Articles de revues : « International trade – Greece – 19th Century »

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Atrashkevich, Alexandra. « How conflicts beteen Greece and Turkey in the 19th – early 20th centuries affected the formation of historical memory in both states ». Vostok. Afro-aziatskie obshchestva : istoriia i sovremennost, n^o 1 (2022) : 184. http://dx.doi.org/10.31857/s086919080018177-1.

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Present-day relations between Greece and Turkey cannot be defined as neighborship. One of the main reasons for this is a negative influence of the historical memory of relations (HMR) on the two peoples’ mutual vision. Addressing the HMR from this angle can help to identify the degree of hostilities and assess the prospects for improving relations. Therefore, the authors tried to trace, by means of historical narrative, the eventual determinants of both HMRs in 1821–1923, i.e. during the period when the events most actualized by the HMRs of modern Greeks and Turks took place. In this century, the HMRs were formed under the pressure of conflict situations. Those were the liberation war of the Greeks in 1821–1829, the “30-day war” in 1897, the Balkan wars of 1912–1913, and the Greek-Turkish war of 1919–1922. Because of them, the HMRs and the nationalisms in Greece and Turkey acquired mutually accusatory orientation. As such, they in a way guaranteed irreconcilability between the states on the issues dividing them. Also, the Greek-Turkish relations as well as the growth of nationalisms, fell into the context of the great powers struggle for the Ottoman legacy. The current Turkish-Greek disputes concerning Cyprus and over the Aegean shelf are also influenced by other countries’ interests. Nationalisms in Greece and Turkey block reconciliation of the parties, while the interdependent hostility of the two HMRs guarantees the continuity of confrontational motivations in their political consciousness. What results, is a cyclical nature of the Greek-Turkish clashes, long-term tensions between the two countries and recurring outbreaks of conflicts between them.

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Vlahakis, George. « Oceanography, but not As A Profession : Its Status in Greece During the Late 19th and the Early 20th Centuries ». Earth Sciences History 17, n^o 1 (1 janvier 1998) : 32–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.17704/eshi.17.1.g4202571n8k7n4t3.

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Although oceanography in Greece reached international standards only recently, it has its origins as an independent scientific practice in the late 19th century due to the work of Andreas Miaoulis, a brilliant officer of the Hellenic Navy who cooperated with the English admiral Arthur Mansel for the solution of the Euripus problem. During the early 20th century oceanographic studies took a more systematic character under the supervision of the Hellenic Thalassographic Committee and several reports and books were published before World War II, which interrupted the evolution of oceanography in Greece.

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Truong, Anh Thuan, et Thi Vinh Linh Nguyen. « Trade of the Portuguese Royal and Private Traders in India from the 16th to the 19th Century ». Vestnik of Saint Petersburg University. Asian and African Studies 14, n^o 4 (2022) : 704–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.21638/spbu13.2022.409.

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The 16th–19th centuries was the period that witnessed the ups and downs development of the trade of the Portuguese Crown and the Portuguese private traders in India. In fact, the maritime trade of the Portuguese Crown only developed significantly in the 16th century; from the 17th century, because of different reasons, it declined gradually. Finally, it had to depend on the British at the end of the 19th century. In contrast with the Portuguese Crown trade, although the commerce of the Portuguese private merchants had to face a lot of difficulties, it continued to expand its role and influence during the four centuries (16th–19th). This article summarizes the trade of Portuguese royal and Portuguese private commercial activities in India from the 16th to the 19th century. On that basis, the authors of this article analyze and point out the core characteristics which fully and comprehensively reflect the development of commercial activities of the Portuguese royal family and merchants in India during this period. To conduct this research, the authors rely on the research results of scholars around the world directly or indirectly related to this issue and use two main research methods of Historical Science, including the historical method and the logical method. In addition, the authors also use several other research methods such as analysis, synthesis, statistics, and comparison. The completion of this study will make a scholarly contribution by helping researchers to have a more comprehensive and in-depth view of Portugal’s commercial activities in Asia in general and India in particular from the 16th to the 19th century.

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Arsentyev, Nikolay M., et Anatoly V. Sludnyh. « EXHIBITION ACTIVITY OF RUSSIA’S OPTICAL COMPANIES IN THE 19TH CENTURY ». Ural Historical Journal 73, n^o 4 (2021) : 155–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.30759/1728-9718-2021-4(73)-155-163.

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The relevance of the presented topic is due to the presence of analogies between the heyday of the exhibition movement in the 19th century and the rise of the movement of exhibitions, expositions, forums in the early 2000s. Many modern processes of marketing communication have a prehistory in the exhibition movement of the 19th century. The authors relied on the modernization theory. The exhibitions were considered not from a narrow economic point of view, but in a broader socio-cultural context. Their influence on the development of Russia’s optical industry is analyzed. The following research methods are applied: historical-genetic, comparative, narrative, sociohistorical. One of the most important factors in the development of Russia’s optical industry was the participation of optical workshops in Russian and international industrial, artistic and scientific exhibitions. Russian and international exhibitions became a platform for the exchange of information between the bourgeoisie, scientists, representatives of zemstvos and city selfgovernment, scientific and educational institutions. Exhibitions performed an educational function, increased the social activity of merchants, entrepreneurs, public structures, and ensured live communication between different strata of the population. Optical workshops became participants of industrial exhibitions from the very beginning of the exhibition movement. Participation in exhibitions stimulated inter-industry cooperation, trade in optical products, expanded the target audience, accelerated marketing communication. In a broad socio-cultural context, the exhibitions contributed to the development of trade, the spread of new technologies, and the enrichment of business practices of the bourgeoisie.

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Mulligan, Michael. « Piracy and Empire : The Campaign against Piracy, the Development of International Law and the British Imperial Mission ». Journal of the History of International Law 19, n^o 1 (16 février 2017) : 70–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15718050-12340079.

