Articles de revues sur le sujet « Judicial process – France »

The article analyzes the judicial system of France and its individual elements with an emphasis on the changes that have occurred in the judicial system of the country, namely, the introduction of amendments to the civil procedure code. The basic principles of judicial proceedings are also considered. The theoretical foundations and regulatory framework related to this issue have been studied. France has an extremely complex system of courts of general justice in the field of civil justice, differentiated by subjects of jurisdiction and other grounds and functioning in a certain hierarchy. The judicial system has two levels. The first level includes courts that consider the case for the first time; the second level includes bodies that consider the case on the merits for the second time. The Supreme Court and the Supreme Administrative Court are neither the third level of the judicial system in France, nor the third instance in a case. The guidelines for the reform of the French judicial system contain recommendations aimed at further improving legislation in this area. The definition of justice is one of the most important forms of law enforcement activity in a democratic state. Initially presented as the prerogative of the supreme power, justice has gone through a long period of training and development to become the most effective tool for protecting human rights and freedoms today. In the course of its existence, justice has often been captured by political interference, and has also become hostage to economic and social crises. As a result, at certain points in history, the main activity of the judiciary turned into a justification of the «right of the strong», which inevitably led to unfair and biased proceedings. However, despite the complexity and ambiguity of the historical path chosen by the judiciary, there is a significant trend in it, which is fully manifested in modern democracies. We are talking about the equal distribution of justice to the entire population of citizens, which is associated with the gradual establishment of the principle of equality of all before the law. France is one of the countries where this process is distinguished by a certain uniqueness.

Abstract Administrative regulations are an important tool of modern government, but their legitimacy is often questioned since they are adopted by the executive branch rather than the legislature. Judicial review of the legality of regulations is necessary but not sufficient as an accountability mechanism because judicial review is subject to many practical and legal shortcomings, especially including its high cost. Consequently, the vast majority of regulations are never subject to judicial review, which creates an accountability deficit. This deficit can be remedied through ex ante administrative review of the legality of regulations by an executive branch agency that is independent of the adopting agency. This Article evaluates executive branch ex ante legality review schemes in California, Chile, Israel, and France. Although these regulatory review schemes vary greatly, each of them scrutinizes the substantive and procedural legality of regulations (as distinguished from their economic or environmental effect or their political acceptability). This review takes place before the regulations are judicially reviewed and before they become effective. Ex ante administrative review can compensate for the failings of judicial review, promote the rule of law, and enhance the legitimacy of the regulatory process.

Abstract On the Problems of Translating Judicial Practice - France and Japan in the 19th century: What does it mean to shape judicial practice in a process of massive legal transfer? The translation of the normative framework and the institutional settings into a foreign legal culture might be difficult; even more difficult is translating methods, instruments and tools of decision-making. The article suggests in a first step how legal historians can reconstruct these unwritten methods of judicial practice. In a second step, it discusses the case of France and Japan in late 19th century. It argues that due to the fact that methods of decision-making are highly dependent to socializations, habitus and experiences, they were not translatable when Japan set out for building up a court system shaped according to the French model. This untranslatability created a gap - a gap that had to be filled by creating an own experience based habitus.

Under the conditions of legitimization of the constitutional process, constitutional subjects seek to improve the method of decision-making and privilege a certain type of argumentation. Although there are many tools to achieve this, the purpose of this contribution is limited to the study of evidence as a tool of legitimation. On the one hand, legal evidence, as it is an irreplaceable means of achieving a certain truth, and on the other hand, it is legitimized, as it involves an evidentiary procedure that guarantees the right of each participant in the legal process to have his case heard by a judge. If the evidentiary regime, whose function is to demonstrate the truth of the facts, is sometimes a pole apart from that which has the function of obtaining community approval, these two functions contribute to the same goal of legitimizing the constitutional process. Evidential legitimation does not correspond to a natural process, but rather consists of a discourse that treats the evidence in certain ways, or rather in different ways, in order to increase the legitimacy of the constitutional judge's decisions. If it falls under the specific field of comparative constitutional jurisprudence, the contribution appeals to the context of the general theory of evidence and, in particular, to the recently conceptualized functions of evidence. It follows from this that in the process of depoliticization or jurisdictionalization of the review of constitutionality, constitutional subjects strive, on the one hand, to improve the way of decision-making, and on the other hand, to privilege a certain type of argumentation. Although there are many tools to achieve this, the purpose of this contribution is limited to the study of evidence as a tool of legitimation. More specifically, the process of legitimization by evidence can be conceived as a process initiated by legal entities in order to gain authority among different audiences. The main function of evidence is to verify the production of facts that are decisive for the resolution of the dispute and to which the law attributes legal consequences. This function of proof consists in determining the truth of statements that describe the occurrence of these defining facts. However, it is important to note that this contribution is not intended to position itself on the content of the truth in the judicial process.

Purpose. The aim of the work is to analyze judicial control over the implementation of decisions in civil proceedings of foreign countries, to identify the mechanism of judicial control over the implementation of decisions in civil proceedings, to determine the most effective measures to implement foreign judicial control in civil proceedings of Ukraine. Method. The methodology includes a comprehensive analysis and generalization of existing scientific and theoretical material of judicial control in foreign countries and the formulation of relevant conclusions and recommendations for its further practical implementation in civil proceedings in Ukraine. The following methods of scientific cognition were used during the research: terminological, logical-semantic, functional, system-structural, logical-normative. Results. In the course of the study it was recognized that judicial control in Ukraine is applied only in the case of appeals against decisions, acts and omissions of executors. Despite its formal consolidation, it will be effective in the case of the introduction of a real mechanism of its application, taking into account the positive experience of foreign countries. Scientific novelty. In the course of the research it was established that updating of theoretical and methodological bases of introduction of judicial control over execution of decisions in civil proceedings of Ukraine should take into account positive foreign experience of its functioning in the following countries: England, USA, Poland, Germany, France. decisions are an integral part of the activities of the judiciary. Practical significance. The results of the study can be used in lawmaking and law enforcement activities during the judicial control in the civil process of Ukraine.

Countries incorporate the principle of the separation of powers, including judicial independence, into their constitutions in an effort to meet several goals, the most important of which is to minimise government-induced tyranny. Specifically, countries that make this principle part of their constitutional practice intend to limit public servants by national laws and institutions, enhance government accountability, minimise opportunistic behaviors by civil servants and politicians, provide for checks and balances, and generally improve government efficiency. Cameroon, part of which was colonised by France, has a constitution that is modeled closely on the French Constitution of 4 October 1958. As a consequence, the country has adopted France’s hybrid system of the separation of powers. Using French constitutional practice as a model, this paper examines constitutional developments in Cameroon to determine why the country’s governing process, which is based on the Constitution of the Fifth Republic, has failed to guarantee constitutional justice.

The relevance of the study is determined by the prevailing variety of approaches to understanding the essence of the concept of “justice”, which is characteristic of both Russia and France. Such variability leads to a persistent distortion of this concept in practice of law enforcement, which, in turn, affects the effectiveness of administration of justice. The aim of the authors is to study scientific theoretical views and practical issues associated with the implementation of the principle of justice in two states. In the work we used following methods: dialectics, analysis, synthesis, deduction, as well as the formal legal and comparative legal method.Based on the analysis of the doctrine, legislation and judicial practice of two states, Russia and France, the following conclusions are drawn. At present, “justice” is understood as a universal notion, which is not limited only by coverage of regulatory norms of the law, but is actively applied by judicial practice. The use of this concept allows the court to make fair decisions depending on specific circumstances of the case, thereby achieving a balance of interests of participants in the process by interpreting and clarifying the law, and in some cases by creating a new rule of law that allows the courts to ensure the effective implementation of the principle of justice. However, in order to avoid variability in understanding this notion, it is proposed to fix the concept of “justice” in the civil procedure code, this will reduce the percentage of judicial conflicts and will contribute to formation of a uniform judicial practice.

It has become obvious in the past several years that the judicial statistics have certain limitations as far as reconstructing the evolution of crime under the Ancien Régime is concerned. The administrative inadequacies of the institutional justice of that era, its insufficient means of intervention, invite caution, but the existence of infra-judicial mechanisms for dealing with crime lead to the conclusion that only a fraction of the crimes ever came before the courts. Our research on trials for assault and battery heard in the jurisdiction of Montreal between 1700 and 1760 revealed several cases establishing the existence in New France, and confirming the observations of Alfred Somanfor France, of practices according to which the institution of proceedings by certain victims was often in order to start a process of negotiation with the aggressor or force him to come to an agreement out of court, which usually put an end to the procedures. Since there is rarely any explicit mention of agreements reached, even in the notarial archives, we arrived at the possibility that the dropping of legal proceedings indicated an infra-judicial settlement of the case. This led us to analyse the decrease in the number of trials for assault and battery in Montreal after 1730. It was not because of the usual explanation, that it was a sign of a “decrease in crime”, but rather due to a strengthening of the infra-judicial system, particularly in the rural areas, where there was less recourse to the authority of the royal court to settle minor infractions.

The constitutional bases of EU integration in France as well as the limitations for the integration process derived from these provisions have been subject to considerable interpretative developments in the case law of the supreme decision-making bodies exercising judicial functions in France in recent years. This article gives an overview of the relevant constitutional provisions that open up the French legal order towards EU law and examines these crucial developments in French jurisprudence. The article does so in adopting a systematic approach that differentiates between, first, the constitutional foundations of EU integration, second, the constitutional limitations to the further transfer of competences to the EU through amendments of primary law, and, third, the constitutional confines to the legal effects of secondary law.

In several rulings from 1962, 1992, and 2003, the French Constitutional Court (Conseil constitutionnel) has denied jurisdiction over constitutional amendments. This article shows that this solution can only be understood in the light of the doctrinal background that provides its intellectual justification. While refusing to judicially review constitutional amendments, the Constitutional Court is in fact deeply involved in the ongoing process of altering the Constitution. Also, while the quasi-official doctrinal analysis insists on the absence of material limits to the amendment of the Constitution, and on the absence of any “supra-constitutional” rules, an analysis of the language used by the Court in these rulings offers reasons to diverge from this view. While the Court has refused to review constitutional amendments, it has done so in a way that comes very close to the language used by those courts that stated that such amendments were justiciable. Far from adhering to a mere policy of neutrality and self-restraint, the Constitutional Court speaks a “language of eternity” with a rich substantive content.

