Labor, Communism and the Cominform : Australia and Great Britain, 1945-50 ». Labour History, no 88 (2005) : 63. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/27516037.
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Callaghan, John. « The Left in Britain in the Twentieth Century ». International Labor and Working-Class History 57 (avril 2000) : 103–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0147547900212751.
Texte intégralRésumé :
The eleventh annual conference of the Institute of Contemporary British History was held at the Institute of Historical Research, University of London, July 12–16, 1999. The first day was largely concerned with British Marxist and socialist movements; the second concentrated on the trade unions and comparative perspectives; the third and fourth days focused on the Labour party; and the conference concluded with a day on the future of the Left. The conference was male-dominated to about the same proportion as most university departments in Britain, but the age range of participants was broad and involved doctoral students as well as professors. Only two papers were presented on women in the labor movement, and although participants addressed issues concerned with identity and ethnicity, there was nothing directly concerned with imperialism or immigrants from Britain's former colonies and their British-born offspring.
35
Catháin, Máirtin Ó. « ‘No longer clad in corduroy’ ? The Glasgow University Irish National Club, 1907–1917 ». Scottish Historical Review 99, no 2 (octobre 2020) : 271–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/shr.2020.0464.
Texte intégralRésumé :
Unique among university clubs in Britain, the Glasgow University Irish National Club emerged before the first world war among mainly second generation, Scots-born Irish students to assist in the campaign for Irish home rule. It was a useful adjunct to the home rule movement and helped the Irish and mainly catholic students at the university carve out a niche for themselves firstly within the institution and thereafter in wider society. This reflected a growing Irish catholic middle class desirous of playing a greater role in Scottish public life during a time of great transition for the Irish in Scotland.
36
Ponypalyak, Oleksandr. « Cooperation of the OUN with the USA and Great Britain IN 1945–1955 (based on Soviet materials) ». Ethnic History of European Nations, no 67 (2022) : 92–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.17721/2518-1270.2022.67.11.
Texte intégralRésumé :
In this article, the author explores the issue of cooperation between the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN) and Great Britain and the United States of America in the first postwar decade. The object of the author’s study is the Ukrainian liberation movement, the subject of study is the cooperation of Ukrainian nationalists with the special services of Western countries in the context of the confrontation with the Soviet Union in the early stages of the Cold War. The sources of the study are internal documents of the Soviet security services, reports, orders of the Ministry of State Security and the Committee of State Security of the USSR and protocols of interrogations of participants and leaders of the Ukrainian underground. In this context, the interrogation reports of V. Okhrymovych, the head of intelligence of the Ukrainian liberation movement abroad, who was trained in intelligence at the school of spies and in 1951 was landed in Soviet-controlled territory, were discovered and arrested by the KGB. The author analyzed the peculiarities of the geopolitical situation in Ukraine and the entire region of Central and Eastern Europe in the postwar period. Separately, the researcher studied the specifics and features of cooperation of Ukrainian nationalists with the intelligence agencies of the United States and Great Britain. The author analyzed the documents available in the archives of Ukraine for evidence of cooperation and coordination of efforts of the Ukrainian liberation movement abroad with representatives of special services of foreign states to gather intelligence in the USSR anti-Soviet sentiments, etc. The analysis of the facts in the documents showed the complexity of the situation of the Ukrainian liberation movement at the final stage of the armed struggle on the territory of Ukraine. In fact, Western special services were in dire need of intelligence from the Soviet Union, while centers of the Ukrainian movement abroad needed support in weapons, equipment, radio, new methods of sabotage and intelligence, and financial support. OUN members also had to study and learn about parachuting abroad, as illegal land routes were blocked by socialist countries. The transfer of Ukrainian underground was carried out illegally on American or British planes, from which landings were carried out over the territory of Ukraine together with walkie-talkies and equipment. The overthrown had to get in touch with the underground in Ukraine and renew the line of communication with the network of the Ukrainian liberation movement in the USSR. This article will be of interest to researchers of the history of Ukraine, the Soviet Union, the United States and the European continent of the ХХ century, specialists in military affairs, intelligence and the Ukrainian liberation movement, students and anyone persons interested in history.
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Laugen, R. Todd. « Struggles for the Public Interest : Organized Labor and State Mediation in Postwar America ». Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era 4, no 1 (janvier 2005) : 69–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1537781400003662.