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This article will examine the issue of piracy and how the prohibition of piracy developed in international law from the 19th century onwards. The campaigns against piracy in the 19th century influenced the development of international law into the 21st century with the prohibition on piracy achieving the status of peremptory norm ‘jus cogens’ under international law. The anti-piracy campaign of the British led to the signing of treaties which, although ostensibly designed to prohibit the trade, had the effect of consolidating British power and influence over the Gulf States and furthered imperial interests there. The campaign also further contributed to the notion of the ‘civilising mission’. The legacy of the campaigns reverberate in the contemporary debates about piracy, particularly in relation to the so-called pirates who operate off the west coast of Africa.

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Barus, Saparudin, Singgih Tri Sulistiyono, Yety Rochwulaningsih et Endang Susilowati. « Environmental Influences on Trade Activities in the 19th Century East Coast Sumatra ». E3S Web of Conferences 202 (2020) : 07048. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202020207048.

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This study examines the factors supported on the relationship between environmental or regional conditions affected the development of trading activities. To examine this problem, historical methods are used which include four stages, namely heuristics, criticism, interpretation, and historiography. Meanwhile, this study used a geostrategic and geopolitical approach. The result shows that the dynamic trade activity in the East Sumatra Region in the 19th century was inseparable from the strategic regional position which faces directly to the Malacca Strait which is the center of the largest maritime economic activity in the Southeast Asian region as well as connecting the 'world' from the east and west. Therefore, geopolitically, there were many forces fighting over the region including the Sumatra coastal area which importantly become the hinterland area for the international trading commodity, especially to Asia and Europe. It was evidenced by a large number of foreign investors developing tea plantations in the East Sumatra region which then stimulated the growth of ports in the coastal regions of East Sumatra with very dynamic trading activities.

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Ivanchenko, Oxana V. « Participation of Tanzanian tribes and tribal chiefs in the 19th century slave trade ». Vostok. Afro-aziatskie obshchestva : istoriia i sovremennost, n^o 5 (2021) : 168. http://dx.doi.org/10.31857/s086919080016634-4.

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This article summarizes the results of three field studies conducted in Tanzania in 2018–2020 by A.A. Banshchikova, O.V. Ivanchenko and V.N. Bryndina. The research focused on Tanzanians’ memories about the 19th century Arab-Swahili slave trade and its possible impact on the contemporary interethnic relations in the country. More than 160 formal and informal interviews in English and Swahili were taken in Dar es Salaam, Bagamoyo, Kaole, Tanga, Pangani, Zanzibar and several other locations. The choice of informants was carried out maintaining representativeness of the sample by the education level, gender, age, confession, ethnicity. This article highlights the participation of Tanzanian chiefs in the slave trade. Respondents were asked whether tribal chiefs and tribes took part in this business; which tribes and chiefs were involved; what was their motivation; do these memories affect nowadays interethnic relations in Tanzania. It turned out that Tanzanians do not express negative attitude towards local tribes and chiefs involved in the slave trade; moreover, their involvement is often presented as enforced (due to the fear of Arabs, who possessed more modern weapons, or as a result of their dishonesty). Meanwhile, the engagement of Arabs in the slave trade is well known; there are some tensions in the relations between Afro- and Arab-Tanzanians, including those related to history. Talking about renowned persons involved in the slave trade, respondents often named chiefs famous for resisting German colonization. For them the story of resistance to colonial rule and gaining independence remains much more important than the memory of the slave trade.

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Ru, Sung Hee. « Mapping Transformation of Nineteenth-Century Chinese Cities within China’s Incorporation Process ». Comparative Sociology 18, n^o 5-6 (11 décembre 2019) : 822–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15691330-12341509.

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Abstract During the 19th century, China’s socioeconomic geography experienced unprecedented spatial changes. Through these spatial transformations, which were caused by the penetration of western capitalism, Chinese cities morphed into epicenters of international trade between Western powers and China. By examining the major transformations having taken place in 19th century Chinese cities, the author investigates unexplained or neglected transformations in three areas: (1) the decline of interdependent inland cities connected by waterways; (2) the simultaneous rise of independent port cities under the influence of the capitalist world-economy; and (3) the forging of port city–hinterland relationships in connection with the capitalist world-economy. It helps to understand the role that port cities have played in the development of China’s historical capitalism.

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Serebrennikova, А. V., et А. V. Staroverov. « Socio-criminological and legal nature of trafficking in human beings (the slave trade, the slave trade) ». E-Journal of Dubna State University. A series "Science of man and society -, n^o 1 (février 2020) : 24–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.37005/2687-0231-2020-0-2-24-31.

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Human trafficking as a social phenomenon originated in the period of antiquity, the greatest spread reached in the early middle ages. Until the mid-19th century in many countries of the world, and in some countries until the mid-20th century, it was carried out quite legally. Modern trafficking in human beings, committed in the form of the purchase and sale of a person, his recruitment, transportation and concealment, is a criminal act, so it is carried out in disguise or completely hidden. Modern human trafficking dates back to ancient forms of the slave trade, which allows it to be defined as a modern form of slavery. Since the object of trafficking is currently a free person, it would be wrong to replace the terms trafficking in persons with slave trade, despite the fact that they are used as equivalent in international legal instruments.

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Schonhardt-Bailey, Cheryl. « Lessons in Lobbying for Free Trade in 19th-Century Britain : To Concentrate or Not ». American Political Science Review 85, n^o 1 (mars 1991) : 37–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1962877.

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I present a modified version of the public choice interest group model that integrates concentrated and deconcentrated interests with successful lobbying. It is argued that effective free trade lobbying required the political fusion of the economic interests representing two fundamental changes in nineteenth-century Britain's economy: (1) geographic concentration of the core export industry (cotton textiles) and (2) deconcentration of the broader export sector both geographically and in terms of industrial structure. Empirical evidence from both national and individual levels firmly supports the contention that the timing and political success of Britain's nineteenth-century free trade lobby required the combined forces of core export interests and the more diverse and geographically more evenly distributed interests of the export sector as a whole.

