Thèses sur le sujet « Investments, Foreign – Turkey »

This thesis analyzes the factors that determine the portfolio investments to Turkey in the period from 1989:04 to 2008:12. The factors that are examined are budget balance, current account balance, nominal exchange rate between the Turkish Lira and the US dollar, Turkish domestic interest rate, US 3-months Treasury Bill rate, annual inflation rate in Turkey and ISE 100 Index. A Vector Autoregressive Model is used for the purpose of examining the impacts of these variables on the level of portfolio investments to Turkey. The results of the model show that the portfolio investment in Turkey was affected positively by domestic interest rates and negatively by ISE 100 Index in the period before 2001. On the other hand, it is affected positively by exchange rate and US interest rate in the post-crisis period. It is also found that current account deficit affect portfolio investments negatively.

Multinational bank activities have gradually risen in developing countries since the beginning of the globalisation process. Rising foreign bank activities in developing countries have motivated researchers to investigate foreign banks, comprehensively. Turkey is a typical example of a developing country that achieved a tremendous growth rate in foreign bank asset, especially throughout the last decade. The aim of this thesis is to examine two-way linkage; (1) between foreign bank penetration (FBP) and banking variables; (2) between FBP and country risk and (3) between FBP, foreign direct investment (FDI) and foreign portfolio investment (FPI) in Turkey. Therefore, this thesis is constructed by three empirical sections. Moreover the pattern of FDI inflow and outflow in the world and in Turkey has been analysed, chronologically. In addition, the theory of FDI is taken into account and existing FDI theories has been criticised. In the first empirical work – Chapter 3 - the short run and long run relationship, if it exits, between FBP and determinants of bank performance (namely, domestic bank assets, domestic credit and banking profitability) in Turkey was investigated after controlling DGDP and 2001 financial crisis (DUM2001). The outcome of the Granger causality test indicates that there was unilateral causality which runs from DDB to DFBP . Moreover, I also found feedback causality between DFBP and DCREDIT . By employing impulse response functions, I found that there is positive relationship between DFBP and DCREDIT as I expected. Moreover, the response of DFBP to one standard deviation shock in domestic bank assets is initially statistically significant and positive. The reverse effect is statistically significant and positive. In the final model, the response of DFBP to one standard deviation shock in profitability (PRO) is significant and positive at 3rd quarter. The reverse effect is surprisingly positive but not statistically significant. Specifically, what has not been also investigated deeply in the empirical literature is the two-way linkage between foreign bank penetration and risk such as political, financial and economic. Thus, in chapter 4, linkage between FBP and country risk (namely, political risk, economic risk and financial risk) was examined in Turkey using quarterly data from 1994Q1 to 2009Q4. My finding indicated that I found one error correction term significant and positive in bivariate vector error correction in model 1 and 2, implying that in the long run, foreign bank penetration has contributed to economic and political risk. Moreover, short run causality based on VAR approach between DFBP and financial risk is investigated but I failed to find any significant causality in the VAR model after controlling DGDP and 2001 financial crisis, even at the 10% level. By analysing impulse response functions, I could not detect any significant relationship between DFBP and host country risk variables in the short run. This is because adding control variables (DGDP and DUM2001) make the relationship between host country risk variables and DFBP statistically insignificant. Finally, I investigated two-way linkage between FBP, FPI and FDI in Turkey after controlling DGDP and 2001 financial crisis. The finding from the VAR based block exogeneity wald test indicated that changes in DFBP significantly lead to changes in DFDI and there is also unilateral causality which runs from FPI to DFBP. Moreover, using the variance decomposition technique I found that DFDI and FPI have little explanatory power for the evolution of DFBP in Turkey. The contribution of DFBP to the variability of DFDI is more than that of FPI. The contribution of DFDI to FPI variability ranges between 0.000% and 9.122% throughout 12 quarter periods whilst the contribution of DFBP to FPI variability ranges between 0.000% and 7.611%.

In Turkey, the trade regime has been liberalized to some extent after Resolutions of 24 January 1980, and Turkey started to implement export-led trade strategies. As a part of these policy instruments, the Free Zones Law was published in the Official Gazette in 1985. Following various amendments in the Law, objectives of free zones have been defined as &ldquo
promoting export-oriented investment and production, accelerating the entry of foreign investment and technology, directing enterprises to export and improving international trade&rdquo
. Within this context, the purpose of this study is to explore the economic impacts of free zones and analyze the free zone firms&rsquo
perceptions on the success of free zones by assessing to what extent the establishment objectives of the free zones in Turkey have been realized.