Texte intégralRésumé :
In his 1906 Annual Message to Congress, President Theodore Roosevelt urged support for a bill to mandate the government investigation of labor disputes before allowing workers to strike. In an “age of great corporate and labor combinations,” the president insisted “the public has itself an interest which can not wisely be disregarded; an interest not merely of general convenience, for the question of a just and proper public policy must also be considered.” Congress at the time was unmoved. Yet Roosevelt's proposal signaled a growing movement to compel the investigation and arbitration of major labor conflicts. This movement peaked in the years soon after World War I. Advocates for government mediation insisted that an impartial commission of experts could peacefully negotiate workplace disputes and spare the consuming public the contests of will and force associated with major strikes. The Progressive Era arbitration of railroad and mining conflicts established important precedents and have received significant attention from scholars. National mediation boards, however, rarely assumed the power to order participation. Such efforts were more prominent at die state level. In 1915 Colorado legislators largely implemented Roosevelt's proposal, creating the first government board with powers to ban strikes and lockouts pending an investigation in industries affected with a public interest. Soon after the war, Kansas expanded upon the Colorado precedent with a compulsory arbitration board to regulate a host of indus-tries deemed essential to the public. Programs for state mediation of labor conflicts in the postwar period were particularly bound up with questions of compulsion in the public interest.
38
Croll, Andy. « Strikers and the Right to Poor Relief in Late Victorian Britain : The Making of the Merthyr Tydfil Judgment of 1900 ». Journal of British Studies 52, no 1 (janvier 2013) : 128–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/jbr.2012.61.
Texte intégralRésumé :
AbstractDid late Victorian strikers have a right to poor relief? Historians have suggested they did not. Scholars point out that nineteenth-century strikers rarely turned to the Poor Law for assistance, and when they did, during a colliers' strike in South Wales in 1898, Poor Law officials were taken to court by disgruntled coal companies. In the subsequent High Court ruling known as the Merthyr Tydfil judgment of 1900, the Master of the Rolls decided that the policy of relieving the strikers had indeed been unlawful. However, it is argued in this article that the judgment has not been properly understood by historians. Contemporaries did not think it obvious that the giving of poor relief to strikers was illegal. On the contrary, in 1898, there was widespread agreement that Poor Law officials had no choice but to support destitute strikers; the Poor Law demanded they relieve the men and their families, a point confirmed in an earlier High Court ruling in 1899. Thus, Poor Law scholars should view the Merthyr judgment as a notable innovation in Poor Law policy. Labor historians should see the ruling as part of the employers' counteroffensive against the labor movement of the 1890s and 1900s. Merthyr came out of the same febrile atmosphere that produced the Taff Vale judgment. That its true significance has been forgotten can largely be explained by the labor movement's unease at having a striker's right to poor relief confirmed in 1899. Respectable workers, union leaders averred, should not be supported out of the poor rates.
39
Dowbiggin, Ian. « ‘A Prey on Normal People’ : C. Killick Millard and the Euthanasia Movement in Great Britain, 1930–55 ». Journal of Contemporary History 36, no 1 (janvier 2001) : 59–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/002200940103600103.
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Rota, Michael W. « Moral Psychology and Social Change : The Case of Abolition ». Journal of Interdisciplinary History 49, no 4 (mars 2019) : 567–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/jinh_a_01338.
Texte intégralRésumé :
The examination of a test case, the popular movement to abolish slavery, demonstrates that the insights of recent psychological research about moral judgment and motivated reasoning can contribute to historians’ understanding of why large-scale shifts in cultural values occur. Moral psychology helps to answer the question of why the abolitionist movement arose and flourished when and where it did. Analysis of motivated reasoning and the just-world bias sheds light on the conditions that promoted recognition of the moral wrongfulness of chattel slavery, as well as on the conditions that promoted morally motivated social action. These findings reveal that residents of Great Britain and the northern United States in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries were in an unusually good position to perceive, and to act on, the moral problems of slavery. Moral psychology is also applicable to other social issues, such as women’s liberation and egalitarianism.
41
Tyrrell, Alex. « Samuel Smiles and the Woman Question in Early Victorian Britain ». Journal of British Studies 39, no 2 (avril 2000) : 185–216. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/386216.
Texte intégralRésumé :
When Samuel Smiles (1812–1904) looked back over his career from the vantage point of old age he saw himself as one who had labored for “the emancipation and intellectual improvement of women.” His self-description will surprise those who know him, either through his famous book, Self-Help (1859), where women make fleeting appearances as maternal influences on the achievements of great men, or through the attempts that have been made during the Thatcher years to offer him as an exemplar of a highly selective code of “Victorian Values.” Nonetheless, there is much to be said for Smiles's interpretation: not only was he a prolific author on the condition of women, but his writings on this subject from the late 1830s to the early 1850s were radical in tone and content.By directing attention to these writings, this article makes three points about early Victorian gender relations, radicalism, and Smiles's own career. First, it challenges the lingering notion that this was a time when patriarchal values stifled debate on gender issues. For some historians who write about the women's movement, the early Victorian era has the status of something like a dark age in the history of the agitation for women's rights; this period is overshadowed on the one side by the great debates initiated by Mary Wollstonecraft's Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792) and on the other by the new feminist movements that developed after the 1850s. Barbara Caine, for example, has written recently that the exclusion of women from the public sphere was “absolute” in the mid-century years; few women had the financial resources necessary to set up a major journal even if they had been bold enough to do so, and the sort of man who wrote sympathetically about women was concerned primarily with his own needs.