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Stepanova, Svetlana V., et Ekaterina A. Shlapeko. « Trends in the development of cross-border trade in the Russian-Finnish borderlands ». Baltic Region 10, n^o 4 (2018) : 103–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.5922/2079-8555-2018-4-7.

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This article considers the development of cross-border trade and tourism in the Russian- Finnish borderlands in the 19th/21st centuries. We describe the evolution of cross-border trade in the Russian-Finnish borderlands at different stages of the territory’s development. The patterns of cross-border trade have always been depended on the national policies of the two countries. Since the 19th century, cross-border trade in the Russian-Finnish borderlands has been the product of two factors. The first one is the demand from local residents for certain imported goods that are either absent or much more expensive in their own country. The second factor is the possibility of receiving additional or even basic income. We distinguish several periods (peddlar trade, Soviet-Finnish tourism, shuttle trade, shopping tourism) in the evolution of Russian-Finnish cross-border trade and identify their major trends and characteristics. We describe the general patterns of cross-border trade in these historical periods and juxtapose the pertinent institutional, organisational and infrastructural settings. We explain why the direction of the flow of finance and goods changed. Until the early 20th century, goods were brought to and money collected from Finland’s borderlands. Since the 1920s, the opposite situation has been observed. The latter trend has been growing in recent years. In this article, we aim at providing a periodisation and detecting the trends in and features of the evolution of cross-border trade in the Russian-Finnish borderlands in the 19th/21st centuries. To this end, we carry out a statistics and data analysis. We describe the Russian and international approaches to studying cross-border shopping tourism. We address Finland’s experience in stimulating inbound shopping tourism from Russia and examine why the Russians are attracted to the neighbouring state.

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MacCracken, Michael C., et Hans Volkert. « IAMAS : a century of international cooperation in atmospheric sciences ». History of Geo- and Space Sciences 10, n^o 1 (16 avril 2019) : 119–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/hgss-10-119-2019.

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Abstract. The International Association of Meteorology and Atmospheric Sciences (IAMAS) was founded in 1919 as the Section of Meteorology of the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG). Significant advances over human history, particularly during the 19th century, in the gathering, communication, assembly and analysis of observations of the changing weather and in theoretical understanding of the fundamental physical relationships and processes governing atmospheric circulation had been driven by the need for improved weather and climate forecasts to support the expansion of global trade, better public warnings of extreme weather, and safer and more effective military operations. Since its foundation, in parallel and cooperation with intergovernmental development under the auspices of what is now the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), IAMAS and its 10 international commissions have provided the international organizational framework for the convening of the general and scientific assemblies and other meetings that bring together expert scientists from around the world to further advance scientific understanding and prediction of the behaviour of the atmosphere and its connections to and effects on other components of the Earth's intercoupled geophysical system.

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Shields, Sarah D. « Regional Trade and 19th-Century Mosul : Revising the Role of Europe in the Middle East Economy ». International Journal of Middle East Studies 23, n^o 1 (février 1991) : 19–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s002074380003453x.

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During the past two decades, historians of the last Ottoman centuries have produced ground-breaking research documenting the increasing economic interaction between Europe and the Middle East. Relying on information about the empire's trade with Europe, scholars have concluded that the 19th century was a time of transformation–in culture, in politics, and in economics. By thus calling our attention to changing circumstances, these historians, economists, art historians, and sociologists have outlined a general landscape of upheaval and change.1 Monographs on Ottoman cities, focusing on the effects of international trade on coastal areas, have begun to sketch in the epicenters of massive economic dislocation.2

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Hamzin, Ildar R. « The Russian Commercial Fleet in the Treaty Ports of China in the Second Half of the 19th Century ». RUDN Journal of Russian History 21, n^o 1 (15 décembre 2022) : 19–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.22363/2312-8674-2022-21-1-19-33.

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The article offers a comprehensive analysis of the activity of the Russian merchant fleet in China in the second half of the 19th century. This historical issue is particularly relevant in connection with the active development of modern foreign trade in China and the strengthening of Russian-Chinese trade and economic ties. The historical research is based on the materials of the central archives of Russian Federation (including the Archive of Foreign Policy of the Russian Empire and the Russian State Historical Archive). The methodology is based on a comparative analysis of Russian shipping in China and similar activities of other foreigners, and a system analysis that allows us to study the issue in the context of the overall development of Russian-Chinese trade. An important component of the article is the statistical analysis of data on the development of maritime Russian-Chinese trade, foreign shipping in China, and freight rates. The article considers the development of the organization of maritime Russian-Chinese trade in Odessa and the Far East directions. On the example of several treaty ports (Hankou, Shanghai, and Chifu), the features of the development of Russian commercial navigation in Chinese waters and the accompanying complexities of this process are shown. As a result, the author comes to the conclusion that there is a direct correlation between the level of infrastructure development in the Russian Far East and the expansion of the presence of the Russian merchant fleet in the treaty ports of China at the end of the 19th century.

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Swinnen, Johan, et Giulia Meloni. « Standards, Tariffs and Trade : The Rise and Fall of the Raisin Trade Between Greece and France in the Late Nineteenth Century ». Journal of World Trade 51, Issue 4 (1 août 2017) : 711–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/trad2017028.

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There is much debate on the impact of product and process standards on trade. The conceptual arguments are complex and empirical evidence is mixed. We analyse the impact of standards and tariffs on the dramatic rise and fall of the raisin trade between France and Greece in the course of 25 years at the end of the nineteenth century. The case illustrates how product standards can be used to address consumer concerns and to protect producer interests. Economic conditions and French policies first stimulated Greek raisin imports. Later, changing conditions and political pressures led to the introduction of tariffs and wine standards which caused major declines in Greek exports and ultimately the bankruptcy of the Greek economy. Interestingly, this trade episode of more than a century ago still has a regulatory legacy in today’s EU wine regulations.

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Huang, Sheng-Yu, Te-Yen Liu, Cheng-Lun Tien et Amador IV Peleo. « At the World’s End : The British, Takao, and Southeast Asia, 1864–1895 ». Bandung 7, n^o 2 (4 septembre 2020) : 171–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/21983534-00702002.