This dissertation focuses on the determinants of foreign direct investment in Turkey's manufacturing industry. The empirical analysis of determinants of foreign direct investment in developing countries is much less studied than those of developed countries. Overall, the most revealed features of foreign direct investment technological superiority together with product differentiation were found not to be a paramount factor in Turkish industry. The Turkish industrial policies and resultant market structure turned out to have created the principle conditions for foreign direct investment to thrive. A highly concentrated market, with considerably high sectoral protection rates and relatively fast market growth were found as the most significant factors in determining the level of investment. The ability of foreign firms to take advantage of Turkish market conditions was found to play a major role. The most important of all their ability to prevail in sectors where high minimum capital was required, where managerial and high technical and production skills were of prime importance.

La Turquie, comme de nombreux pays, a pris conscience de l'importance de mettre en œuvre une diplomatie commerciale active. Cette thèse se donne pour objectif d'analyser les aspects juridiques de la diplomatie commerciale turque. Une réflexion est menée sur le concept même de la diplomatie commerciale dont il n'existe pas de définition faisant l'unanimité. Dans le cadre de l'étude des fondements de la diplomatie commerciale de la Turquie, l'histoire de cette diplomatie est analysée dans un premier temps, suivie de l'étude de sa législation, sans délaisser l'analyse des institutions et des acteurs turcs qui interviennent dans son élaboration. La thèse comporte également une réflexion sur l'intégration de la Turquie dans l'économie mondiale. Cette réflexion s'articule essentiellement autour de l'étude des aspects multilatéraux et plurilatéraux, mais également régionaux et bilatéraux de la diplomatie commerciale turque. Les différents axes de la diplomatie commerciale de la Turquie ont été sensiblement renforcés depuis l'arrivée au pouvoir du gouvernement AKP en 2002, grâce notamment à la politique étrangère active mise en œuvre sous l'impulsion du stratège de la diplomatie, l'ancien Ministre des Affaires Étrangères et l'actuel Premier Ministre, Ahmet Davutoglu. Ces évolutions ont permis à la Turquie de gagner en visibilité sur la scène internationale aussi bien sur le plan politique que commerciale. En effet, ce grand pays de 77 millions d'habitants, situé à la périphérie du continent européen, qui s'est fait discret durant une longue période, a commencé, et ce depuis plus d'une décennie, à faire parler d'elle. Les résultats économiques que la Turquie a obtenus en 2007 et 2008 ont été qualifiés de «miracle», notamment en comparaison avec la majorité des pays européens ayant été frappés par le ralentissement consécutif à la crise mondiale. Les années qui ont suivi ont cependant montré que cet élan a tendance à s'essouffler
Turkey, like many countries, has recognized the importance of implementing an active commercial diplomacy. This thesis has the objective to analyze the legal aspects of the Turkish commercial diplomacy. A study is conducted on the very concept of commercial diplomacy which there is no definition-consensus. As part of the study of the fundamentals of commercial diplomacy of Turkey, the history of that diplomacy is analyzed at first, followed by the study of its legislation, without neglecting the analysis of institutions and Turkish actors involved in its development. This thesis also includes a reflection on the integration of Turkey into the global economy. This reflection is essentially based around the study of multilateral and plurilateral aspects but also regional and bilateral aspects of the Turkish commercial diplomacy. The various axes of Turkey's commercial diplomacy was significantly strengthened since the AKP government came to power in 2002, especially thanks to the active foreign policy implementation under the leadership of the strategist of diplomacy, Ahmet Davutoglu, who is the former Foreign Affairs Minister and the current Prime Minister. These developments have enabled Turkey to gain visibility on the international scene both politically and commercially. Indeed, this great country of 77 million inhabitants, situated on the outskirts of the European continent, which has been discreet for a long time, started, since for more than a decade, to be talked about. The economic results that Turkey has achieved in 2007 and 2008 have been described as "miracle", especially in comparison with the majority of European countries which were hit by the subsequent slowdown in the global crisis. The ensuing years have shown, however, that this momentum tends to falter

Although there is a considerable evidence on the link between Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) and economic growth in developing countries, the causal relationship of these two variables still remains an important question. This study attempts to examine the possible causal relationship between FDI and economic growth in Turkey, during the period 1992 (Quarter 2) – 2006 (Quarter 3). We employed the Johansen Cointegration and Granger Causality tests for detecting the long run or short run causality. Our results showed that there is no long run relationship between the variables, which led us to search the causality in the short run. However we couldn’t find any evidence for a causality running from FDI to economic growth or economic growth to FDI in Turkey.

This study examines the determinants of foreign direct investment (FDI) and the effect of FDI on trade in a panel of bilateral outward FDI stocks of 19 OECD countries in Turkey between 1982 and 2007. Employing a knowledge-capital model, this study finds that joint national incomes, per capita difference, investment liberalisation and the cost of exporting to Turkey have significant effects on FDI in Turkey. In addition, the prospect of European Union membership, government stability, infrastructure, bilateral exchange rate, exchange rate volatility and openness to trade play an important role in determining the amount of FDI in Turkey. Moreover, this study finds that high relative unit labour costs and corruption provide stimuli to FDI. Using an augmented gravity model to investigate the relationship between FDI and imports, this study finds that outward FDI stocks are positively related to the exports. Overall, the empirical results indicate that FDI in Turkey is mainly motivated by market access and sensitive to the quality of institutions.