The article is devoted to the study of the peculiarities of the formation, structure and procedure for exercising the powers of the High Council of Magistracy in France. It is determined that the French Revolution and the new institutional organization that emerged as a result gave the judiciary a somewhat less important role in the legal life of the state. Historically, guarantees of judicial independence in France have always been limited by the executive. It is established that in France in 1883 the High Council of Magistracy appeared, which was later determined by an autonomous governing body in accordance with the provisions of the 1946 Constitution. Since then, the Council has undergone several reforms, including changes to the 1958 Constitution, and in 1993, in addition to changing the number of members, the powers of the constitutional body were modernized. It is determined that the French High Council of Magistracy is bicameral, consisting of two panels, one of which exercises powers over judges and the other over prosecutors. Certainly, in the field of recruitment and training of judges, France has developed a model that is followed by most European countries. In most of the countries that we position in the modern legal dimension as continental Europe, the approach is used in the form of public competition and test tasks. This process is seen as a way to ensure the selection of the most qualified candidates, and also helps to ensure the independence of future magistrates. It was found that the members of the High Council of Magistracy in France carry out their mission in compliance with the requirements of independence, impartiality, honesty and dignity and ensure the prevention or immediate cessation of conflicts of interest. Conflict of interest is any situation of conflict between public interests, or public and private interests, which may affect the independent, impartial and objective performance of functions. It is established that the French High Council of Magistracy is directly related to the executive branch, as the head of the state is also the head of the Council and authorized to participate in personnel matters concerning this body.

The purpose of the article is to reveal the specific features of prosecution for contempt of court in different countries. The methodological basis of this research is a set of general scientific methods (dialectics, abstraction, generalization, analysis, modelling) and special methods of scientific cognition (comparative and legal method, etc.). The existing types of responsibility and penalties for committing contempt of court in different countries of the world have been characterized. The authors have carried out the analysis of the experience of legal liability for manifestation of contempt of court rules established in the United States, Canada, France, Australia, Belgium, Poland, Great Britain, New Zealand, Ireland and India, which allowed to highlight the positive provisions for improvement of legislation in this area. It has been concluded that the purpose of establishing the aforementioned responsibility is to guarantee the administration of justice and the rule of law, maintain and strengthen public confidence in the judicial system, safeguarding the continuity of the judicial process. Based on the analysis of regulatory legal acts and the jurisprudence of several countries in the world, the authors have made the classification by categories of actions that qualify as contempt.

The ICJ interpreted Article 36(1) of its Statute – more specifically, the phrase ‘all cases which the parties refer to it’ – as permitting it to adopt the doctrine of forum prorogatum as a jurisdictional principle and to adapt this doctrine to the circumstances of international judicial process, as an informal way of founding its jurisdiction over the merits of a dispute. The resort to this doctrine has given rise to some concerns and has not received the general acceptance of states. The Certain Criminal Proceedings in France case marks the successful return of the doctrine to the ICJ and shows that the doctrine is a valuable tool for nationalists seeking to protect national interests and for internationalists seeking to promote the peaceful settlement of international disputes.

The article explores the process of acquiring the Royal power in France in the 13—15th centuries of a public legal character in the light of changing the status of the Parliament of Paris. The Parliament made a decisive contribution to the development of the three main components of publicity: as an integral attribute of power, as a synonym for openness, and as an expression of the Kingdom's “common interest”. This contribution was facilitated by the judicial function exercised by the Parliament as the Supreme and appellate court of the Kingdom with “total” competence. The function of justice, being the main one in the sacred concept of “service of the king” at this stage, played a major role in the monarch's acquisition of the status of a sovereign and “public person”. As management became more complex, requiring professionals, and the authorities became autonomous from the person of the monarch, the function of administering justice in the name of the king was delegated to Parliament. The personal interest of the judges in the success of building the state left an imprint on the entire process. The juridical metaphor “Parliament represents the person of the king without intermediaries” reflected the status of the judicial department. It has evolved in the context of the formation of the public legal foundations of the monarchy. At first, it was similar to the function of procurators-representatives who were delegated the authority to speak on behalf of another person or group. The emergent concepts of eternity of the crown and “the immortal body of the king” transformed the essence of metaphor, turning the Parliament into a representative “image” of the crown, not the person of monarch. This transformation was clearly reflected in the funeral ceremony of the king of France, where the presidents of Parliament occupied a privileged position and had a different appearance from the rest. The establishment of the principle of publicity was strongly promoted by the judicial procedure itself: the trial was conducted openly, in front of the public, in French, in the symbolically significant Royal Palace in Cité. Finally, the Parliament actively promoted the principle of protecting the common good as the basis and goal of Royal power. By the end of this period, Parliament claims to be the protector of the “common interest” and the intermediary between the crown and society.

This article discusses the issue of introducing in our country the conduct of online court hearings along with the video conferencing mode. It was emphasized that online court hearings allow our citizens to defend their rights and legitimate interests from home during the Covid-19 pandemic. It is argued that at the online court sessions, the parties can attend the court session from their home, from work. The opinions of scientists from foreign countries on the conduct of online court hearings are presented. This article also analyzes the procedure for conducting synchronous and asynchronous court hearings, which is unusual for the Republic of Uzbekistan. At the same time, aspects of online court hearings are highlighted, which take precedence over video conferencing. The process of online court hearings on special platforms of courts of such countries as the USA, France, England, the Republic of Kazakhstan, France is covered. Online litigation facilitates access to justice, expedites dispute resolution and helps save litigation costs by streamlining online litigation. It also assists in the development of draft judgments for judges, which results in reduced workload for judges, allowing online courts to assess or analyze the quality of judicial services.

Looking at Swiss administrative law from a Quebec perspective, this paper outlines some aspects of the Swiss system that provide useful models or references for the discussion and resolution of current issues in Canadian and Quebec administrative law. These issues are identified as (1) the proliferation of independent administrative agencies, and the means to control or at least systematize the growth of such structures ; (2) the desirability and feasibility of enacting general standards of procedure for administrative action ; (3) the simplification of remedies in the field of judicial review of administrative action ; (4) the desirability and feasibility of allocating judicial review powers to a specialized court, either within or outside the Superior Court ; and (5) the desirability and form of a procedure allowing for political intervention in the decision-making process of independent agencies. In the light of these issues, the paper describes the allocation of review functions between administrative and judicial bodies in Swiss federal law. The structure and activity of the Swiss Federal Court (Tribunal fédéral), and especially of the division of the Court that deals with most administrative law cases, are outlined in some more detail. A short historical sketch leads to a discussion of the corresponding features of the law in some of the cantons, and to consideration of the special position given to social security matters in the general scheme of administrative law. The paper then focusses on administrative action itself, commenting on the most significant provisions in the Federal Administrative Procedure Act (Loi fédérale sur la procédure administrative) of 1968. Special attention is paid to the process of review within the administration, up to the level of the federal cabinet (Conseil fédéral). Corresponding provisions in the law of some of the cantons are also briefly discussed. The description of the federal review process is then completed by an outline of the procedure for judicial review of administrative action by the Federal Court (Recours de droit administrative). Finally, notice is again taken of the special position of social security as regards administrative procedure. The paper draws attention, in its concluding part, to the most interesting insights provided by Swiss law into the current problems of Canadian and Quebec administrative law. The growth of administrative tribunals has been brought under control by structural arrangements, especially in the field of social security. The introduction of general standards of procedure has brought greater uniformity and clarity, has emphasized the unity of administrative process including the review phase before administrative or judicial authorities, and has strenghtened the rule of law over government action. The existence of a single procedure to invoke judicial review eases access to the court. While in many cases review by the court is excluded, these exclusions have to be specific, and leave full opportunity for review within the administration, with adequate safeguards provided by the Administrative Procedure Act. Specialization occurs within the Federal Court, and does not involve a rigid separation between judges applying administrative law and judges applying other branches of the law, as in France or Germany. Finally, ultimate political control over certain types of decisions is admitted as a part of life in Swiss federal law, but is at the same time subjected to a quasi-judicial procedure which makes it an acknowledged source of administrative justice.

The review is devoted to the description of the experience of the French Republic in the field of prevention of social orphanhood, including an analysis of the norms of French legislation that allows a child to be kept in a blood family, a legally formalized system of relations between a child, guardianship authorities, foster family and biological parents. The main directions of activity and key principles of the work of specialists of the child protection system, the grounds and criteria for the temporary removal of a child from the family, the procedure for the temporary removal and placement of a child with family assistants or in non-profit organizations, the conditions for the return of a child to parents are given. At the center of the child and family protection system is a specialized children’s judicial system, which includes judicial authorities and educational services, and centers. The main life scenarios of children at risk of deprivation of parental care who have fallen into the state guardianship system are considered. At the head of all the work is the principle that the main defenders of the rights and interests of the child are his parents, and the process of providing assistance is always based on finding a clear balance between the rights of parents and the interests of the child, and the requirements for the validity of decisions made by specialists, including judges, must be strictly observed. The practice of France is of interest in connection with the reform of the system of protection of the rights of minors, including issues of guardianship and guardianship, initiated in Russia.

Artificial intelligence a set of scientific methods, theories and techniques whose aim is to reproduce, by a machine, the cognitive abilities of human beings. The artificial intelligence system is capable of using big data, calculating, evaluating, studying, deductive reasoning, abstract analysis and forecasting. The speed of information processing by artificial intelligence and its efficiency in making procedural decisions creates a model for digital automation of procedural decisions. The purpose of the article is to investigate the use of artificial intelligence in the judicial systems of developed countries and to analyze the prospects for its use in criminal proceedings in Ukraine. Such automation simplifies the process of making similar decisions in similar proceedings, which, of course, increases efficiency and simplifies procedural decision-making process in terms of procedural cost savings. Modern developments seek to ensure that machines perform complex tasks that were previously performed by humans. In the near future, accompanying organizational measures for the implementation of artificial intelligence and its regulatory support in public authorities associated with the storage of big data, processing information based on mathematical algorithms and making decisions based on artificial intelligence will be an integral part of our society. Artificial intelligence technologies are already being implemented in the judicial systems of China, the United States of America, the United Kingdom, France and Argentina. In the near future, the chances of using such technologies in the courts of general jurisdiction of Ukraine and in the criminal proceedings of Ukraine can be assessed as extremely high, and its scope is not limited to the work of artificial intelligence in court. You can also talk about the work of artificial intelligence in the activities of the prosecutor and the police. The paper deals with the use of artificial intelligence in the judicial systems of developed countries and analyzes the prospects of its use in criminal proceedings in Ukraine. These systems are reviewed, as: COMPAS (Correctional Offender Management Profiling for Alternative Sanctions) - United States of America, HART (Harm Assessment Risk Tool) - United Kingdom, Prometea - Argentina, Compulsory Similar Cases Search and Reporting Mechanism - China. The advantages of artificial intelligence systems are analyzed and a critique of their use is noted.