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Abstract This paper examines the history of the commercial maritime activities associated with the former British Consulate at Takao (1864–1895) by considering its role as a facilitator of trade and international relations, particularly with Southeast Asia. The Takao Consulate fostered international trade between Southern Taiwan and Southeast Asia through the trading firm Jardine Matheson and contributed to the favorable economic conditions that were further enhanced by the Japanese Empire’s colonial administration of Taiwan from 1895 to 1945. By drawing on Man-Houng Lin’s work on the development of Taiwan in the late 19th to early 20th century, examining the history of the Consulate, locating Taiwan in the nexus of commercial links spanning the Western Pacific rim, and analyzing the links between the implementation of state policies and the conduct of international business, we will provide a contextualisation of the prevailing foreign trade policies of the Taiwanese government.

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ZARINEBAF-SHAHR, FARIBA. « SHIREEN MAHDAVI, For God, Mammon, and Country (Boulder, Colo. : Westview Press, 1999). Pp. 304. » International Journal of Middle East Studies 33, n^o 2 (mai 2001) : 293–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0020743801222065.

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The social and economic history of the Qajar period has not received much attention from Iranian or Western scholars. The present book has partly filled this gap by focusing on the biography of a leading Iranian merchant and entrepreneur, Haj Muhammad Hasan Amin al-Zarb. It complements the few existing studies by Issawi (1971), Ashraf (1980), and Natiq (1992) on the economic history of 19th-century Iran. The author shows that the expansion of foreign trade in Iran benefited many native merchants, who successfully used their entrepreneurial skills, experience of the internal market conditions, and family networks to gain an important social and economic place during the 19th century. The Qajar ruler Nasir al-Din Shah encouraged and supported native merchants and provided them with important privileges and concessions. Many leading Iranian merchants, such as Amin al-Zarb, engaged in regional and international trade, set up family firms, and performed important banking functions for the state. Further, they used their capital to invest in manufacturing, mining, communication networks, and education. In the absence of an economic and political infrastructure and state support, their achievements were of limited success. Nevertheless, they left an important legacy of social and political engagement that continued to shape the course of Iranian history in the 20th century.

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Abdrakhmanov, Konstantin A. « Caravan trade of Central Asian merchants with Russia in the first quarter of the 19th century ». RUDN Journal of Russian History 20, n^o 3 (15 décembre 2021) : 399–410. http://dx.doi.org/10.22363/2312-8674-2021-20-3-399-410.

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The article analyzes the everyday business activity of Asian entrepreneurs who participated in caravan trade with the Russian Empire through the cities of Orenburg region in the first quarter of the 19th century. The specifics of foreign trade operations of merchants from Bukhara, Khiva and Kokand during this period were almost completely ignored by Russian historians in the pre-revolutionary, Soviet and modern periods. The source base of this article consists of unpublished archival documents that shed light on the details of the business activities of merchants from Asia. Letters to the regional and Imperial administration made by Asian entrepreneurs, as well as personal letters from foreign merchants are particularly valuable in this regard. Traders had to deal with a long list of tasks. Before the caravan could go along the required route, it was necessary to hire responsible guides, which was not always possible (guides often turned out to be unreliable, which led to additional expenses for the cargo owners), acquire pack animals, take care of security and prepare a considerable amount of money for various road tolls for travelling through the Kazakh steppe. The merchants who were successful in the caravan trade were characterized by moral and psychological stability, the ability to restrain themselves, not succumbing to momentary desires, and even the skills of using cold weapons and firearms. To resolve issues that were exclusively within the competence of representatives of the Russian regional or central administration, Asian merchants had to possess certain communication skills.

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Grant, Kevin James. « Hebridean Gaels and the sea in the early 19th century ». Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 147 (21 novembre 2018) : 261–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.9750/psas.147.1249.

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The people of the Hebrides have long been associated with a heroic tradition of seafaring – the image of the medieval birlinn or galley has become emblematic of Norse and Gaelic power. Coastal communities in the 19th century would have been familiar with this tradition as it was a common theme of the song and story which was a ubiquitous part of their lives. However, the waters around the Hebrides in the years around 1800 were largely the preserve of merchantmen or warships of friendly and enemy navies.Gaels who farmed the coasts of the Hebrides could have little influence over this largely Englishspeaking maritime world of international trade and global conflict in the surrounding seas, although it had profound and wide-ranging impacts on their daily lives. By drawing on a case study from Loch Aoineart, South Uist, this paper seeks to consider some aspects of how Gaelic-speaking coastal communities interacted with the sea. Whilst this article will serve as an introduction to some common archaeological features relating to post-medieval coastal life, it is intended to encourage archaeologists to consider the sea as part of a wider Gaelic cultural landscape. It will also argue that critical use of evidence for the Gaelic oral tradition is vital to an understanding of life in the period. This study draws on the rich and varied evidence available for the early 19th century, but it is hoped that its conclusions may be of interest to those studying coastal communities in earlier periods where the archaeological record provides little evidence.

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Kazarin, V. N. « Scientific legal heritage of professor Sergey Vladimirovich Shostakovich. To the 120 anniversaries since birth ». Siberian Law Herald 4 (2022) : 11–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.26516/2071-8136.2022.4.11.

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Are considered scientific heritage of the historian, lawyer and orientalist, professor of the Irkutsk university S. V. Shostakovich. Its role in reconstruction of the higher legal education in Eastern Siberia is noted. The main attention is paid to the analysis of historical and legal questions in research of antique Greece, the countries of the Middle East, Central Asia and China during modern and latest times. It is noted that S. V. Shostakovich made a scientific contribution in studying the legal dependent population and patriarchal family in Ancient Greece, problems of the feudal monarchy in Persia of the end XVIII – the first half of the 19th centuries, international law, a problem of exterritoriality of foreigners in China of the beginning of the 20th century, international legal position of the state Tannu-Tuva in the 20th of the 20th century. It one of the first considered also political and legal views of the prominent Russian diplomat A. S. Griboyedov. The conclusion is drawn that S. V. Shostakovich carried on scientific traditions of a historical and legal perspective of the Irkutsk legal school of the 1920th, made an original contribution to studying problems of history of state and law, a political and legal thought.