Turkey’s strategic geographical location, the country’s unique Customs Union with the EU and its growing market potential are all factors that create market opportunities for foreign investors. However, despite the presence of necessary economic prerequisites and a diminishing number of barriers to entry, FDI in Turkey has remained quite low. Further, this area has not been covered extensively in the past and has therefore been of interest to study.

The purpose of this study has been to identify the determinant factors behind Swedish firms’ investment decisions in Turkey and thus find the advantages that Turkey provides for Swedish firms. The motives and advantages form a proposal for how to best promote Turkey as an interesting market for Swedish firms interested in FDI.

A list of Swedish subsidiaries in Turkey was provided by the Swedish Trade Council in Istanbul and came to represent the selected population. The firms were contacted, using both e-mail and telephone, and were requested to respond to an e-mail survey. The final response rate was 22%. The firms’ responses were then analysed together with secondary data such as general facts about Turkey as well as a business climate report about Turkey made by the Swedish Trade Council in November 2005.

Regarding the firms’ ownership-specific advantages, the results showed that firm size is irrelevant to the investment decision, while research and development expenditure as well as a long international experience is a condition.

Concerning Turkey’s location-specific advantages, market potential, the country’s geographic position, its labour costs and its educational level, are important determinant factors as well as the business climate and the economic climate in Turkey. Agglomeration benefits, in business areas where they exist, and the possibility to receive assistance from external actors when entering a foreign market are also important determinant factors. Furthermore, infrastructure is an important determinant factor, but not of a conclusive significance to the investment decision. In addition to the specified variables, the political situation in Turkey was cited as an important determinant factor. The cultural distance between Turkey and Sweden was the only location-specific factor that proved not to be a determinant factor at all.

Conclusively, the Turkish market offers several advantages to Swedish firms wanting to engage in foreign direct investments. First, Turkey has a strategic geographic position that offers proximity to many other markets. Second, the Turkish market potential is alluring and offers opportunities of long term growth. Third, there are possibilities to receive assistance from external actors which facilitates overcoming probable obstacles that might occur when entering the Turkish market. Fourth, the process of establishing a labour force is freed from complications since labour costs are lower in Turkey than in Sweden and the access to highly educated personnel is good. Last, ongoing development in Turkey’s business and economic climate decreases the investment risk involved when entering the Turkish market.

This study investigates whether there are technology spillovers through foreign direct investment (FDI) in Turkish manufacturing industry. Before the econometric estimation, theoretical and empirical literature on FDI and technology spillovers especially by transnational corporations (TNCs) is analyzed in detail. Also, historical perspective of FDI and review of the related literature for Turkey constitutes an important part of the study. To test the spillover effects of FDI, the dataset including sectoral level determinants of 89 different sectors, according to ISIC (International Standard of Industrial Classification) 4-digit industrial classification, in Turkish manufacturing industry is used. The dataset is obtained from Turkish Statistical Institute (TurkStat) for the period 1983-2001. Sectoral market shares of foreign firms are used as spillover variables
and horizontal spillovers are tested. Although some specifications of variables produce negative and insignificant results, the significant regression results show that there are positive spillover effects from foreign firms to domestic firms through horizontal spillovers. In this estimation, six different proxies of capital stock are used to test the robustness of the results
and also, spillovers are tested in terms of low-technology-using (Low-Tech) sectors and high-technology-using (High-Tech) sectors.

The primary aim of this study is to examine the political risks, particularly of indirect expropriation in long-term energy investment contracts, focusing on stabilisation clauses and examining what driving force(s) influence host states to agree to insert such clauses in their host governmental contracts. The secondary aim of this work is to examine the political structure of Azerbaijan and Turkey and the guarantees available to foreign investors under their laws within those nations from a comparative perspective. The work dedicates particular attention to how effective internal factors in Azerbaijan and Turkey are in facilitating contractual stability in their respective energy investment projects. This study applies both comparative and empirical research methods, fieldwork and library based research. It seeks to provide a theoretical and comparative understanding of political regimes, foreign investment laws and constitutional guarantees and investment policies in Azerbaijan and Turkey. The work has provided that the driving forces behind why Azerbaijan and Turkey consented to insert stabilisation clauses in the host government agreements of Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan Project (BTC) can be attributed to each of these being in possession of: a weak bargaining position, weak formal and informal institutions, insufficient laws on foreign direct investment, absence of specific petroleum legislations and a keenness to promote investment and economic activities in their regional markets. It is imperative to lenders and insurers that the host state where the investment will be made is a stable environment. In order to be satisfied that this is the case and to future-proof themselves against risk, they require the insertion of stabilisation clauses in host government agreements. Credit-rating agencies assessments exercise influence over the terms to be agreed and, indeed over the investor’s decision whether to participate in a project. Further research into stabilisation clauses might invite the analysis of specific petroleum producing countries from different regions to better understand how internal and external factors are effective in providing stability. The transferability of the research findings could be further strengthened by surveying and interviewing more participants from petroleum companies, non-governmental organisations, law firms, financial institutions, political risk insurance providers, government bureaucrats and international academics.