The article deals with the problem of understanding the administrative process in modern Russia. Discussion about its essence has not stopped in the science of administrative law for many years. There are two main points of view. The administrative process is understood in a narrow sense as a jurisdictional activity and in a broad sense as a set of administrative procedures, administrative jurisdiction and administrative justice. The opinion is expressed that the understanding of the administrative process should be based on the understanding of the subject of administrative law. After the adoption of the Code of Administrative Proceedings of the Russian Federation in our country, a real legal basis appeared for the creation of administrative justice, which resolves disputes between a citizen and the state. The legal nature of administrative justice and administrative jurisdiction is not the same. They belong to various subbranches of administrative law. The situation should be preserved when one part of cases of administrative offenses is considered by courts, and the other - by other bodies of administrative jurisdiction. The proposal to consider cases of administrative offenses in accordance with the norms of the Code of Administrative Proceedings is critically assessed. An attempt to create administrative courts in the Russian Federation is analyzed and evaluated. The experience of creating administrative courts in France and Germany is presented. The reasons why the administrative courts were never created are indicated. Administrative cases are considered by courts of general jurisdiction. An attempt to adopt the Administrative and Administrative Procedure Codes of the Russian Federation is analyzed. The Code of Administrative Proceedings of 2015, on the basis of which administrative cases are considered, is, in fact, the Administrative Procedure Code. The proposal to develop and adopt the Federal Law “On Administrative Procedures” is critically assessed. It is concluded that the administrative process is a judicial procedure for considering cases arising from public legal relations according to the norms of the Code of Administrative Proceedings of the Russian Federation, as well as the activities of bodies of administrative jurisdiction, including the court, to consider cases of administrative offenses in the manner established by the Code of the Russian Federation on Administrative Offenses.

The article presents three periods from the history of the legal system of Turkey, the knowledge of which will allow for objective scientific research. Indeed, each period has contributed to the development of the judicial system. Of particular importance will be the attitude of the legislator to the justice of the peace in criminal matters with a maximum sentence of up to 1 year in prison. The latter since 2014 were abolished and their load was redistributed to a higher authority. France did likewise, which also rejected justice of the peace. In addition, this study addresses the issues of the accelerated process, which was either introduced or canceled. In Russia, a simplified legal procedure has been successfully applied. Most European countries apply simplified the legal procedure to criminal offenses for which the maximum sanction of punishment is up to five years in prison. In Turkey, a simplified legal procedure was applied to criminal offenses with a maximum sentence of up to 2 years in prison. Despite a small sanction and tendencies in other countries to introduce simplified procedures, the Turkish legislator refused this practice.

There are more than seven thousand of unique languages nowadays, that reflect the uniqueness of the living conditions, the worldview and cultural traditions of different peoples. According to UNESCO, 75 languages in Europe and Asia Minor and about 115 languages in the United States over the past five centuries have been lost. The regional or minority languages are part of the national heritage and play leading role in the process of national identity as bearers and guarantors of national culture and national identity, that is why the value of regional languages is constantly increasing. However, the danger of the growth of nationalism and separatism makes politicians wary of measures to protect the national languages. The article deals with the political debate in France around the ratification of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, adopted by the Council of Europe on 25 June 1992, which purpose was to protect the historical regional languages of the EU, some of which are in danger of eventual extinction.. The author provides analysis of the historical preconditions of the current debate as well as of the stance taken by the French leadership on this issue. The study is based on a set of scientific methods and approaches - the principle of scientific objectivity and system of historical research. The main methods are problematic and historical-comparative analysis, classification and comparison of the political and historical concepts. Modern France de jure firmly follows linguistic traditions laid down by previous regimes, as defined in its constitution as the principles of the indivisibility of the Republic and the unity of the French people. According to Article 2 of the Constitution of the Fifth Republic, French language is the only official. However, in addition to the French 75 languages are being spoken all over the Overseas Departments and Territories of France, including 24 languages of the indigenous population of the European part of France, and the languages of immigrants. Despite the fact that the ratification of the Charter serve certain political figures, the Conseil d'Etat, the highest judicial authority in administrative cases, and later the Constitutional Council refused to ratify the Charter, due to the fact that the provisions of the Charter are contrary to the Constitution. The question of amending the Constitution of France is facing fierce debate and remains unresolved for nearly a decade. The political problem is the impact of the application of the Charter, by the fact that at all times promoting one language at the expense of others become a catalyst for powerful and very dangerous social and political processes.

The articles analyze the issues of standard permissible indicators, which are the established norms of criminal procedure legislation and the formation of judicial rules of practice, which create the formation of permissible indicators. The domestic legislator establishes a system of standard permissible indicators, which, on the one hand consists largely of 232 international standards of proof, which is gaining a broader understanding, and on the other hand, is widely used in judicial practice, while the history of clarification changes some of them. A significant part of the standard allowable indicators is determined by the rules of Art. 87 of the CPC of Ukraine, devoted to the grounds for recognizing in admissible indicators obtained as a result of a significant violation of human rights and freedoms. The legal model of inadmissibility provided by the CPC of Ukraine tends to its counter parts in the legislation of the Romano-Germanic legal system (CPC of Germany, France), while some features of this institution were also initiated by US and British legislation, in particular, the doctrine of trees», a certain analogue of which his provided for in Part 1 of Art. 87 of the CPC. Definite understanding of the doctrine of «fruit of the felled tree», which reveals any guilt that violates the police constitutional legal citizens, which has none, but simply an in direct connection with the process of identifying, removing and recording indicators, the severity of loss of recent legal force. This means the unconditional in admissibility of available indicators for any assignment established through the collection of indicators, regardless of their nature and degree. The article reveals a number of international standards of admissible indicators sent by the European Court of Human Rights. The range of cases for which the ECtHR in the context of the Convention provides for a response to accept able indicators and the establishment of national courts is revealed. On the basis of the conducted research the system of the international standards of admissible indicators formed in practice of the ECtHR is generalized.

e5421064This study aims to present an analysis and discussion of the conceptions and inter-institutional educational practices in the functioning of the Socio-Educational System of the Municipality of São Carlos - São Paulo. The research problem is identified by the following guiding question: What are the conceptions and educational practices for the functioning of the Socio-educational System in the Municipality of São Carlos? In order to answer this question, the content analysis was used in the scientific process, supported by an epistemological approach that aims to produce the concrete thinking in the process of abstraction, analysis and synthesis of reality, of historical-dialectic materialistic basis in the production of knowledge. The research results identified perspectives of cooperation between institutions for the functioning of the investigation and reception procedures of young people accused of committing offences. A willingness of public authorities to bring together responsibilities between institutions and society partners was identified in order to seek a better articulation of socio-educational work and offer a more adequate structure to young people, guided by technical-scientific, repressive-reproductive and humanist-existential educational trends. In the diversity of conceptions and specificities in the functions of each institution, there is a commitment to consolidate a pedagogy of cooperation in order to minimize the problems of violence and infractions involving the young population.ResumoEste estudo tem por objetivo apresentar uma análise e discussão das concepções e das práticas educativas interinstitucionais no funcionamento do Sistema Socioeducativo do Município de São Carlos – São Paulo. O problema de pesquisa é sintetizado pela seguinte questão norteadora: Quais são as concepções e as práticas educativas para o funcionamento do Sistema Socioeducativo no Município de São Carlos? De maneira a responder a essa questão, utilizou-se a análise de conteúdo no processo científico, sustentada por uma abordagem epistemológica que visa produzir o concreto pensado no processo de abstração, análise e síntese da realidade, de fundamento materialista histórico-dialético na produção de conhecimento. Os resultados da pesquisa apontam perspectivas de cooperação entre as instituições para o funcionamento dos procedimentos de apuração e de acolhimento aos jovens acusados da prática infracional. Identificou-se uma vontade dos agentes do poder público em congregar as responsabilidades entre instituições e parceiros da sociedade, de modo a buscar uma melhor articulação do trabalho socioeducativo e oferecer uma estrutura mais adequada aos jovens, orientados pelas tendências educativas técnico-científica, repressivo-reprodutivista e humanista-existencial. Na diversidade de concepções e de especificidades nas funções de cada instituição, depreende-se um engajamento para a consolidação de uma pedagogia da cooperação, em vista de minimizar as problemáticas de violências e de infrações que envolvem a população jovem.Resumen Este estudio tiene como objetivo presentar un análisis y discusión de las concepciones y prácticas educativas interinstitucionales en el funcionamiento del Sistema Socioeducativo del Municipio de São Carlos - São Paulo. El problema de la investigación es identificado por la siguiente pregunta norteadora: ¿cuáles son las concepciones y las prácticas educativas para el funcionamiento del Sistema Socioeducativo en el municipio de São Carlos? De manera a responder esta cuestión, se utilizó el análisis de contenido en el proceso científico, apoyado por un enfoque epistemológico que tiene como objetivo producir lo concreto pensando en el proceso de abstracción, análisis y síntesis de la realidad, de fundamento materialista histórico-dialéctico en la producción de conocimiento. Los resultados de la investigación identifican las perspectivas de la cooperación entre instituciones para el funcionamiento de los procedimientos de averiguación y de acogida de los jóvenes acusados de práctica infraccional. Se identificó una voluntad por parte de los agentes del poder público de aunar las responsabilidades entre instituciones y colaboradores de la sociedad para buscar una mejor articulación de la labor socioeducativa y ofrecer una estructura más adecuada a los jóvenes, orientados por las tendencias educativas técnico-científicas, represivas-reproductivistas y humanistas-existenciales. En la diversidad de concepciones y especificidades de las funciones de cada institución, surge el compromiso para consolidación de una pedagogía de cooperación, a fin de minimizar las problemáticas de infracciones que involucra a la población joven.Palavras-chave: Adolescentes, Ato infracional, Educação não?escolar, Sistema socioeducativo.Keywords: Adolescents, Infractional act, Non-school education, Socio-educational system.Palabras claves: Adolescentes, Acto infracional, Educación no?escolar, Sistema socioeducativo.ReferencesBARDIN, Laurence. Análise de conteúdo. Lisboa, Portugal: Edições 70, 2010.BOURDIEU, Pierre; PASSERON, Jean Claude. La reproduction – Éléments pour une théorie du système d’enseignement. Paris – France : Minuit, 1972.BRASIL. Presidência da República. Resolução 113. Secretaria Especial dos Direitos Humanos. Conselho Nacional dos Direitos da Criança e do Adolescente. Sistema Nacional de Atendimento Socioeducativo – SINASE. Brasília – DF: CONANDA, 2006. Disponível em: https://www.legisweb.com.br/legislacao/?id=104402. Acesso em 14 jun. 2021BRASIL, Lei 8.069, de 13 de julho de 1990. Estatuto da Criança e do Adolescente (ECA). Disponível em: http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/LEIS/L8069.htm. Acesso em: 14 jun. 2021.BRASIL. Lei 12.594, de 18 de janeiro de 2012. Sistema Nacional de Atendimento Socioeducativo (SINASE). Disponível em: http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_ato2011-2014/2012/lei/l12594.htm. Acesso em: 14 jun. 2021.CIFALI, Ana Cláudia; CHIES-SANTOS, Mariana; ALVAREZ, Marcos César. Justiça juvenil no Brasil: continuidades e rupturas. Tempo Social, [S. l.], v. 32, n. 3, p. 197-228, 2020. DOI: 10.11606/0103-2070.ts.2020.176331. Disponível em: https://www.revistas.usp.br/ts/article/view/176331. Acesso em: 9 jun. 2021. CHIZZOTTI, Antonio. Pesquisa em ciências humanas e sociais. 4. ed. São Paulo: Cortez, 2000.DARDOT; Pierre; LAVAL, Christian. A nova razão do mundo: ensaio sobre a sociedade neoliberal. São Paulo – SP: Boitempo, 2016, p. 416.FRANCISCO, Julio Cesar. Fundamentos da educação não escolar em unidade de internação: dilemas para o redirecionamento social de adolescentes em conflito com a lei. ATOS DE PESQUISA EM EDUCAÇÃO, p. 332-358, 2019. Disponível em:https://bu.furb.br/ojs/index.php/atosdepesquisa/article/view/6670. Acesso em 9 jun. 2021.FRANCISCO, Julio Cesar; MARTINS, Marcos Francisco. Perspectivas da educação não escolar no trato com jovens infratores. Educação e Realidade, v. 42, nº1, 283-297, 2017. Disponível em: https://doi.org/10.1590/2175-623654637. Acesso em: 9 jun. 2021.FRANCISCO, Julio Cesar; LOPES, Roseli Esquerdo. Adolescentes em situação de conflito com a lei e o atendimento inicial integrado: entrevista com o Padre Agnaldo Soares Lima. CRÍTICA EDUCATIVA, v. 5, p. 324-332, 2019. Disponível em: https://www.criticaeducativa.ufscar.br/index.php/criticaeducativa/article/view/421. Acesso em: 9 jun. 2021.FRANCISCO, Julio Cesar; ONOFRE, Elenice C. Desafios na execução do atendimento socioeducativo de jovens em privação de liberdade. REVISTA COMUNICAÇÕES, v. 25, p. 247-269, 2019. Disponível em:DOI: https://doi.org/10.15600/2238-121X/comunicacoes.v25n3p247-269. Acesso em: 9 jun. 2021.FOUCAULT, Michel. Surveiller et Punir – La naissance de la prison. France : Éditions Gallimard, 1975, p. 352.FRANCO, Maria Laura Barbosa. Análise de Conteúdo. 4. ed. Brasília: Liber Livro, 2012.GADOTTI, Moacir. História das ideias pedagógicas. 8. ed. São Paulo: Ática, 1999.GHIGLIONE, Rodolphe; MATALON, Benjamin. Les enquêtes sociologiques: théories et pratique. Paris: Armand Colin Éditeur, 1985.GOHN, Maria da Glória. Educação não formal e cultura política. 5. ed. São Paulo: Cortez, 2011.INSTITUTO INNOVARE. Prêmio Innovare 2007. 2007. Disponível em: http://www.premioinnovare.com.br/praticas/l/implantacao-do-nai-nucleo-de-atendimento-integrado-cumprimento-do-art-88-inciso-v-do-estatuto-da-crianca-e-do-adolescente-882. Acesso em: 7 jan. 2021.KRIPPENDORFF, Klaus. Content analysis: an introduction to its methodology. The Sage context series. Volume 5. London: Sage Publications Lda., 1980.LIBÂNEO, José Carlos. Didática. São Paulo: Cortez, 1994.LÜDKE, Menga; ANDRÉ, Marli Eliza Dalmazo. Pesquisa em Educação: abordagens qualitativas. São Paulo: EPU, 2012.MARTINS, Marcos Francisco. Educação não escolar: discussão terminológica e mapeamento dos fundamentos das tendências. Contrapontos, Itajaí, v. 16, n. 1, p. 40-61, 2016. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.14210/contrapontos.v16n1.p40-61MARTINS, Marcos Francisco. Formação do educador social e proposições de um perfil de intelectual orgânico. In: GARRIDO, Noêmia de Carvalho et al. (orgs.). Desafios e perspectivas da Educação Social: um mosaico em construção. São Paulo: Expressão e Arte Editora, 2010. p. 40-60.SAVIANI, Dermeval. Escola e Democracia. 42ª Edição. Campinas – SP: Autores Associados, 2018, p. 144.UNICEF, La situation des enfants dans le monde, l’adolescence l’âge de tous les possibles, New Yourk - USA, 2011.