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Rowe, David M., David H. Bearce et Patrick J. McDonald. « Binding Prometheus : How the 19th Century Expansion of Trade Impeded Britain's Ability to Raise an Army ». International Studies Quarterly 46, n^o 4 (décembre 2002) : 551–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1468-2478.t01-1-00246.

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Ma, Shu-yun. « Recent Changes in China's Pure Trade Theory ». China Quarterly 106 (juin 1986) : 291–305. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0305741000038583.

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The importance of international trade to the Chinese economy has been growing since the formal approval of the open-door policy at the Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party in 1978. However, trade expansion in China faces three constraints. First, there is the theoretical problem that orthodox ideology makes it illegitimate for a socialist country to have a large foreign trade sector. Secondly, there is the institutional problem that the Soviet-type foreign trade mechanism, characterized by a state monopoly of foreign trade, a centralized foreign trade plan, and insulation of domestic from foreign prices, is incapable of handling trade expansion in an efficient manner. Thirdly, there is the economic problem that the lack of competitiveness of domestic goods in the international market limits the country's export and thus import capacity. While the new Chinese leaders are making immense efforts to remove these constraints, this article will focus only on the first. The anti-trade attitude of Communist China is the combined result of China's historical heritage and Marxist ideology. The long history of self-sufficiency in “feudal” China meant that trade was never an imperative economic need. When contact with the west increased in the 19th century, international trade was associated with an influx of opium, an outflow of silver, and a series of unequal treaties. Such an unhappy, early experience of contact with the west has left China sensitive to any increase in international trade.

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Bakhash, Shaul. « The Persian Gulf ». World Politics 37, n^o 4 (juillet 1985) : 599–614. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2010346.

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The focus and context of the great powers' interest in the Persian Gulf has altered —often subtly, sometimes dramatically —since Britain established its hegemony in the region in the 19th century. Britain engaged in a lucrative trade, but primarily sought to protect imperial communications and the approaches to India. Today, it is oil that gives the region its strategic importance. For a number of years after World War II, Britain remained the paramount power in the area, maintaining maritime peace, handling the external affairs of the Gulf sheikhdoms, mediating local disputes, dominating trade. Since Britain's withdrawal from the Gulf in 1971, the situation has become somewhat more messy.

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Rahim, Arif. « Kesultanan Jambi dalam Jaringan Perdagangan Antar Bangsa (1480-1834) ». Jurnal Ilmiah Universitas Batanghari Jambi 21, n^o 3 (27 octobre 2021) : 1432. http://dx.doi.org/10.33087/jiubj.v21i3.1771.

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This paper discusses the Jambi kingdom and its existence as a country located on the international trade route. This is interesting to study because the period of its existence coincided with the golden age of trade between nations which involved emporium countries that were located along the trade route from China in the east to the Mediterranean in the western tip. This period is said by historians to be the prosperous era of the Asian emporium. By using a multi-dimensional approach and supported by the application of historical methods that refer to scientific historical research procedures, the results of this study are expected to provide an explanation of the main problems posed and thus contribute to the development of science, especially about Jambi's local history. In addition, it can be used as material for consideration by related institutions in order to preserve historical and cultural values and for regional development. The results of the study show that the Jambi region has been involved in international trade networks since the beginning of the century AD, but its nature has experienced ups and downs. From the 3rd century to the 7th century Jambi's involvement was evident in the existence of the Koying, Tupo, Kantoli and Malay kingdoms. From the 7th century to the 11th century that role declined because the Malay kingdom was controlled by Srivijaya, which was centered in Palembang. When Srivijaya weakened in the 11th century, Malays broke away and re-emerged as an important trading port in the archipelago. Entering the 12th century, this role has declined again due to competition from other trading ports located on the east coast of North Sumatra, as well as direct trade to the interior. The Jambi kingdom was re-established at the end of the 15th century, reaching its peak in the 17th century when pepper became an important commodity in international trade. As a large pepper producing country, Jambi emerged as an important trading port which was visited by both foreign and Nusantara traders. But since the end of the 17th century, Jambi has been in decline. The cause was Jambi's defeat of Johor in repeated wars between 1667 and 1673. Other reasons were the internal conflict of the kingdom, and the Dutch intervention in the affairs of the royal government, as well as the falling price of pepper on the international market. The decline in the price of pepper led to a decrease in the income of the kingdom and the community, thus causing the reluctance of traders to come to Jambi Port. In the 19th century the port of Jambi was no longer visited by maritime merchants of the archipelago.

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Spraakman, Gary P. « A Critique of Milgrom and Roberts' Treatment of Incentives vs. Bureaucratic Controls in the British North American Fur Trade ». Journal of Management Accounting Research 14, n^o 1 (1 janvier 2002) : 135–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.2308/jmar.2002.14.1.135.

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In their 1992 textbook, Economics, Organization and Management, Milgrom and Roberts used 19th century fur trading companies as examples of effective (the incentive-based North West Company) and ineffective (the bureaucratic-based Hudson's Bay Company) organizations. Findings from detailed examinations of both companies' archives suggest that Milgrom and Roberts were not completely accurate in their depictions of the two companies' incentives and bureaucratic controls. In response to complexities of intercontinental trade, both companies used bureaucratic controls for coordination as well as profit sharing to motivate senior managers. More generally, the findings raise questions about Milgrom and Roberts' relatively negative conclusions concerning the effectiveness of bureaucratic controls.

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Tsiamis, Costas, Georgia Vrioni, Effie Poulakou-Rebelakou, Vasiliki Gennimata, Mariana А. Murdjeva et Athanasios Tsakris. « Medical and Social Aspects of Syphilis in the Balkans from the mid-19th Century to the Interwar ». Folia Medica 58, n^o 1 (1 mars 2016) : 5–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/folmed-2016-0001.