42
Blue, Lionel. « Try the Samaritans ». European Judaism 51, no 1 (1 mars 2018) : 121–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.3167/ej.2018.510118.
Texte intégralRésumé :
Abstract In this article Lionel Blue recalls his introduction to the UK Reform Jewish movement, at the time the ‘Association of Synagogues of Great Britain’. His work with the youth groups coincided with a pioneering engagement with a post-war German generation, something considered problematical at the time, and similarly the beginning of a Jewish-Christian-Muslim dialogue. The movement at the time increased its support for Israel and joined with the American Reform Jewish movement in the World Union for Progressive Judaism both of which had their influence on its development. But missing were important spiritual questions: Did God still exist for us and how; Where did we locate Him in the horror of the Holocaust? Despite criticisms of some developments of the movement, what remains important is the friendliness, care and concern of the members, its humanity and preferring people as they are to ideological templates.
43
Sundue, Sharon Braslaw. « Confining the Poor to Ignorance ? Eighteenth-Century American Experiments with Charity Education ». History of Education Quarterly 47, no 2 (mai 2007) : 123–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-5959.2007.00086.x.
Texte intégralRésumé :
In 1738, the English evangelist George Whitefield traveled to the new colony of Georgia intending to establish “a house for fatherless children.” Inspired by both August Hermann Francke, the German Pietist who had great success educating and maintaining poor orphans in Halle, and by charity schools established in Great Britain, Whitefield's orphan house and charity school, named Bethesda, opened its doors early in 1740. For years, Whitefield devoted himself tirelessly to ensuring the success of the Bethesda school, preaching throughout Britain and North America on its behalf. Whitefield's preaching tour on behalf of his beloved Bethesda is well known for its role in catalyzing the religious revivals known collectively as the Great Awakening. The tour also marked an important shift in the history of education in America. News of the establishment of the orphanage at Bethesda coincided with new efforts to school the poor throughout the colonies. Drawing on both the British and German models of charity schooling that were highly influential for Whitefield, eighteenth-century Americans began or increased commitments to charity schooling for poor children. But the European models were not adopted wholesale. Instead, local administrators of the schooling experiments deviated from these models in a striking way. In America, elites offered some children the opportunity for extensive charity instruction, but not necessarily children at the bottom of the social hierarchy. This article will argue that the execution of these charity schooling programs was contingent upon local social conditions, specifically what appears to have been local elites' desire to maintain a certain social order and ensure a continued supply of cheap labor.
44
READ, CHARLES. « THE ‘REPEAL YEAR’ IN IRELAND : AN ECONOMIC REASSESSMENT ». Historical Journal 58, no 1 (9 février 2015) : 111–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0018246x14000168.
Texte intégralRésumé :
AbstractMost of the existing literature on the ‘Repeal Year’ agitation in Ireland explains the rise in popularity of the 1842–3 campaign for repeal of the Act of Union between Great Britain and Ireland in political and religious terms. This article argues that, in addition, the British government's economic policy of reducing tariffs in 1842 damaged Ireland's agricultural economy and increased popular support for the Repeal movement. Using both qualitative and quantitative analysis, this article shows that the tariff reductions and import relaxations of the 1842 budget had an immediate negative impact on Irish real incomes by reducing agricultural prices. A negative relationship between these prices and the Repeal rent, together with the economic rhetoric of Repeal in favour of protection, indicate a link between the economic downturn and the rise in the popularity of Repeal. This article concludes that Peel's trade policy changes of 1842 should therefore be added to the traditional religious and political explanations as a cause behind the sudden surge in popularity of the Repeal movement between 1842 and 1843.
45
HUBERMAN, MICHAEL. « Working Hours of the World Unite ? New International Evidence of Worktime, 1870–1913 ». Journal of Economic History 64, no 4 (décembre 2004) : 964–1001. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022050704043050.
Texte intégralRésumé :
This article constructs new measures of worktime for Europe, North America, and Australia, 1870–1913. Great Britain began with the shortest work year and Belgium the longest. By 1913 certain continental countries approached British worktimes, and, consistent with recent findings on real wages, annual hours in Old and New Worlds had converged. Although globalization did not lead to a race to the bottom of worktimes, there is only partial evidence of a race to the top. National work routines, the outcome of different legal, labor, and political histories, mediated relations between hours and income.
46
Phelps, Christopher. « Class : A Useful Category of Analysis in the History of Sexual Harassment ». Labor 19, no 1 (1 mars 2022) : 140–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1215/15476715-9475786.