Certainty in law is a category that is ambiguously perceived by the scientific legal community. We make an attempt to analyze the meaning and role of the category of certainty in the process of creating a stable legal system with historical continuity. On the example of the US and France legislation, we give polar examples of the implementation of certainty of lawprinciple. We conclude about the undoubted usefulness and necessity of preserving this principle in the Russian legal system. However, a study of the French experience of legal regulation has shown that the desire for certainty, achieved through an overly detailed regulation of public relations, only cre-ates additional problems of interpretation and law enforcement, strengthening legal nihilism and citizens' distrust of law. At the same time, the American model, implying some uncertainty of law, has shown its effectiveness in its historical example. The ambiguity and framework nature of the American Constitution and basic federal laws makes it possible to interpret and concretize their provisions in judicial precedents in different ways, depending on the era and socio-political situation, which contributes to the flexibility and stability of the US legal system. In conclusion, it is noted that domestic legislators need to strive for a gradual transition to the American model of implementing the principle of certainty of law, while providing for detailed regulation of public relations at the level of bylaws. Such an approach will preserve the historical continuity and existence of basic normative acts for several decades, preserve the stability and predictability of legal regulation.

One of the tasks of criminal proceedings is to protect the individual, society and the state from criminal offenses, which is achieved through the implementation of other tasks, in particular, by ensuring a rapid, complete and im-partial investigation and trial. In this case, any procedural decisions in criminal proceedings must be based on evi-dence that serves as a kind of link between the event of a criminal offense and the consciousness of the investigator, prosecutor, investigating judge, court. Evidence itself is the main content of criminal procedure in both the pre-trial investigation and in the judicial stages of criminal proceedings in most countries.The authors note that the Constitution of Ukraine as one of the main principles of justice provides for adversarial parties and freedom in providing the court with their evidence and proving their persuasiveness before the court. Factor The Criminal Procedure Code of Ukraine has significantly expanded the scope of this principle of the do-mestic criminal process, including in the field of evidence. Thus, the defense, as well as the prosecution, was given the opportunity to collect evidence during the pre-trial investigation, as a result of which the right of the parties and other participants in criminal proceedings to submit evidence (things and documents) is becoming increasingly important.The article also examines that the principles of criminal procedure in France include: the principle of formality, prosecution, legality, equality, dignity, protection of the victim, urgency of the trial, presumption of innocence, publicity, oral and adversarial proceedings. And the main principles of the criminal process in Germany include: the principle of formality (publicity); the principle of charge; the principle of legality and the principle of compulsory research. A characteristic feature of modern law in the field of criminal procedure in the United States is the consis-tent expansion of the institution of delegated legislation. The US Congress has delegated to the Supreme Court the right to establish rules of criminal procedure that have the force of federal law.

A number of comparative judicial scholars have argued that assertions of judicial authority are a function of the level of fragmentation/competition in the formal political sphere. Accordingly, in authoritarian or one-party settings, judges should be deferential to power holders, and in places where political power is divided between branches and/or parties, one would expect to see greater levels of judicial assertiveness. Through a longitudinal, qualitative analysis of one most-likely case (Chile) and one least-likely case (Franco-era Spain) and drawing on a half-dozen other cases from the comparative judicial literature, this article argues that political fragmentation is neither sufficient nor necessary for judges to challenge powerful actors. Instead, it argues that assertive or “positively independent” judicial behavior requires ideational support, in the form of a role conception/professional ideology that gives judges motivation for such behavior. Such professional attitudes are socially and institutionally constituted in a dynamic process that itself shapes judges' perceptions of the opportunities for and obstacles to judicial assertiveness, both within and outside the judiciary.

The subject of the study is the coverage of problematic issues and ways of reforming the criminal procedure legislation of Ukraine in the context of European integration. Methodology. The methodological basis of the study is a dialectical method of scientific knowledge, through the application of this method the legal, functional, organizational and procedural aspects of methodological approaches to the understanding of problematic issues are considered and the ways of reforming the criminal procedure legislation of Ukraine in the context of European integration are considered. The results of the article analyze the current criminal procedure legislation of Ukraine and the legislation of the countries of the European Union. When analyzing the French criminal procedure, two main features can be identified, which distinguish it from the Anglo-Saxon legal system and are criticized by experts from Great Britain and the United States. In France judges are vested with considerable powers. The first feature of French criminal procedure is the institution of preliminary interrogation of the accused by the presiding judge. The judge verifies the sufficiency of the evidence for a conviction. Conclusion. So, based on the above, it is possible to conclude that the Criminal Procedure Code of Ukraine was created in the spirit of democratic values, but some of its norms need to be reformed in order to improve the mechanism of protection of the rights, freedoms and legitimate interests of an individual. The practical experience of France, the Federal Republic of Germany and Great Britain is relevant. The shortcomings of the Criminal Procedure Code of Ukraine are highlighted. The prospects for their reform are outlined and amendments to the current legislation in the context of European integration are proposed. Prospects for further research: a) the study of the experience of individual foreign countries in the context of the improvement of criminal procedural norms; b) analysis of the possibility of harmonization of criminal procedural legislation of Ukraine with the norms of the European Union; c) development of an effective mechanism of relations between the subjects of criminal proceedings. The issue of the relevance and admissibility of evidence is also important. Articles 87-89 of the CPC of Ukraine establish the grounds and procedure for declaring evidence inadmissible. However, judicial practice shows a large number of criminal proceedings against public persons, which the court had to terminate due to the lack of evidence, due to the inadmissibility or improper nature of the evidence. The authors believe that the legislative regulation of the process of collecting evidence in the UK is a positive experience for Ukraine.