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Abstract The current study presents some aspects of syphilis in the Balkan Peninsula from the 19th century until the Interwar. Ever since the birth of modern Balkan States (Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey and Serbia), urbanization, poverty and the frequent wars have been considered the major factors conducive to the spread of syphilis. The measures against sex work and sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) were taken in two aspects, one medical and the other legislative. In this period, numerous hospitals for venereal diseases were established in the Balkan countries. In line with the international diagnostic approach and therapeutic standards, laboratory examinations in these Balkan hospitals included spirochete examination, Wassermann reaction, precipitation reaction and cerebrospinal fluid examination. Despite the strict legislation and the adoption of relevant laws against illegal sex work, public health services were unable to curb the spread of syphilis. Medical and social factors such as poverty, citizen’s ignorance of STDs, misguided medical perceptions, lack of sanitary control of prostitution and epidemiological studies, are highlighted in this study. These factors were the major causes that helped syphilis spread in the Balkan countries during the 19th and early 20th century. The value of these aspects as a historic paradigm is diachronic. Failure to comply with the laws and the dysfunction of public services during periods of war or socioeconomic crises are both factors facilitating the spread of STDs.

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Hamzin, Ildar R. « On the issue of Russian textile products trade in China in the the second half of the 19th - earle 20th centuries ». Vostok. Afro-aziatskie obshchestva : istoriia i sovremennost, n^o 6 (2021) : 179. http://dx.doi.org/10.31857/s086919080017641-2.

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The article considered the issue of trade in Russian textiles on the territory of the Qing Empire during the second half of the 19th – early 20th century. Russian textiles were the main products in Russian exports to China during this period, but at the same time, they were significantly inferior to the sale of textiles from other countries on the Chinese market. This problem shows the general deficit of Russian trade in China. The reasons for the decline in sales are studied using the example of Russian trade in various regions of China. Interestingly, with their higher quality, Russian cloth and cotton fabrics lost competition to foreign textiles in the Chinese market. The reasons for the failure of trade were the high prices of the Russian products, as well as their unsuitability for the taste of the Chinese consumer. The high price was dictated mainly by the need for a long and expensive transit from Russia to China. In the same time, the level of development of Russian factories didn’t allow to reduce the cost of fabric production. This was added to the disinterest of Russian trade circles in the Chinese market, unwillingness to interest a Chinese buyer in their product. At the beginning of the 20th century when the internal and external economic characteristics of China changed, the development of Russian exports became unpromising in comparison with the concession policy on Chinese territory. The basis for the research was largely pre-revolutionary works and materials of the Central archives of Russia.

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Ababakr, Amer. « Global Trade Governance and WTO : Beyond the Model of the Club ». Asian Social Science 18, n^o 2 (2 février 2022) : 32. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/ass.v18n2p32.

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Global governance primarily focuses on the management and governance of global affairs that are beyond the ability of the state to solve through formal and informal interactions between local, national, regional, and international actors. The post-cold war era can be called the golden age of the process of global governance. This process has significantly broadened to include more diverse players, networks, institutions, regimes, and mechanisms that apply distributive or regulatory functions that have transnational effects. In parallel with this the global trade governance, which includes the group of bilateral, regional and multilateral international agreements, at times with the institutions that regulate the international rules concerned trade, has widened significantly in the 19th century and onward. The evolution of the WTO is corresponding to these essential changes in the order in global trade governance. Therefore, this article examines the effect of the process of global governance on the WTO and the evolving factors of change in the nature of this organization. According to the author's argument, growing role of the civil society organizations, the redistribution of power, opposition to free trade, the proliferation of preferential trade, differences in the views on goals and functions, have led to the fact that, the nature of the WTO has shifted from the cluster of developed countries to a global organization.

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Zakharova, Polina Vladimirovna. « COMMERCIAL COURTS IN RUSSIA SECOND HALF OF 19th – EARLY 20th CENTURY : GENERAL APPROACHES AND INDIVIDUAL FEATURES OF THE FORMATION ». Current Issues of the State and Law, n^o 8 (2018) : 119–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.20310/2587-9340-2018-2-8-119-129.

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Commercial courts formation mechanisms preserved after the judicial reform of 1864 are investigated. We analyze the influence of judicial reform of 1864 on commercial legal proceedings. The main provisions of the discussion on the need for the functioning of commercial courts are given. We also substantiate the conclusion about the commercial legal proceedings system creation, primarily for the resolution of disputes from international merchant shipping. The separation of trade jurisdiction process was planned earlier, at the beginning of the 19th century, the trade process began to stand out from the general civil process. By the decree of the Emperor on March 10, 1808 in Odessa was established the first commercial court and approved its Charter, which laid the foundations of the trade process. Innovations in the process of recruitment for the justice system after the reform of 1864 are considered. The provisions of judicial statutes and other normative acts regulating the formation of the staff of post-reform judicial institutions are analyzed. The study considers in detail the state's censorship policy in the field of justice: moral, age, educational, property qualification, experience qualification. Along the same lines we consider the principles of recruitment of judges in each of them. Taking into account the particular features, we expose the commercial courts general system formation. The requirements to the candidates for the members of the courts, as well as the positions of pre-revolutionary and modern scientists in relation to the effectiveness of the current design are analyzed.

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Beisembayeva, Akmaral Rashidkyzy. « ABOUT THE SPECIFIC FEATURES OF THE KAZAKH-RUSSIAN TRADE AND ECONOMIC RELATIONS IN THE XIX CENTURY ». EurasianUnionScientists 4, n^o 8(77) (16 septembre 2020) : 7–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.31618/esu.2413-9335.2020.4.77.984.

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Considering in close interconnection the development of the world economy and geopolitics of this period, we see new objective needs for the development of the economic potential of Kazakh-Russian relations, social transformation, social movements and new functions of the state. In the 19th century, important changes began, both in the Russian Empire and in the Steppe region. Such basic features of capitalism as private property, market relations, profit, competition, freedom of choice of economic decisions have become widespread. The scale of trends in historical development changed, which were determined by the internal laws of the system: the emerging world market, the world economy, changing functions of the state. The development of the international economy was spurred by the opening of new routes for trade, especially the Central Asian region, the redistribution of colonial territories, the need for resources and ever new and diverse industrial goods. External and internal markets of the steppe region and the Russian Empire became interdependent.