The primary aim of this study is to examine the political risks, particularly of indirect expropriation in long-term energy investment contracts, focusing on stabilisation clauses and examining what driving force(s) influence host states to agree to insert such clauses in their host governmental contracts. The secondary aim of this work is to examine the political structure of Azerbaijan and Turkey and the guarantees available to foreign investors under their laws within those nations from a comparative perspective. The work dedicates particular attention to how effective internal factors in Azerbaijan and Turkey are in facilitating contractual stability in their respective energy investment projects. This study applies both comparative and empirical research methods, fieldwork and library based research. It seeks to provide a theoretical and comparative understanding of political regimes, foreign investment laws and constitutional guarantees and investment policies in Azerbaijan and Turkey. The work has provided that the driving forces behind why Azerbaijan and Turkey consented to insert stabilisation clauses in the host government agreements of Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan Project (BTC) can be attributed to each of these being in possession of: a weak bargaining position, weak formal and informal institutions, insufficient laws on foreign direct investment, absence of specific petroleum legislations and a keenness to promote investment and economic activities in their regional markets. It is imperative to lenders and insurers that the host state where the investment will be made is a stable environment. In order to be satisfied that this is the case and to future-proof themselves against risk, they require the insertion of stabilisation clauses in host government agreements. Credit-rating agencies assessments exercise influence over the terms to be agreed and, indeed over the investor’s decision whether to participate in a project. Further research into stabilisation clauses might invite the analysis of specific petroleum producing countries from different regions to better understand how internal and external factors are effective in providing stability. The transferability of the research findings could be further strengthened by surveying and interviewing more participants from petroleum companies, non-governmental organisations, law firms, financial institutions, political risk insurance providers, government bureaucrats and international academics.

The paper examines if and to what to extent unanticipated terrorist attacks affect Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) net inflow in Israel and Turkey between 1975 and 2014. The paper utilises two new conceptualisations and operationalisations to determine what makes a year contain unanticipated terrorist attacks and applies them using linear regression on the change in FDI between given years. Using this new operationalisation 10 out of 40 years in Israel and 13 out of 40 years in Turkey were deemed to have experienced unanticipated terrorist attacks. Two models, one controlling for changes in GDP growth, market size, exchange rates and inflation, and one without control variables are used to examine the effect of unanticipated attacks on FDI. The results indicate that unanticipated terrorist attacks had a statistically significant negative effect on FDI into Israel but no discernible effect in Turkey. The reason for this discrepancy between the two countries is likely because of the geographic location of terrorist activity in each country, global political pressures, and the type of terrorist activity.

In this paper, I study the effect of foreign direct investment (FDI) on a group of host country economic growth for the period 1994-2011. Using aggregate level FDI data for a group of five emerging countries, the paper reveals that FDI has a positive effect on economic growth. Then I use sectoral data and test whether all the sectors have positive effects on growth. The results vary across the sectors. The results seem to be positive for mining and quarrying as well as manufacturing sector, while trade and financial intermediation sectors to have a negative effect on economic growth.

This thesis aims to analyse the implications of European Union (EU) membership on Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) inflows to Turkey by applying a comparative methodology. The effects of EU accession on FDI inflows to three present member states, Ireland, Spain and Poland, is investigated in order to draw conclusions for Turkish case. The attractiveness of each country in terms of locational determinants of FDI are evaluated. Application of our findings in Ireland, Spain and Poland on Turkish case signifies implications of these determinants on attractiveness of Turkey in terms of FDI inflows. The results of the comparative analysis indicated that &ldquo
distance&rdquo
and &ldquo
market size&rdquo
are going to be essential determinants together with the other four determinants, namely &ldquo
infrastructure and human resources&rdquo
, &ldquo
macroeconomic stability&rdquo
, &ldquo
openness and business environment&rdquo
and &ldquo
incentive schemes&rdquo
, which will have positive consequences on FDI inflows on the condition that appropriate policies are implemented. EU membership is found to have positive implications on FDI inflows by indirectly affecting the other determinants. In general, it is concluded that sustainability of FDI inflows in the long-term is again related to the improvements in the other determinants of FDI rather than EU membership.

Over the last ten years Britain and Turkey have sustained an unusually harmonious economic relationship. However, this has not been the outcome of undirected free markets and the effective exploitation of comparative advantage. Instead, it has come about as the result of a series of political compromises. This analysis looks at how the relationship has evolved on a variety of political levels: through international organisations, state-to-state diplomacy, the direct state sponsorship of British business in Turkey and the varied political relations of British multinationals inside Turkey. At each level, activist British governments have used political methods to promote British business, even sometimes at the expense of their reputation or other strategic interests. Complementing this is a structural power imbalance between the two countries, which has helped open up Turkey&rsquo
s markets to British capital.