The author of the article has outlined the problem of finding the most optimal model of the state for of government, because the necessary condition for stable development of society and effective functioning of the state is to ensure the balance between national interests and the interests of the population of regions and territorial communities. The preconditions, political history and periods of the formation of decentralized power in most European medieval states, scientific positions of national and foreign legal scholars on the expediency of implementing decentralization have been analyzed. It has been found out that the vast majority of Western European countries abdicate the unitary state model by introducing decentralization. The leading idea of reforming is to move the center of solving local issues to the local and, in particular regional level that is achieved by optimizing relations between different levels of territorial organization of power. National traditions, formation and functioning of public agencie in the past, specific features of administrative and territorial structure of the state, existence of autonomous territories, multiethnic population have a significant influence on the formation of the constitutional system on the basis of decentralization in the EU countries. The positive experience Poland, France, Italy, Latvia, Germany and Denmark has been studied. The author has theoretically substantiated that the principle of decentralization has been successfully implemented in the practice of the European Union countries. It has been indicated that the prerequisite for the successful implementation of decentralization processes to create an effective model of governance within the system of decentralized government of Ukraine is: the establishment of the rule of law principle; recognition and guarantees of local self-government; equal legal protection of all forms of ownership; democratic and effective electoral legislation; independence, efficiency, accessibility and transparency of the judicial system, functioning of administrative justice institutions; perfect budget process and high financial discipline; availability of adequate social standards; developed public sector and stable tendency towards its development.

The article considers the goals and process of formation of the European Union as a regional intergovernmental organization. The general concept of the values of the European Union in the light of the Lisbon Treaty is given. The role and place of the EU normative documents - the Charter of Fundamental Rights and the European Convention on Human Rights, in the formation of the fundamental values of the union are analyzed. The author notes that the basis of the values of the European Union is a set of fundamental human rights.The significance of the Copenhagen criteria for promoting the implementation of EU values by the state is analyzed. The Copenhagen Declaration identifies three sectors of requirements for a country aspiring to join the Community: the political sector, which requires the establishment and observance of the principles of democracy and the rule of human rights, and the economic sector, which requires fair competition. The third set of requirements is purely procedural and concerns the state’s obligation to adhere to the EU accession procedure.The author examines the state of implementation of the fundamental principles of the Union in the founding states on the example of the Federal Republic of Germany and the French Republic, as well as the implementation of Union values in countries that have recently become full members of the European Community. Thus, in Germa-ny and France today there is a fairly high level of implementation and compliance with the basic principles of the European Union, while in Poland recently there are some problems with this. Thus, for the last 7 years, this state has violated the values of the EU in two categories at once - in the category of personal and political rights. In 2020, the number of legal grounds for abortion in the Republic of Poland was limited, violating the right to the integrity of the person and his or her inviolability, which is one of the core values of the European Union.Іn 2017, the European Commission filed a lawsuit against Poland in the European Court of Justice for violating the requirements of the EU Treaty regarding the principle of judicial independence.

HIGH COUNCIL OF THE JUDICIARY IN FRANCEThe article elaborates the political position of the High Council of the Judiciary in France, as well as the number of changes that this body has undergone as a result of several amendments to the Constitution of the Fifth Republic. The High Council, established initially as a body subordinate to the executive, evolves over time towards greater independence. This results from the increasing representation of judges and prosecutors in the structure of the High Council, strengthening of its competences in the process of appointing judges, and expanding the powers related to disciplinary matters. Nevertheless, this process has not ended yet, as further changes are planned to enhance the emancipation of the High Council.

Este trabajo se enfoca en el estudio de un proceso judicial desplegado, en Buenos Aires, tras la violación denunciada por Bernabela Franco, en el año 1778, días después de haber sido atacada por un vecino en su casa de La Matanza, estando su marido ausente. El presente análisis está precedido por una pregunta: ¿en qué dimensiones se expresó la violencia de la violación en ese contexto particular? Para ello, se reparará en las sentencias, la configuración del delito, las terminologías utilizadas y en los imaginarios de género, como también en las percepciones del daño. Consideramos que la violencia de una violación, no silenciada, era multidimensional y que producía traumas socio-emocionales, vinculados tanto al hecho como al señalamiento social y al escrutinio judicial, que devenían tras la denuncia.

El caso Grimau consistió en la detención, condena y fusilamiento de uno de los líderes comunistas más importantes de la lucha contra el franquismo infiltrado en 1962 en la España de Franco, y su correspondiente proceso judicial repleto de irregularidades gravísimas incluido un supuesto intento de suicidio. Esta noticia no hubiera tenido un impacto internacional sino hubiera sido por Radio España Independiente (REI), conocida por la opinión pública como La Pirenaica, una emisora clandestina subvencionada por la Unión Soviética. La metodología utilizada ha sido utilizar los Archivos Históricos del Partido Comunista de España, sección de guiones de Radio España Independiente, desde el siete de noviembre de 1962, día en el que Julián Grimau fue detenido, hasta el 20 de abril de 1963, cuando fue ejecutado. Un total de 164 días de emisiones consultadas. Las conclusiones más importantes son: Destacar que, a pesar de las graves irregularidades del proceso judicial y el fuerte impacto de su ejecución en la opinión pública mundial este caso no ha formado parte en la conciencia actual de la opinión pública española.

Resumen: En el contexto de la globalización, el número de procesos penales multilingües en la Unión Europea ha aumentado. Para afrontar este reto, el 20 de octubre de 2010, el Parlamento Europeo aprobó la Directiva 2010/64/UE sobre el derecho a la interpretación y traducción en los proceso penales. Agotado el plazo de transcripción, en este estudio se analizan las medidas adoptadas en España, Bélgica, Francia y Luxemburgo, centrándose en la principal novedad introducida por la Directiva: la creación de un registro de traductores e interpretes independientes. Para extraer mejores conclusiones, se compara la situación en estos cuatro países con el caso de Austria, donde los requisitos para actuar como traductor e interprete judicial fueron establecidos antes de la publicación de la Directiva. El objetivo principal de este articulo es destacar casos de buenas y malas prácticas y proponer nuevas iniciativas que puedan contribuir a mejorar la calidad de la traducción e interpretación en los procesos penales.Abstract: In a context of globalization, the number of multilingual criminal proceedings in the European Union is increasing. To deal with this challenge, on the 20th of October 2010, the European Parliament published the Directive 2010/64/UE on the right to interpretation and translation in criminal proceedings. Once the transposition deadline ended, the current study aims at analyzing the measures taken in Spain, Belgium, France and Luxemburg, focusing on the main innovation presented by the Directive: the creation of a register of independent translators and interpreters. For a better analysis, the situation in these four countries is compared to the case of Austria, where the requirements to act as judicial translator and interpreter had been established before the Directive. The main goal of the paper is to highlight cases of good and bad practices and to suggest new initiatives in order to improve the overall quality of translation and interpreting in criminal proceedings.

Um cineasta nascido em Madrid em 1916, mas que ainda jovem se viu envolvido nas disputas políticas entre apoiantes do regime de Franco e os seus opositores. Trabalhou na França sob ocupação nazi e depois de um processo judicial nos tribunais espanhóis, instalou-se em Portugal. Aí desenvolveu uma grande produção cinematográfica, realizando dezenas de filmes, muitos deles também filmados nas colónias portuguesas em África, especialmente em Angola e Moçambique. No final da sua vida estabeleceu-se no sul de França, perto de Cannes, onde veio a falecer. Palavras-Chave: Felipe de Solms; Cinema de Propaganda; Cinema colonial português; Portugal; África.

O surto de legionella ocorrido no município de Vila Franca de Xira caracterizou-se por controvérsias públicas e científicas, pela desconfiança nos sistemas de monitorização e por um processo judicial moroso que adicionar ainda mais desconfiança na comunidade. Neste artigo avança-se com alguns resultados de um workshop participativo que juntou cerca de três dezenas de pessoas para refletir sobre as suas consequências. Do processo deliberativo pode concluir-se que as vulnerabilidades ambientais se juntam a vulnerabilidades sociais pré-existentes, num intrincado social difícil de destrinçar, mas que parece ter sido delimitado por meios de definição de risco pouco adaptados à realidade. Concluiu-se que as “relações de definição do risco” presentes testemunham um divórcio claro entre conhecimento técnico e leigo e subverteram a lógica sistémica da sustentabilidade e da convenção de Aahrus.

In a classic article published in 1992, Thomas Franck wrote of an “emerging right to democratic governance” in international law. In his view, such a right implied that the acceptance of a government by other states in the international arena depended on whether the government ruled with the consent of its own people. In a later piece, published in 2000, Franck elaborated, stating that [w]hile democracy has long been a right of people in some nations, enshrined in their constitutions and traditions and enforced by their judiciary and police, this has not been true universally. That democracy is becoming an entitlement in international law and process is due in part to the very recent political reality of a burgeoning pro-democracy movement within the States that constitute the world community.

Ao criar um sistema de normatização de precedentes, o Código de Processo Civil de 2015 buscou padronizar a utilização do sistema de precedentes vinculantes e trouxe a possibilidade de aplicação da motivação dos precedentes não vinculantes mediante a aplicação da ratio decidendi pelos juízes em quaisquer instâncias, em franca busca pela coerência das decisões judiciais. Com base na obrigatoriedade da fundamentação das decisões judiciais, permite aos litigantes demonstrar como precedentes – vinculantes ou não – apontam o sentido da jurisprudência, vinculando ao menos a motivação do juiz. Este trabalho apresenta os conceitos necessários para que se possa fazer a análise do sistema de precedentes adotado no Brasil, bem como suas limitações, alcance e efetividade. Por fim, procura investigar como a cultura de precedentes pode ou não ser adaptada ao sistema Civil Law, contribuindo para a segurança jurídica das decisões judiciais, tornando-as mais efetivas e a prestação jurisdicional mais coesa e eficaz.

This article examines how Polish courts have dealt with annulment applications based upon purported violations of substantive public policy and measures the Polish jurisprudence against the standards developed by the national courts in England, France, Switzerland and Germany. It identifies an anti-enforcement bias of the Polish courts which, in sharp contrast to their European counterparts, still favour an expansive interpretation of the public policy exception and have surprisingly little qualms in engaging in a thinly veiled merits review with unclear boundaries. The markedly interventionist approach of the Polish judiciary encourages annulment applications, which both ill-serves the arbitral process generally and undermines recent efforts to promote Poland as a desirable seat for international arbitration specifically. A solution to these ills can only be found in a narrower interpretation of the substantive public policy exception, in harmony with the standards developed by the national courts in the major European arbitration centres.

La revisión de la biografía del químico Enrique Moles Ormella (1883-1953), y, en particular, de sus procesos judiciales en el primer franquismo, aporta nuevos elementos de reflexión con relación a las tipologías del exilio español de la Guerra Civil, así como con el papel de los científicos durante el periodo bélico y los inmediatos años posteriores. Las vicisitudes de Moles en la Dictadura de Primo de Rivera, la República, la Guerra Civil y en la Dictadura de Franco demuestran la compleja interrelación entre ciencia e ideología, que debe ser analizada en su contexto histórico, más allá de distinciones esencialistas, a veces demasiado simplistas, entre ciencia y poder.