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Tsiamis, Costas, Chrisoula Hatzara et Georgia Vrioni. « The Suez Canal under Quarantine : Sanitary History of the Mediterranean Gateway (19th–21st centuries) ». SHS Web of Conferences 136 (2022) : 02003. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/shsconf/202213602003.

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The Suez Canal is ranked among the most significant engineering feats in human history. Besides its geopolitical and economic impact, however, the Canal became a subject of sanitary concern right from the beginning of its operation in 1869, which coincided with the fourth pandemic of cholera. Sanitary efforts during the 19th century focused on humans and merchandise distributed through the Canal in the frame of the theories of contagion and contamination. Contact with Asia via maritime trade routes entailed increased possibilities of dangerous pathogens and infectious diseases invading the Mediterranean and – by extension – Europe, as evidenced by the cholera and plague epidemics in Egypt. The sanitary significance of the Suez Canal was further demonstrated in the early 20th century when the cholera biotype El Tor was discovered in the Sinai Peninsula. After the Second World War the health systems evolved by incorporating all guidelines of the World Health Organization, whereas special provisions were established for pilgrims traveling to Mecca. The Suez Canal continues to serve as one of the most important global commercial hubs of the 21st century. Accordingly, health security remains a global priority, while strict adherence to international health regulations and epidemiological monitoring represent key elements in safeguarding health in the Mediterranean region.

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Dalgat, Elmira M. « THE TOWN AND THE SEA. PETROVSK AT THE CASPIAN SEA ». History, Archeology and Ethnography of the Caucasus 17, n^o 4 (29 décembre 2021) : 859–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.32653/ch174859-873.

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The article attempts to demonstrate the transformation of the Russian military fortification Petrovskoe at the coast of the Caspian Sea into the large industrial center of the Dagestan region in the second half of the 19th – early 20th centuries, as well as to examine the role of the seaport in its economic development. Since 40s of the 19th century, the fort Petrovskoe was a transit point for cargo, transported by sea from Astrakhan for the Russian army, which was involved in war in Dagestan. The author considers the development of sea trade between Astrakhan, Baku and Petrovsk after the latter received the status of a city. The role of Petrovsk in the international trade in the Caspian Sea is shown. As new sources, we introduced data from the Statistical Committee of the Dagestan Region from the Central State Archives of the Republic of Dagestan, as well as materials from the collections of the State Historical Archives of the Republic of Azerbaijan. When writing the article, the author involved works of domestic and global historiography. The methodological basis of the article is the principle of historicism, which presupposes the study of any phenomenon in specific historical conditions and connections, as well as taking into account the decisive role of economic foundations for the development of society. The article reveals the development of Petrovsk and its seaport in the second half of the 19th – early 20th centuries, when Dagestan was integrated into the economic life of the Empire. Archival materials, published sources and historical literature were used when writing the paper. The author highlights that in the following third of the 19th century, sailing ships were replaced by steamships in the Caspian Sea. The place, occupied by the Petrovsky port among the ports of Russia in the Caspian is demonstrated. The article considers the goods brought to Petrovsk by sea and exported from it. The foundation of the textile factory “Caspian Manufactory” in Petrovsk in 1899 became possible thanks to the port. The construction of the Vladikavkaz railway intensified its role in the 90s of the 19th century. The author comes to the conclusion that the city of Petrovsk and its port played an important role in the process of integration of Dagestan into the economic space of the Russian Empire, and in the emergence of capitalist relations in the region.

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Repetowski, Radosław. « Zmiany w marketingowej orientacji przedsiębiorstw przemysłowych w dobie postępującej globalizacji ». Studies of the Industrial Geography Commission of the Polish Geographical Society 12 (4 juin 2009) : 159–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.24917/20801653.12.14.

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Globalization is not a new phenomenon. This process has been initiated by great geographic discoveries. One can say, that the first age of globalization has been started in the 19th century. Continuous reducing of duty caused England to become the trade – open country. It allowed to accelerate the develpment of international business. In the end of the 19th century, innovations were a significant factor for development of globalization. They enabled a boost of efficiency of enterpreneurship through organizing mass production, reducing elementary cost and reducing price of final products. Technical progress in transport was also a significant factor for development of globalization. Along with technical progress, enterprises were forced to change their market orientation. Development of telecommunication contributed to propagation of information and it allowed enterprises to react much more quickly to changes in their environment. Presently, globalization has adopted a different form. First of all, it proceseeds faster and it has the greatest territorial coverage. There is no doubt that modern enterprises face the great challenge of being more competing on the homogeneous international market. Marketing is a package of market management instruments and one of the basic manager orientation. Efficiency of the enterprise activity on the market is mainly dependent on the selection of proper marketing instruments. The main questions are: How to be competitive on the international market in the age of globalization? Has globalization played a big role in forming the marketing theory?

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Ovádek, Michal, et Ines Willemyns. « International Law of Customs Unions : Conceptual Variety, Legal Ambiguity and Diverse Practice ». European Journal of International Law 30, n^o 2 (mai 2019) : 361–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ejil/chz028.

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Abstract Despite having considerable historical presence – traceable from 19th-century Germany – customs unions (CUs) have long been an understudied phenomenon in international law. This article aims to remedy this gap by critically reviewing the concept of customs union and identifying key issues in CU designs. The article problematizes what is understood by the concept of CU and what is entailed by the foremost definition of CUs found in Article XXIV of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). It further investigates how recurrent design issues are resolved in practice by different CUs considering the inherent tension between the enactment of common rules and institutions and state sovereignty. We find variety in the historical, economic and legal conceptualizations of CUs, ambiguity and lacunas in Article XXIV of the GATT and diversity of CU designs along with a discernible concern for the impact of legal arrangements on state sovereignty.