Defence date: 26 May 1997
Examining board: Prof. Gøsta Esping-Andersen (University of Trento) ; Prof. Rémy Leveau (Institut d'Etudes Politique de Paris and Centre Marc Bloch, Berlin); Prof. Ayse Öncü (Bosphorous University) ; Prof. Susan Strange (University of Warwick, supervisor) ; Prof. Jan Zielonka (European University Institute)
PDF of thesis uploaded from the Library digitised archive of EUI PhD theses completed between 2013 and 2017

This paper studies determinants of FDI in Turkey using panel data analyses. The results of the study show that political stability, education level, rule of law, and trade cost have significant impact on FDI inflow in Turkey while similarity in economy size of home and host country (Turkey) has not. The effect of the trade cost and rule of law was surprising but it gave a clue to new research area. It was concluded that next studies of FDI determinants in Turkey must be conducted at firms' level to better understand the behaviour of foreign direct investments in the country.

Over the past decades, globalisation dynamics have experienced a shift in regard to their driving economic sectors. At the beginning of the 21st century, the global economy will no longer be primarily driven by manufacturing companies but by companies in the service sector. Among them are large retail companies that, with their demand-driven supply chains, organise the global economy to a significant degree. The retail sector represents a particular case within internationalisation dynamics. With its special characteristics and logics it poses special challenges to internationally expanding companies. This is reflected in the facts that the intensive expansion phase of retail trade began relatively late compared to other sectors and that the sector’s level of internationalisation is still comparatively low. This paper focuses on two aspects of retail internationalisation that are underrepre-sented in research. (1) International expansion is by no means the final stage of international economic integration. Coe and Wrigley (2017) speak of a new era of globalised distribution, characterised by, among other things, the concentration of leading retailers on their strong foreign markets and the withdrawal of their operations from other countries. However, our understanding of these dynamics, their drivers, and their effects is inconsistent. This dissertation contributes to closing this gap and brings a new empirical perspective into the research literature by discussing the perspective of the market of inward for-eign direct investment (FDI). This is novel as, until now, research in this area has largely been based on the view of internationalizing companies’ Western home markets. In addition, this dissertation adds a new level of investigation through the exhaustive examination of a market (for the sub-sector of grocery retailing). (2) Beyond the import of financial capital, potential knowledge transfers into the local economy are an important argument for opening up to FDI. The extent to which the knowledge base of an economy is actually improved and upgrading processes of local companies are driven by the entry of a transnational company (TNC), seems to depend strongly on the degree of a TNC’s local embeddedness. This varies according to the sector and the corporate strategy. We know very little about knowledge transfer and up-grading in the context of internationalisation processes in the retail sector, as the discussion on cross-border knowledge transfer through FDI and the discussion on the internationalisation of the retail sector have so far largely been conducted separately. This dissertation contributes to the connection of these research strands. In this respect, it helps to correct the ‘production bias’, the strong orientation of the scientific discourse on knowledge transfer and upgrading towards the manufacturing, technology-intensive industry. The overall goal of the dissertation is to make an empirically derived contribution to research on retail internationalisation and its local effects in emerging markets from the perspective of relational economic geography. The dissertation addresses the dynamics, drivers, decision-making processes, and traces of FDI in the retail sector. In addition, it examines horizontal and vertical knowledge transfers and the upgrading processes of local suppliers of fresh food triggered by FDI. The study is based on the global production network-approach (Henderson et al. 2002), which conceptualises TNCs as networks whose subsidiaries are embedded in a particular context. The global value chain-approach (Gereffi et al. 2005) and the concept of up-grading, which is discussed in its context, are used as a framework for analysis. This approach is helpful to analyse the mobility of actors within a value chain toward a more advantageous position and the role of buyer companies in these developments. The dissertation combines the GVC research with the literature on (local) knowledge transfer. It uses the distinction between explicit and implicit knowledge developed by Polanyi (1958) to analyze the extent to which knowledge is transferred by FDI across national borders. Thus, the dissertation contributes to the link between GVC/GPN research and research on international knowledge transfer/the local acquisition of skills, which has been largely lacking. The dissertation uses the regional example of Turkey. The country stands as an example for the group of emerging countries. Due to dynamic economic development and significant FDI inflows, it represents a suitable and interesting case in the context of this thesis’s research interest. To gain a deeper understanding of the internationalisation dynamics of the retail sector, including their drivers and effects on local economic development, the study follows a qualitative research approach. The analyses are based on data collected in guideline-based, qualitative interviews. A total of 71 semi-structured interviews