LABURPENA: Euskal Autonomia Erkidegoan ez dago atzerritarrak barneratzeko zentrorik; beraz, autonomia-erkidego honetan atxilotzen dituzten eta barneratzeko agindua daukaten pertsonak Alucheko zentrora (Madril) edo, bestela, Zona Francako zentrora (Bartzelona) eramaten dituzte. Euskal Autonomia Erkidegoko instrukzioko epaitegietan 2015ean bideratu ziren 211 barneratze-espediente aztertzearen emaitza da lan hau. Espediente horiek eta aipatu ditugun zentroetako barneratze‑datuak begiratu ahal izan ditugu, eta egoera irregularrean dauden atzerritarrak atxilotzeko, barneratzeko eta kanporatzeko prozesuen gaineko ikuspegi berritzailea lortu dugu. Hainbat aldagai gurutzatuta, prozesu horien auzi-jartzaile nagusiek ematen dituzten argudio nagusietara hurbildu gara; hala nola, hauetara: barneratzeko polizia-eskaerara, Fiskaltzaren, abokatuen eta atzerritarren beraien argudioetara, barneratzea onartzeko edo ukatzeko oinarri judizialetara edo, are, atzerritarrak barneratzeko zentroetatik askatzeko edo kanporatzeko inguruabarretara. Ikuspegi enpiriko hau, etorkizuneko ikerketetarako ez ezik, prozedura horren ohiko jardueran interesa duten abokatu, epai eta fiskalentzat ere erabilgarria izan daiteke. RESUMEN: En el País Vasco no hay ubicado ningún Centro de Internamiento de Extranjeros, por lo que las personas detenidas en esta comunidad autónoma, y sobre las que pesa una orden de internamiento, son trasladadas a los centros de Aluche (Madrid) o, circunstancialmente, al de Zona Franca (Barcelona). El presente trabajo es el resultado del análisis de 211 expedientes de internamiento sustanciados en los juzgados de instrucción del País Vasco durante el 2015 a los que hemos tenido acceso directo, así como a los datos de internamiento de los propios centros mencionados, obteniendo una perspectiva novedosa hasta la fecha de los procesos de detención, internamiento y expulsión de la población extranjera en situación irregular. A través del cruce de distintas variables nos hemos aproximado a los principales argumentos esgrimidos por los actores principales de tales procesos, como la solicitud policial de internamiento, los argumentos de la Fiscalía, de la defensa letrada y del propio extranjero, los fundamentos judiciales para conceder o denegar el internamiento, o incluso las circunstancias en las que se producen las liberaciones o expulsiones desde los propios CIEs. Esta visión empírica puede ser no sólo de gran interés para futuras investigaciones, sino también de gran utilidad para operadores jurídicos como abogados, jueces o fiscales interesados en la práctica cotidiana de este procedimiento. ABSTRACT: There is not Detention Centre for Foreigners located in the Basque Country, so detained persons in this Community with a confinement order are transferred to the Aluche Centre (Madrid) or incidentally to that of the Zona Franca (Barcelona). This work is the result of the survey over 211 confinement records before the courts of instruction in the Basque Country over 2015 that we have had direct access together with the confinement data provided by the aforementioned centres, obtaining an up until now innovative perspective of the process of arrest, confinement and expulsion of foreign population in irregular situation. Using the cross of several variables, we approach to the main arguments put forward by the relevant actors in those procedures, as the application for the confinement by the police, the reasons of the prosecutors, of the defence counsel and the foreigner him/herself, the judicial grounds to grant or reject placement, or even the circumstances where releases or expulsions take place from the same Detention centres. This empirical approach may be of interest not only for future studies but also of great use for practitioners as lawyers, judges or prosecutors interested in the day to day practice of this procedure.

RESUMENLa sociedad gallega del Antiguo Régimen fue esencialmente conflictiva, hecho que ha sido probado en numerosas publicaciones en los últimos años. El presente artículo trata de analizar una parte de esta realidad social a través de los litigios que la Real Audiencia de Galicia atendió por razón de servidumbres, las cuales podían ser, según el elemento al que se refiriesen, de paso, de agua y de luces y ventanas. Estas figuras jurídicas redistribuían derechos y deberes al margen de la propiedad privada, por lo que aunque su fundamento no se discutía, como habitualmente ocurrió, sí se discutió la forma en que debían establecerse.PALABRAS CLAVE: Edad Moderna, conflictividad social, servidumbre de paso, servidumbre de agua, servidumbre de luces y ventanas.ABSTRACTGalician society during Early Modern History was essentially conflictive, as many studies have demonstrated in recent years. This paper seeks to analyse a part of this social reality through the litigation that the Royal Court of Galicia considered by reason of easements, which could be, according to the element to which they refer, on rights of way, water, lights and windows. These legal instruments redistributed rights and duties beyond private property, so if their basis was not generally discussed, there was debate over how they should be established.KEYWORDS: Early Modern History, social conflict, access easement, water easement, light and air easement. BIBLIOGRAFÍAAlegre Maceira, C., Dar e concordar no Ulla no século XVIII, A Coruña, Diputación provincial de A Coruña, 2009.Bouhier, A., La Galice: essai geographique d’analyse et d’interpretation d’un vieux complexe agraire, La Roche-sur-Yon, 1979.Candal González, X. M., “Pleitos de aguas en la audiencia coruñesa durante el siglo XVIII”, Obradoiro de Historia Moderna, 2 (1993), pp. 85-103.Cardesín, J. M., Tierra, trabajo y reproducción social en una aldea gallega (s. XVIII – XX): muerte de unos, vida de otros, Madrid, Ministerio de Agricultura, 1992.Castro Redondo, R., La conflictividad vecinal en la Galicia de fines del Antiguo Régimen: los conflictos por medidas y límites (Tesis Doctoral Inédita), Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 2016.Fernández Vega, L., La Real Audiencia de Galicia, órgano de gobierno en el Antiguo Régimen, A Coruña, Diputación de A Coruña, 1982.González Fernández, X. M., Bouzas y otros juzgados gallegos del siglo XVIII: la conflictividad judicial ordinaria en la Galicia atlántica (1670-1820), Vigo, Instituto de Estudios Vigueses, 1997.Goubert, P., Beauvais et le Beauvaisis de 1600 á 1730 : contribution á l’histoire sociale de la France du XVIIe siècle, París, l’École des Hautes Études, 1960.Herbella de Puga, B., Derecho práctico i estilos de la Real Audiencia de Galicia, Santiago de Compostela, Imprenta de Ignacio Aguayo, 1768.Iglesias Estepa, R., “La conflictividad ‘sorda’: un estudio sobre la criminalidad a finales del Antiguo Régimen”, Obradoiro de Historia Moderna, 10 (2001), p. 247-273.Jacquart, J., La crise rurale en Île-de-France, 1550-1670, Paris, A. Colin, 1974.Kagan, R., Pleitos y pleiteantes en Castilla (1500-1700), Junta de Castilla y León: Consejería de Cultura y Turismo, 1991.Las Siete Partidas del Rey don Alfonso el Sabio, cotejadas con varios códices antiguos por la Real Academia de la Historia, Madrid, 1807.López Gómez, P., La Real Audiencia de Galicia y el Archivo del Reino, Santiago de Compostela, Xunta de Galicia, 1996.Mantecón Movellán, T. A., Conflictividad y disciplinamiento social en la Cantabria rural del Antiguo Régimen, Santander, Universidad de Cantabria, 1997.Ortego Gil, P., “La fuente limpia de la justicia: la Real Audiencia de Galicia”, en Die Höchstgerichtsbarkeit im ZeitalterKarls V: Eine vergleichende Betrachtung, Baden Baden, Nomos, 2011, pp. 177-264.Pacheco, F. L., Las servidumbres pradiales en el derecho histórico español, Lleida, Pagès Editors, 1991.Pacheco, F. L., “Fueros y Partidas: algunas páginas más sobre servidumbres”, Initium: Revista catalana d’historia del dret, 6, 2001, pp. 285-305.Pérez García, J. M., “Entre regar y no regar: la intensa disputa por unos recursos hídricos colectivos escasos en la Galicia meridional (1600-1850)”, en F. J. ArandaPérez (coord.), El mundo rural en la España moderna, Cuenca, Universidad de Castilla la Mancha, 2004, pp. 555-572.Rey Castelao, O., Montes y política forestal en la Galicia del Antiguo Régimen, Santiago de Compostela, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 1995.Rey Castelao, O., “La lucha por el agua en el país de la lluvia (Galicia, siglos XVI-XIX)”, Vínculos de Historia, 1 (2012), pp. 45-72.Saavedra Fernández, P., “El agua en el sistema agropecuario de Galicia”, en A. Marcos Martín (coord.), Agua y sociedad en la época moderna, Valladolid, Universidad de Valladolid, Instituto Universitario Simancas, 2009, pp. 49-72.Saavedra Fernández, P., “Servidumbres y limitaciones de dominio en el sistema agropecuario de Galicia”, en Historia de la propiedad: servidumbres y limitaciones de dominio, Madrid, Servicio de Estudios del Colegio de Registradores, 2009, pp. 351-388.Torijano Pérez, E., “El agua como bien privativo (de las Partidas al Código Civil)”, en A. Marcos Martín (coord.), Agua y sociedad en la época moderna, Valladolid, Universidad de Valladolid, 2009, pp. 73-86.

The article publishes the “Statute of the Taurida Governorate” (April 23, 1798) prepared by the Prosecutor general Alexei Kurakin. At the time, he and members of the Expedition of State Economy and Guardianship of Foreign and Rural Economics under the Senate (1797–1803) were working on implementation of the Paul I’s decree on introduction of the porto franco regime in the Crimea for 30 years period (February 13, 1798). The decree was prepared on the basis of numerous projects sent to the consideration of the Expedition. Paul I studied the document and postponed it “until special consideration.” Alexey Kurakin's project is interesting because it provides a fresh look at the process of introduction of the porto franco regime on the peninsula and permits to revise some well-established theses on the policy of Paul I in the Novorossiya region and the Crimea. Historians often accuse the emperor of seeking to destroy the endeavours of Catherine II. However, archival documents challenge this thesis. Paul I sought to reduce excessive and often unjustified costs of the region’s development, made attempts to develop trade and reduce bureaucracy. The statute developed by Alexey Kurakin supplemented the decree on introduction of the porto franco regime. The Taurida Governorate was to govern the new region on a collegiate basis, headed by chief supervisor and trustee. The region was directly subordinate to the Expedition and the Senate. All institutions of power existing before the introduction of porto franco were subject to dissolution. Only Sevastopol and Kerch-Yenikale did not come under the command of chief supervisor and trustee, remaining under the military department. The Statute regulated work of the judicial system: uezd courts were dissolved, magistrates were created in their stead, elected from local inhabitants. These measures were to speed up legal proceedings, especially in commercial cases. Special attention was devoted to land conflicts on the peninsula. Alexey Kurakin proposed radical measures for solving them. He planned to relocate some categories of the Crimean Tatars population from disputed areas and, thus, to settle the conflict and begin distribution of land to foreigners. The project was not implemented due to cancellation of the porto franco regime on December 21, 1799. However, this document is a valuable source on the history of the Crimea of the period. It also allows us a better understanding of the principles of the internal policy of Paul I.