Texte intégralRésumé :
Abstract Beginning with Leonora Barry of the Knights of Labor, women in the labor movement have envisioned class action as a means of overcoming sexual harassment. Drawing upon Brooke Meredith Beloso's emphasis on the “class constitution of gender and sexuality” and “gendered and sexual constitution of class,” this essay considers four historical phases—the Gilded Age, the Progressive Era, the Great Depression and Second World War, and the present era since the 1970s—to maintain the value of class as an analytic category in understanding sexual harassment and resistance to it in the history of American capitalism. Attentive to gender and race, it contests perspectives that erase or subordinate class while in turn seeking to situate class within a full-spectrum intersectionality. Bringing class back in reveals sexual harassment to be one form of the enactment of class, not merely gender. Although sexual harassment can in no way be reduced to class, class shapes sexual harassment and sexual harassment shapes class.
47
Blue, Lionel. « Religion and Organisation ». European Judaism 51, no 1 (1 mars 2018) : 98–103. http://dx.doi.org/10.3167/ej.2018.510113.
Texte intégralRésumé :
Abstract This conference sermon delivered to the UK Reform Jewish movement (Reform Synagogues of Great Britain) in 1965 explored the challenges facing this growing religious organisation, ‘a worldly instrument to serve non-worldly purposes’. What are the traps that have to be recognized and avoided? Does God become the rationalization for our prejudices? How do we relate to issues in the Jewish and wider world? Inside the complex bureaucratic system, how do we find place for the freedom of religious experience?
48
Gentile, Antonina, et Sidney Tarrow. « Charles Tilly, globalization, and labor’s citizen rights ». European Political Science Review 1, no 3 (novembre 2009) : 465–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s175577390999018x.
Texte intégralRésumé :
Since the 1990s, observers have seen globalization impairing labor’s rights. We take Charles Tilly as an exemplar of this view, subjecting his 1995 article to critical appreciation. We argue that Tilly, known for his work on the National Social Movement, overlooked the fact that some unions under pressure from global neo-liberalism can employ a protest repertoire employing their citizen rights, while others continue to use labor rights. We use port workers, who are directly exposed to globalization, to show how different political opportunity structures and different strategic choices influence these choices. In Sweden, our exemplar of a neo-corporatist system, we find that the employment of labor rights continues to be robust; in the USA, our exemplar of a fully-fledged neo-liberal system, we find much greater recourse to a repertoire calling on citizen rights. Finally, in Australia and Great Britain, countries undergoing a shift to neo-liberalism in the 1980s and 1990s, we show that strategic choice influences how effectively unions adapt to shifts towards neo-liberalism: Australian unions effectively used citizen rights while the British port unions failed to make this strategic shift.
49
Whitston, Kevin. « The Reception of Scientific Management by British Engineers, 1890–1914 ». Business History Review 71, no 2 (1997) : 207–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3116158.
Texte intégralRésumé :
While Britain never had a scientific management movement like that in America, historians have exaggerated the negative reaction of British engineers to the ideas of F. W. Taylor and other American proponents of business efficiency. A review of the leading British engineering journals in the early twentieth century reveals that Taylorism received a fair amount of attention, and much of it positive. By the beginning of the First World War, the majority of trade journals were echoing Taylor's demands for a new type of management. The misapprehension on behalf of historians stems from a number of factors: an overemphasis on articles published during years of labor agitation, such as 1911 and 1912; and, a failure to appreciate the different way in which scientific management was perceived in Britain. This fuller understanding of British responses to Taylor and his ideas helps to elucidate a chapter in the broader history of British economic performance and managerial methods in the twentieth century.
50
O'Driscoll, Mervyn. « Explosive Challenge : Diplomatic Triangles, the United Nations, and the Problem of French Nuclear Testing, 1959–1960 ». Journal of Cold War Studies 11, no 1 (janvier 2009) : 28–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/jcws.2009.11.1.28.
Texte intégralRésumé :
France's first nuclear tests in Algeria in 1960 occurred at a critical moment in the Cold War. The United States, Great Britain, and the USSR had suspended their tests in 1958 and had been holding test ban talks in Geneva. British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan faced a vociferous anti-nuclear movement at home and wanted to foster East-West détente. The U.S. State Department wished to prevent Soviet propaganda in the Third World, including the newly independent African and Asian states that strongly opposed French testing. Nonetheless, both Britain and the United States adopted a sympathetic stance toward France in the run-up to the first test in February 1960. Macmillan hoped to move Britain into the European Economic Community and therefore wanted to avoid antagonizing France, whose support for British membership would be crucial. Macmillan also wanted France's backing for a four-power summit to try to achieve East-West détente. Similarly, the United States did not want to alienate France, a key member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).