were conducted in Turkey between summer 2015 and spring 2016. Among the interviewees are 32 managers of transnational and local food retailers, 28 managers of supplier companies of fresh fruit and vegetables, and 10 experts of the retail and agricultural sector in Turkey. The study shows current dynamics and drivers of the retail sector’s internationalisation processes. At the beginning of the new millennium, the investment trend in Turkey reversed and foreign divestments (FD) started to dominate the sector. In the meantime, all transnational food retailers have divested from the market. This development illus-trates the dynamics of the new era of retail distribution to an extent not previously described. The actors in the (former) host market emphasise the defensive character of this FD. They see the operational challenges and the inability or unwillingness of the TNC to adjust to the market as reasons for the failures in the foreign market. This assessment contradicts the statements of the management in the TNC's home markets and partly also the scientific literature, which is mainly based on interviews with these actors. They emphasise the offensive character of FD. By bringing together the perspec-tives of the host- and the home market a holistic picture of the decision-making process behind FD emerges. It shows that the divestment decision is not only the reversal of an expansion decision, but follows its own logic (see Figure 8 on page 72). The dissertation demonstrates that foreign retailers import company-specific re-sources from their corporate networks into the host market and thus influence the development of the local retail sector. Comparing the results of this work on the channels of horizontal knowledge transfer with the results of the literature subject to a produc-tion bias, it becomes clear that demonstration and imitation effects are of particular importance due to the high visibility of retail practices. However, despite the compara-tively low-tech nature of retail, transfer processes go far beyond demonstration and imitation. All transfer channels discussed in the literature on the manufacturing sector are relevant to retail. The transfer of implicit knowledge takes place in particular through joint ventures/acquisitions and the fluctuation of personnel. The study further reveals vertical knowledge transfers from foreign retailers to local suppliers of fresh fruit and vegetables and shows that TNCs proactively shape the de-velopment of their suppliers in the host market. Motivated by an initial lack of adequate suppliers, transnational retailers are proving to be an important driver for the moderni-sation of this supplying industry. The deep (purchasing) network embeddedness of re-tail favours knowledge transfer through backward integration. In order to remain a permanent part of the modernizing supplier network, suppliers must vertically inte-grate functions up and down the value chain, including agricultural production. This is driven forward by retailers through direct involvement and through the targeted selection of suppliers. After TNCs withdraw their capital from the host market, the knowledge of the subsidiaries, in former employees and incorporated in established practices, remains in the host market. The dissertation shows that local companies that take over the TNCs’ subsidiaries use this knowledge in different ways. The successful among them develop hybrid business strategies. They use the TNCs' company-specific knowledge, in particular purchasing practices. But they also bring their local resources into the company which is particularly expressed in a deep sales-side network embeddedness and speed in decision-making processes. The dissertation makes conceptual contributions at various levels. First, it illustrates the broad spectrum from localisation to internationalisation within which the processes summarised under the term globalisation are classified. Localisation processes seem to overlap with internationalisation processes, especially when internationalisation is driven by market seeking motives, which are often central in the service sector. The dis-sertation further expands the research literature by linking the literature on retail internationalisation with the literature on local knowledge transfer in the context of FDI. It thereby contributes to a better understanding of the role of TNCs in the dissemination of knowledge in global networks or chains and the formation of local capabilities. Detached from the transnational and sectoral context, the study establishes causal links between FDI and local effects by providing insights into mechanisms of knowledge transfer that remain hidden in quantitative research. The work moreover contributes to the literature on upgrading in GVCs by refining the upgrading concept for the specific context of the agri-food sector. The results of the dissertation are of applied relevance for both actors from emerging countries receiving FDI and for managers of transnational retail companies. One of the most important findings for actors from FDI-receiving economies is that FDI in the re-tail sector can also be a constructive force. A certain degree of target compatibility can create advantages for all parties involved. Local retailers can acquire knowledge from international retailers operating in the country. The dissertation shows retail managers how they can make use of this possibility. It also shows managers of local suppliers of fresh food how they can take advantage of upgrading opportunities through cooperation with foreign retailers and how they can secure themselves a place in the supply network in the long term. The dissertation further provides orientation for managers of transnational retailers in their entry into foreign markets. It gives insights into how to actively embed in the host country in the context of cross-border expansion and which factors should be taken into account when deciding on a FD.