The article analyzes historical, geopolitical, legal and other aspects of the organization and conduct of the International Military Tribunal on the basis of the monograph by Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences A.N. Savenkov “Nuremberg: A Verdict for name of Peace”. over the main Nazi criminals, the political, legal and moral significance of its results for the further strengthening of peace on Earth and the prevention of global wars, the prevention of crimes against the peace and security of mankind, the development of International Law, etc. are investigated. Based on the results of A.N. Savenkov’s research, the study of archival materials of the Nuremberg Trials and other sources on this issue, the authors believe that: • in the entire history of legal proceedings, there has probably never been a court like the Nuremberg Trials. Its uniqueness lies in the fact that it is the first case in the history of justice (sui generis) when more than 20 high-ranking officials, who were part of the highest political and military leadership of a single aggressor state, found themselves in the dock, guilty of both planning, preparing and unleashing a world war, and committing during it mass crimes against peace and humanity; • the historical value of the International Military Tribunal is also seen in the fact that its results had a huge impact on the course of world history, outlined the basic contours of the new architecture of the post-war world order and world order on Earth, laid the foundations of international criminal justice, etc., and the Tribunal itself became a symbol of the victory of good over evil; • the Nuremberg Trials showed that for crimes against peace, war crimes and crimes against humanity committed during an aggressive war, the victorious States have the right to establish a special court (ad hoc) with universal jurisdiction against the political and military leaders of the defeated State, to determine a list of specific crimes (including those with criminal retroactivity), those under his jurisdiction, to provide for a special procedure for the administration of justice, to establish the types of punishment for the perpetrators and their terms, the order and form of execution of a court sentence, etc.; • the refusal of the founders of the Ministry of Internal Affairs to bring to trial the highest state and military officials of Nazi Germany on the basis of the national laws of the countries on whose territory they committed numerous terrible crimes incompatible with human nature was due to the fact that the norms of criminal legislation of none of these states (as, indeed, International Law of that time) did not they fully covered all the specifics of the objective and subjective properties of many barbaric crimes committed by Nazi criminals against humanity, therefore, it was not possible to talk about this category of monstrous acts that claimed the lives of tens of millions of innocent people as classic forms or types of crimes that infringe on the rights and freedoms of individual citizens or states, even at the level of the institution of analogy in law; • taking into account the irremediable contradictions between the norms of national and International Law, on the one hand, and the essentially unprecedented atrocities committed by Nazi criminals on a massive scale, on the other, the victorious countries in World War II as bearers of supreme power in Germany (due to the loss of its legal personality) on August 8, 1945 we made the only possible decision in the current situation: 1) to establish an open International Military Tribunal with universal jurisdiction for the prosecution and punishment of the main war criminals of the European Axis countries; 2) on the basis of international treaties and agreements, the basic values of natural law, generally recognized principles of Criminal and Criminal Procedure Law, taking into account certain provisions of the Anglo-Saxon and Romano-Germanic legal systems, adopt the Statute of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, the norms of which should: a) determine the powers and procedures of this judicial body; b) contain a criminal definition of the concepts of “criminal organization”, “crime against peace”, “war crime” and “crime against humanity”; c) provide procedural guarantees for the defendants and their defenders; d) to fix the provision according to which the official position of the defendant (be it the head of state or another responsible state official) is not a basis for exemption from liability or mitigation of punishment, etc.; • in the process of working on the Statute of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, the doctrine of due (supervisory) law was widely applied in it, which, unlike what exists, is based on such immanent properties of a person’s spiritual being as justice and freedom of spirit, morality and common sense, etc. The originality of supervisory right is also manifested in the fact that it is free from any whatever the external definitions and directives, it is not burdened with political and ideological dogmas; • by its nature, the Charter of the Nuremberg Tribunal is not a normative legal act in the traditional sense of the term, but a special international prescriptive act with the force of law, adopted on August 8, 1945 by representatives of the heads of government of the USSR, the USA, Great Britain and France in the form of an annex to the London Agreement “On the Prosecution and Punishment of the main War Criminals of European Countries axes”; • in the verdict of the International Military Tribunal, for the first time at the global level, legal entities were recognized as the subject of crimes against peace, war crimes and crimes against humanity – the Elite Guard (SS), the Security Service (SD), the Secret State Police (Gestapo) and the National Socialist Workers’ Party of Germany (NSRPG). At the same time, not all crimes committed by high-ranking officials and institutions of Nazi Germany during the Second World War were reflected or properly assessed in it; • the expectations of the world community from the Nuremberg Trials were only partially justified, since in those years many in the world believed that all Nazi criminals should be put to death without trial. Only the firm position of the USSR and its insistent demands to the allied powers about the need to bring them to trial prevented further extrajudicial reprisals against them; • the International Military Tribunal in Nuremberg cannot be regarded as a “court of victors” over the defeated. It should be perceived as a unique judicial and legal phenomenon in the history of mankind - Transitional Justice at a critical stage in the modern history of mankind.

LABURPENA: Giza Eskubideen Europako Auzitegiaren Negrepontis-Giannisis vs. Grezia epaiak atzerriko erabakiak libre zirkulatzeko bidea zabaldu du, prozesu zuzen bat izateko eskubidetik etorria, Giza Eskubideen Europako Hitzarmeneko 6.1 artikuluan aitortua. GEEAren jurisprudentzia-lerro horren eboluzioa abiatzen da Wagner eta J.M.W.L. vs. Luxenburgo eta McDonald vs. Frantzia erabakiekin, baina guk aipatzen duguna aurrerapausoa handia da, eskubidea ez zaiolako lotzen beste zuzenbide substantibo bati, eta berezko eskubidea dela planteatzen da. Gainera, ohar aipagarriak egiten dira atzerriko epai judizialak geldiarazteko ordena publikoko salbuespenari buruz, eta haien eragina leuntzen da. Oso interesgarria da EBko arautegien aplikazio-esparrutik ihes egiten duten erabakietan aplikatzeko, non exequaturra desagertzen den ad hoc prozedura gisa, baina eragindako alderdiak hura ez aitortzeko aukera mantentzen da. Ildo horretan, GEEAk Negrepontis-en erabilitako argudioak garrantzi berezikoak dira, kontuan hartuz GEEHk inspiratzen duela Batasuneko Zuzenbidea eta auzitegiak egiten duen artikuluen interpretazioa. RESUMEN: El Tribunal Europeo de Derechos Humanos abre en su sentencia Negrepontis-Giannisis c. Grecia una vía de ampliación de las posibilidades a la libre circulación de decisiones extranjeras como un derecho derivado del derecho a un proceso equitativo reconocido en el art. 6.1 del Convenio Europeo de Derechos Humanos. La evolución de esta línea jurisprudencial del TEDH arranca con las decisiones Wagner y J.M.W.L. c. Luxemburgo y McDonald c. Francia pero en la que nos ocupa se produce un avance considerable porque no se ata el derecho al reconocimiento a otro derecho sustantivo sino que se plantea como un derecho en sí mismo. Además se establecen notables consideraciones en cuanto a la excepción de orden público como freno a la ejecución de decisiones judiciales extranjeras y se suaviza su efecto. Es especialmente interesante para su aplicación en aquellas decisiones que escapan del ámbito de aplicación de los correspondientes reglamentos de la UE donde desaparece el exequátur como procedimiento ad hoc pero se mantiene la posibilidad de oposición al reconocimiento por la parte afectada. En este sentido, los argumentos utilizados por el TEDH en Negrepontis son de especial relevancia, teniendo en cuenta el carácter inspirador del Derecho de la Unión que tiene el CEDH y por ende de la interpretación que dicho tribunal haga de su articulado. ABSTRACT: The European Court of Human Rights in its judgment Negrepontis-Giannisis v. Greece opens the extension of the possibilities for a free movement of foreign decisions as a right derived from the right to a fair hearing of article 6.1 of the European Convention of Human Rights. The evolution of this case law trend of the ECHR begins with decisions Wagner and J.M.W.L. v. Luxembourg and McDonald v. France but in the judgment we are now analyzing a considerable development is made because the right to the recognizition is not linked to other substantive right but it is considered as a right itself. Besides remarkable considerations are established as far as the exception to the public order is concerned as a brake to the execution of foreign judicial decisions and it softens its effect. It is especially interesting for its application in those decisions that go beyond the scope of application of the corresponding regulations of the EU where the exequatur as an ad hoc procedure is missing but it maintains the possibility of opposition to the recognizition by the affected party. In this sense, the reasoning of the ECHR in Negrepontis is of special relevance, taking into account the inspiring character of the European Law forthe ECHR and hence the interpretation of that Tribunal of its articles.

This article aims to map and analyze the academic production about higher education registered in the annals of annual meetings of the National Association of Research and Graduate Studies in Education (ANPEd), from 2000 to 2015. The center of the analyze undertaken is about the expansion of this level of education. It seeks to identify the volume of works presented during the period aforementioned, the most usual themes, and discuss in which measure the papers dialogue with the federal government policies for the expansion of higher education. In other words, it seeks to analyze how the policies, programs and actions of the federal government has been demanding and/or interfering on the research agenda in the educational field.ResumoEste artigo tem como objetivo mapear e analisar a produção acadêmica sobre educação superior/ensino superior registrada nos anais das reuniões anuais da Associação Nacional de Pós-Graduação e Pesquisa em Educação (ANPEd), no período de 2000 a 2015. A centralidade da análise empreendida é sobre a expansão desse nível de ensino. Busca-se identificar o volume de trabalhos apresentados ao longo do período supracitado, as temáticas mais frequentes e discutir em que medida os trabalhos dialogam com as políticas do governo federal para a expansão da educação superior. Dito de outro modo, busca analisar como as políticas, programas e ações do governos federal têm demandando e/ou interferido na agenda de pesquisa no campo educacional.Palavras-chave: Expansão da educação superior, Expansão do ensino superior, Educação superior; Ensino superior.Key words: Expansion of higher education, Higher education policy, Higher education.ReferencesABRÃO, José Carlos. Trajetória dos marcos referenciais do lato sensu: da Lei de Diretrizes e Bases da Educação de 1.961 à resolução no. 01-CNE de 2.001. In: 30a. REUNIÃO ANUAL DA ANPED, 2007, Caxambu/MG. Anais da 30a. Reunião Anual da ANPEd, 2007.ALMEIDA, Wilson Mesquita. O Prouni e a “democratização do ensino superior”: explorações empíricas e conceituais. In: 33a. REUNIÃO ANUAL DA ANPED, 2010, Caxambu/MG. Anais da 33a. Reunião Anual da ANPEd, 2010.ASSOCIAÇÃO NACIONAL DE PÓS-GRADUAÇÃO E PESQUISA EM EDUCAÇÃO (ANPEd). Sobre. Disponível em: http://www.anped.org.br/sobre-anped. Acesso: jan. 2010.AMARAL, Daniela Patti. O Programa Universidade para Todos e a ampliação do acesso ao ensino superior: diferentes discursos, difíceis consensos. In: 33a. REUNIÃO ANUAL DA ANPED, 2010, Caxambu/MG. Anais da 33a. Reunião Anual da ANPEd, 2010.AMARAL, Nelson Cardoso. Evolução do custo do aluno das IFES: eficiência? In: 26a. REUNIÃO ANUAL DA ANPED, 2003, Poços de Caldas/MG. Anais da 26a. Reunião Anual da ANPEd, 2003.ARRUDA, Ana Lucia Borba de; GOMES, Alfredo Macedo. Democratizac?a?o do acesso a? educac?a?o superior: o REUNI no contexto da pra?tica. In: 35a. REUNIÃO ANUAL DA ANPED, 2012, Porto de Galinhas/PE. Anais da 35a. Reunião Anual da ANPEd, 2012.AVILA, Sueli de Fatima Ourique de. A expansa?o da educac?a?o superior privada no estado do Rio de Janeiro. In: 36a. REUNIÃO ANUAL DA ANPED, 2013, Goiânia/GO. Anais da 36a. Reunião Anual da ANPEd, 2013.BATISTA, Wagner Braga. Unirede: vetor da privatização do ensino superior. In: 25a. REUNIÃO ANUAL DA ANPED, 2002, Caxambu/MG. Anais da 25a. Reunião Anual da ANPEd, 2002.BALDINO, José Maria. Ensino superior em Goiás em tempos de euforia: da desordem aparente à expansão ocorrida na década de 80. 1991. Dissertação (Mestrado em Educação Brasileira). Faculdade de Educação, Universidade Federal de Goiás. Goiânia, 1991.BAZZO, Vera Lúcia. Uma experiência de formação para professores do ensino superior. In: 28a. REUNIÃO ANUAL DA ANPED, 2005, Caxambu/MG. Anais da 28a. Reunião Anual da ANPEd, 2005.BIANCHETTI, Luci?dio. As tecnologias de base microeletro?nica e a intensificac?a?o do trabalho na po?s-graduac?a?o: novos aportes na relac?a?o orientador-orientando. In: 36a. REUNIÃO ANUAL DA ANPED, 2013, Goiânia/GO. Anais da 36a. Reunião Anual da ANPEd, 2013.BITTAR, Mariluce. O ensino superior privado no Brasil e a formação do segmento das universidades comunitárias. In: 23a. REUNIÃO ANUAL DA ANPED, 2000, Caxambu/MG. Anais da 23a. Reunião Anual da ANPEd, 2000.BRANDÃO, Marisa. Cursos superiores de tecnologia: democratização do acesso ao ensino superior? In: 29a. REUNIÃO ANUAL DA ANPED, 2006, Caxambu/MG. Anais da 29a. Reunião Anual da ANPEd, 2006.BRASIL. Ministério da Educação. Instituto Nacional de Estudos e Pesquisas Educacionais Anísio Teixeira. A Educação no Brasil na década de 90: 1991-2000. Brasília: Inep, 2003.BRETAS, Silvana Aparecida; VAIDERGORN, José. “Americanismo” e expansão do ensino superior brasileiro: alguns apontamentos. In: 28a. REUNIÃO ANUAL DA ANPED, 2005, Caxambu/MG. Anais da 28a. Reunião Anual da ANPEd, 2005.CALDERÓN, Adolfo Ignacio; LOURENÇO, Henrique da Silva. Terceirização na educação superior: cronologia e mapeamento da expansão das cooperativas de mão de obra docente à luz da mídia escrita. In: 32a. REUNIÃO ANUAL DA ANPED, 2009, Caxambu/MG. Anais da 32a. Reunião Anual da ANPEd, 2009.CARVALHO, Cristina Helena Almeida de. A mercantilizac?a?o da educac?a?o superior brasileira e as estrate?gias de mercado das IES lucrativas. In: 35a. REUNIÃO ANUAL DA ANPED, 2012, Porto de Galinhas/PE. Anais da 35a. Reunião Anual da ANPEd, 2012.CARVALHO, Cristina Helena Almeida de. Agenda neoliberal e a política pública para o ensino superior nos anos 90. In: 27a. REUNIÃO ANUAL DA ANPED, 2004, Caxambu/MG. Anais da 27a. Reunião Anual da ANPEd, 2004.CARVALHO, Cristina Helena Almeida de. Política de ensino superior e renúncia fiscal: da reforma universitária de 1968 ao Prouni. In: 28a. REUNIÃO ANUAL DA ANPED, 2005, Caxambu/MG. Anais da 28a. Reunião Anual da ANPEd, 2005.CARVALHO, Cristina Helena Almeida de. Política para o ensino superior no Brasil (1995-2006): ruptura e continuidade nas relações entre público e privado. In: 29a. REUNIÃO ANUAL DA ANPED, 2006, Caxambu/MG. Anais da 29a. Reunião Anual da ANPEd, 2006.CARVALHO, Cristina Helena Almeida de. Uma ana?lise cri?tica do financiamento do PROUNI: instrumento de esti?mulo a? iniciativa privada e/ou democratizac?a?o do acesso a? educac?a?o superior? In: 34a. REUNIÃO ANUAL DA ANPED, 2011, Natal/RN. Anais da 34a. Reunião Anual da ANPEd, 2011.CARVALHO, José Carmello. O Prouni como política de inclusão: estudo de campo sobre as dimensões institucionais e intersubjetivas da inclusão universitária, junto a 400 bolsistas no biênio 2005-2006. In: 30a. REUNIÃO ANUAL DA ANPED, 2007, Caxambu/MG. Anais da 30a. Reunião Anual da ANPEd, 2007.CATANI, Afrânio Mendes; OLIVEIRA, João Ferreira de; DOURADO, Luiz Fernandes. Mudanças no mundo do trabalho e reforma curricular dos cursos de graduação no Brasil. In: 23a. REUNIÃO ANUAL DA ANPED, 2000, Caxambu/MG. Anais da 23a. Reunião Anual da ANPEd, 2000.CHAVES, Vera Lucia Jacob; CAMARGO, Arlete Maria Monte de. Acesso e expansão do ensino superior em Belém: o público e o privado em questão. In: 26a. REUNIÃO ANUAL DA ANPED, 2003, Poços de Caldas/MG. Anais da 26a. Reunião Anual da ANPEd, 2003.CHAVES, Vera Lúcia Jacob. A política para a educação superior: entre o público e o privado. In: 28a. REUNIÃO ANUAL DA ANPED, 2005, Caxambu/MG. Anais da 28a. Reunião Anual da ANPEd, 2005.CORRÊA, Paulo Sérgio de Almeida. Educação superior e o mercantilismo nos cursos de formação de professores: um estudo das propostas formuladas pelas instituições de ensino superior do Estado do Pará. In: 25a. REUNIÃO ANUAL DA ANPED, 2002, Caxambu/MG. Anais da 25a. Reunião Anual da ANPEd, 2002.DANTAS, Éder; SOUSA JÚNIOR, Luiz de. Na contracorrente: a política do governo Lula para a educação superior. In: 32a. REUNIÃO ANUAL DA ANPED, 2009, Caxambu/MG. Anais da 32a. 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The article reveals the constitutional and legal foundations and features of the formation of the corps of professional judges in foreign countries. It has been established that in many countries there is an independent specialized body, whose competence is to ensure the training of candidates applying for positions of judges, for example, in France – the National School of Magistracy, Georgia – the High Council of Justice, Poland – the National Council of Judicial Procedure, Germany – a selection committee, Croatia – Council of State, United States of America – Senate Judicial Committee, Great Britain – Commission on the Appointment of Judges. It has been established that the process of training candidates applying for judicial positions should take into account the aspect of skills development provided for in the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms. It has been proven that in the context of the implementation of special training for candidates applying for judicial positions, one should rely on the provisions of Recommendation Rec(2004) of the Committee of Ministers is the Council of Europe to member states on the role of the European Convention on Human Rights in university education and vocational training. It has been determined that the constitutional and legal basis for the activities of institutions conducting vocational training of candidates applying for positions of judges is determined by a special law in many countries. It was found that professional training of judges takes place in the formats of a combination of an interdisciplinary approach to training with a multidisciplinary one, the use of various practical methods for teaching, based on the requirements of European legislation, the development of a program to improve the leadership and management skills of candidates applying for positions of judges. It is proposed to take into account the experience of France, Georgia, Poland, Germany, Croatia, the United States of America, Japan, Great Britain, and other countries when forming the corps of professional judges in Ukraine.

Abstract This article enhances our understanding of international norms by developing a set of indicators to measure norm robustness at the domestic level. We apply these indicators to assess the robustness of the prohibition on the death penalty: a well-established international norm that terrorism-related cases have put to the test. In the United Kingdom, the government agreed to share information with the United States, possibly leading to the imposition of the death penalty on two ISIS foreign fighters of UK origin. France facilitated the trials of French ISIS fighters in Iraq, where they were sentenced to death. While the UK government, under public and judicial pressure, reversed its decision to cooperate with US authorities, the French government failed to acknowledge its violation of the death-penalty ban. We conclude that the anti-death penalty norm is more robust in the United Kingdom than in France. This case demonstrates how established democracies might break international human rights norms, and it reveals the nuances of the norm-decaying process.

Western scholars require democracy to meet the elements of tolerance, consultation, elections, balance, evaluation, separation of powers and political participation. However, in practice democracy is often equated with the experience and political traditions of Western Europe and the United States. Western countries often adopt a double standard in the conduct of democracy, this is evident from their democratic attitudes while in the country, and not democratic outside of the country. Another example of the multiparty and parliamentary electoral systems that prevail in Britain and France is not universally accepted as a single model of democracy. The Islamic democracy sometimes identified with shura is not an end in itself, but a way to arrive at the noblest goal of applying the Islamic Shari’ah. The Islamic government is a mixture of presidential and parliamentary systems. It has four organs: the presidential institution, the ahl al-Hall wa al-’Aqd council, the shura council, and the judiciary. The first three institutions are the selected institutions, therefore are directly accountable to the people. Members of judicial institutions are appointed by the President, but the President has no constitutional right to intervene in their work. The judiciary is immune from any influence, unless its decision is against the Shari’a. Thus, shura is the backbone of the Islamic political system, as the process by which it is produced and generated decisions on binding public affairs.