Τις τελευταίες δεκαετίες μεγάλο ενδιαφέρον συγκεντρώνει ο τρόπος και ο ρυθμός με τον οποίο οι διάφορες αναπτυσσόμενες χώρες εντάσσονται στην παγκόσμια οικονομία. Οι συνθήκες κάτω από τις οποίες λαμβάνει μέρος η ενσωμάτωση αυτή ιδιαίτερα από το 1980 και μετά, περιλαμβάνουν μεταξύ άλλων, την απελευθέρωση του διεθνούς εμπορίου, τη διεθνοποίηση της παραγωγής και την άρση των περιορισμών επί των διεθνών ροών κεφαλαίου. Ένα εργαλείο στη διαδικασία ενσωμάτωσης πολλών χωρών στο παγκόσμιο καπιταλιστικό σύστημα είναι οι Άμεσες Ξένες Επενδύσεις (ΑΞΕ), καθώς αποτελούν ένα μηχανισμό ροής κεφαλαίων στην παγκοσμιοποιημένη οικονομία. Η έρευνα γύρω από τους λόγους και τις μορφές που πραγματοποιούνται οι ΑΞΕ έχει ενταθεί τα τελευταία χρόνια, καθώς ένα μεγάλο μέρος του κεφαλαίου των ανεπτυγμένων χωρών επιλέγει πλέον τη συγκεκριμένη μορφή επένδυσης, ενώ όλο και περισσότερες χώρες βλέπουν τις ΑΞΕ ως βασικό μοχλό οικονομικής ανάπτυξης. Η ένταξη των χωρών αυτών στην παγκόσμια οικονομία σε πολλές περιπτώσεις συνοδεύεται από σειρά βίαιων οικονομικών κρίσεων, όπως έγινε φανερό τη δεκαετία του ’90. Επιπλέον, πολλές χώρες αντιμετωπίζουν διευρυνόμενα εμπορικά ελλείμματα, καθώς και ελλείμματα στο ισοζύγιο τρεχουσών συναλλαγών, παρά την αύξηση σε αυτές των εισροών ΑΞΕ. Μια τέτοια περίπτωση αποτελεί και η Τουρκία. Στην παρούσα εργασία θα προσπαθήσουμε στη βάση του ιστορικού και θεωρητικού πλαισίου, να εντοπιστούν οι μακροοικονομικές μεταβολές που έχουν επιδράσει στην πορεία της διεθνούς θέσης της Τουρκίας ως αποδέκτη ΑΞΕ, αλλά και οι ενδεχόμενες επιπτώσεις των πραγματοποιούμενων ΑΞΕ στα μακροοικονομικά μεγέθη της Τουρκίας την περίοδο 1980-2010. Η παρούσα εργασία αποτελείται από επτά κεφάλαια. Στο πρώτο (1ο) κεφάλαιο γίνεται μια σύντομη αναφορά στην επιστήμη της Μακροοικονομικής και στη γενικότερη σημασία της. Επίσης, παρουσιάζεται το ιστορικό πλαίσιο ανάπτυξης της τουρκικής οικονομίας από την ίδρυση του τουρκικού κράτους το 1923. Η παρουσίαση αυτή κρίνεται σκόπιμη καθώς οι τρέχουσες οικονομικές εξελίξεις σε μια χώρα, εξαρτώνται σε μεγάλο βαθμό από τις πολιτικές και οικονομικές επιλογές που έχουν γίνει ιστορικά και στον τρόπο με τον οποίο οι επιλογές αυτές έχουν συμβάλλει διαχρονικά στη συσσώρευση κεφαλαίου. Στο δεύτερο (2ο) κεφάλαιο παρατίθεται το θεωρητικό πλαίσιο στο οποίο θα βασιστούμε για την ερμηνεία των εμπειρικών δεδομένων. Στο τρίτο (3ο) κεφάλαιο παρουσιάζονται βασικά μακροοικονομικά μεγέθη της τουρκικής οικονομίας και γίνεται μια πρώτη προσπάθεια ερμηνείας τους σε σχέση με τις ΑΞΕ. Στο τέταρτο (4ο) κεφάλαιο γίνεται η βασική εμπειρική αποτύπωση της εξέλιξης των ΑΞΕ στην τουρκική οικονομία και ακολουθούν αντίστοιχες ερμηνευτικές διαπιστώσεις. Στο πέμπτο (5ο) κεφάλαιο πραγματοποιείται μια περεταίρω διερεύνηση των ΑΞΕ σε συνδυασμό με τις διεθνείς οικονομικές σχέσεις της Τουρκίας. Στο έκτο (6ο) κεφάλαιο πραγματοποιείται διερεύνηση των ΑΞΕ σε συνδυασμό με το εξωτερικό εμπόριο της τουρκικής οικονομίας. Στο έβδομο (7ο) κεφάλαιο γίνεται μια σύντομη σύνοψη της σχετικής βιβλιογραφίας και ένας σχολιασμός της στη βάση των ευρημάτων της παρούσας εργασίας. Τέλος, στο όγδοο (8ο) κεφάλαιο παρουσιάζονται τα βασικά συμπεράσματα που προκύπτουν από την παρούσα εργασία.
Τις τελευταίες δεκαετίες μεγάλο ενδιαφέρον συγκεντρώνει ο τρόπος και ο ρυθμός με τον οποίο οι διάφορες αναπτυσσόμενες χώρες εντάσσονται στην παγκόσμια οικονομία. Οι συνθήκες κάτω από τις οποίες λαμβάνει μέρος η ενσωμάτωση αυτή ιδιαίτερα από το 1980 και μετά, περιλαμβάνουν μεταξύ άλλων, την απελευθέρωση του διεθνούς εμπορίου, τη διεθνοποίηση της παραγωγής και την άρση των περιορισμών επί των διεθνών ροών κεφαλαίου. Ένα εργαλείο στη διαδικασία ενσωμάτωσης πολλών χωρών στο παγκόσμιο καπιταλιστικό σύστημα είναι οι Άμεσες Ξένες Επενδύσεις (ΑΞΕ), καθώς αποτελούν ένα μηχανισμό ροής κεφαλαίων στην παγκοσμιοποιημένη οικονομία. Η έρευνα γύρω από τους λόγους και τις μορφές που πραγματοποιούνται οι ΑΞΕ έχει ενταθεί τα τελευταία χρόνια, καθώς ένα μεγάλο μέρος του κεφαλαίου των ανεπτυγμένων χωρών επιλέγει πλέον τη συγκεκριμένη μορφή επένδυσης, ενώ όλο και περισσότερες χώρες βλέπουν τις ΑΞΕ ως βασικό μοχλό οικονομικής ανάπτυξης. Η ένταξη των χωρών αυτών στην παγκόσμια οικονομία σε πολλές περιπτώσεις συνοδεύεται από σειρά βίαιων οικονομικών κρίσεων, όπως έγινε φανερό τη δεκαετία του ’90. Επιπλέον, πολλές χώρες αντιμετωπίζουν διευρυνόμενα εμπορικά ελλείμματα, καθώς και ελλείμματα στο ισοζύγιο τρεχουσών συναλλαγών, παρά την αύξηση σε αυτές των εισροών ΑΞΕ. Μια τέτοια περίπτωση αποτελεί και η Τουρκία. Στην παρούσα εργασία θα προσπαθήσουμε στη βάση του ιστορικού και θεωρητικού πλαισίου, να εντοπιστούν οι μακροοικονομικές μεταβολές που έχουν επιδράσει στην πορεία της διεθνούς θέσης της Τουρκίας ως αποδέκτη ΑΞΕ, αλλά και οι ενδεχόμενες επιπτώσεις των πραγματοποιούμενων ΑΞΕ στα μακροοικονομικά μεγέθη της Τουρκίας την περίοδο 1980-2010. Η παρούσα εργασία αποτελείται από επτά κεφάλαια. Στο πρώτο (1ο) κεφάλαιο γίνεται μια σύντομη αναφορά στην επιστήμη της Μακροοικονομικής και στη γενικότερη σημασία της. Επίσης, παρουσιάζεται το ιστορικό πλαίσιο ανάπτυξης της τουρκικής οικονομίας από την ίδρυση του τουρκικού κράτους το 1923. Η παρουσίαση αυτή κρίνεται σκόπιμη καθώς οι τρέχουσες οικονομικές εξελίξεις σε μια χώρα, εξαρτώνται σε μεγάλο βαθμό από τις πολιτικές και οικονομικές επιλογές που έχουν γίνει ιστορικά και στον τρόπο με τον οποίο οι επιλογές αυτές έχουν συμβάλλει διαχρονικά στη συσσώρευση κεφαλαίου. Στο δεύτερο (2ο) κεφάλαιο παρατίθεται το θεωρητικό πλαίσιο στο οποίο θα βασιστούμε για την ερμηνεία των εμπειρικών δεδομένων. Στο τρίτο (3ο) κεφάλαιο παρουσιάζονται βασικά μακροοικονομικά μεγέθη της τουρκικής οικονομίας και γίνεται μια πρώτη προσπάθεια ερμηνείας τους σε σχέση με τις ΑΞΕ. Στο τέταρτο (4ο) κεφάλαιο γίνεται η βασική εμπειρική αποτύπωση της εξέλιξης των ΑΞΕ στην τουρκική οικονομία και ακολουθούν αντίστοιχες ερμηνευτικές διαπιστώσεις. Στο πέμπτο (5ο) κεφάλαιο πραγματοποιείται μια περεταίρω διερεύνηση των ΑΞΕ σε συνδυασμό με τις διεθνείς οικονομικές σχέσεις της Τουρκίας. Στο έκτο (6ο) κεφάλαιο πραγματοποιείται διερεύνηση των ΑΞΕ σε συνδυασμό με το εξωτερικό εμπόριο της τουρκικής οικονομίας. Στο έβδομο (7ο) κεφάλαιο γίνεται μια σύντομη σύνοψη της σχετικής βιβλιογραφίας και ένας σχολιασμός της στη βάση των ευρημάτων της παρούσας εργασίας. Τέλος, στο όγδοο (8ο) κεφάλαιο παρουσιάζονται τα βασικά συμπεράσματα που προκύπτουν από την παρούσα εργασία.