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Emmer, P. C. « IX. Asians Compared : Some Observations regarding Indian and Indonesian Indentured Labourers in Surinam, 1873-1939 ». Itinerario 11, n^o 1 (mars 1987) : 149–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0165115300009438.

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The drive towards the abolition of the slave trade at the beginning of the 19th century was not effective until the 1850s. It was perhaps the only migratory intercontinental movement in history which came to a complete stop because of political pressures in spite of the fact that neither the supply nor the demand for African slaves had disappeared.Because of the continuing demand for bonded labour in some of the plantation areas in the New World (notably the Guiana's, Trinidad, Cuba and Brazil) and because of a new demand for bonded labour in the developing sugar and mining industries in Mauritius, Réunion, Queensland (Australia), Natal (South Africa), the Fiji-islands and Hawaii an international search for ‘newslaves’ started.

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Verwey, Wil D. « The Principles of a New International Economic Order and the Law of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) ». Leiden Journal of International Law 3, n^o 2 (décembre 1990) : 117–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0922156500001436.

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The principles of classical international economic law, as it developed during the 19th and the first part of the 20th century, were based upon the three fundamentals of freedom, legal equality, and reciprocity. UNGA resolutions 3201(S-VI) and 3281(XX1X) of 1974 embody the legal principles upon which a new international economic order (NIEO) should be based. These principles in their turn are based upon the three N1EO fundamentals of protection of the economic interests of developing countries, preferential treatment of developing countries, and non-reciprocity in the relationship between developed and developing countries. The present study investigates to what extent these three NIEO fundamentals have become implemented in the legal practice of a notorious classical institution, the GATT, and have thereby passed the border between UNGA recommendations and binding law. It concludes that, although GATT practice reveals a substantial effort to give implementation to the NIEO fundamentals, so far it has provided developing contracting parties with only few true preferential rights.

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DELIS, APOSTOLOS. « A Mediterranean insular port-city in transition : economic transformations, spatial antagonism and the metamorphosis of landscape in nineteenth-century Hermoupolis on the island of Syros ». Urban History 42, n^o 2 (5 novembre 2014) : 225–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0963926814000558.

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ABSTRACT:Port-cities provide excellent examples of the socio-economic transformations that occurred during the transition from merchant to industrial capitalism in the second half of the nineteenth century. Hermoupolis on the island of Syros was a major economic centre in Greece and a hub of international trade during the nineteenth century. However, economic transformations that commenced in the 1860s affected long-established port-based activities such as wooden shipbuilding and its related industries due to the decline of sailing ships and the expansion of factories. This factor led to an increase in tension and antagonism between manufacturers and shipbuilders over the use of land and altered the physical and the socio-economic landscape of the port-city. However, new types of economic activities flourished, like the tramp steamship business and factories, which enabled Hermoupolis to maintain its economic importance until World War II.

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Sneis, Jørgen. « »Born translated« ? » Scientia Poetica 24, n^o 1 (1 novembre 2020) : 173–212. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/scipo-2020-006.

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AbstractWith the authorized edition of Henrik Ibsen’s complete works in German as a focal point, this paper analyzes the functions of authorization in the 19th century, seen in light of the European publishing trade and international copyright regulations. Special attention is paid to the conditions under which translations could precede the publication of the original text, allowing the original and its translation(s) to be published simultaneously. It is argued that Ibsen’s oeuvre, conceptualized by the author himself not simply as everything he had ever written but as a continuous and coherent whole, did not emerge primarily in the context of Norwegian or Scandinavian literature, but rather in the context of authorizing translations and the planning of a uniform German edition.

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Park, Yoon Ok. « Study on the Process of Western Identity Formation : Focusing on the International Expositions and Museums in the 19th Century ». Academic Association of Global Cultural Contents 39 (31 mai 2019) : 95–113. http://dx.doi.org/10.32611/jgcc.2019.5.39.95.

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This paper is to explore how the western identity has been established from the perspective of world expositions and museums in Europe, although the issue of identity is so broad that it is difficult to discuss in any one field. In the western world, large-scale international expositions competitively opened in major cities, mainly in Europe and the United States as the nineteenth century is called as the golden age of international expositions. Primarily in England and France, these two countries sought to achieve their goals of promoting trade, developing new technologies, educating the middle class and manifesting their political stance through the medium of exhibitions during the Industrial Revolution. With this effect, not only have museums been established but they have emerged as a result of the expositions in a number of cities in Europe and the United States. Through international expositions and the museum establishment, the nineteenth century presented the power of each country, imperialism and the enlightenment of the public. The comparison and competition between hosting countries as well as the major participating nations became a tool to represent their national identity and show their pride that they were civilized and superior to colonists. Flourished in this era, imperialism and colonialism have contributed to the accumulation of collections of western museums along with the exposition, thereby resulting in the foundation of Western studies such as anthropology, archaeology and natural sciences. These studies were classified and interpreted from the western perspective. In accordance, these disciplines spread throughout the world with colonialism in the Western world view and Eurocentric mindset. Competitive exposure to the country’s industrial development through international expositions and the accumulation of collections in museums of permanent institutions served as an important vehicle of demonstrating who they were.

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Desrochers, Pierre. « Bringing interregional linkages back in : industrial symbiosis, international trade and the emergence of the synthetic dyes industry in the late 19th century ». Progress in Industrial Ecology, An International Journal 5, n^o 5/6 (2008) : 465. http://dx.doi.org/10.1504/pie.2008.023411.

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Plieva, Zalina T. « Migration History of Iranians in the North Caucasus ». Vestnik of North-Ossetian State University, n^o 4 (25 décembre 2021) : 49–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.29025/1994-7720-2021-4-49-56.

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The article is devoted to the study of the phenomenon of mass migration of the Persian population to the Russian Empire in the 19th-early 20th centuries, its North Caucasian features. Iranians who migrated to Russia, at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. constituted an important part of the entire society in the North Caucasus. They participated in the development of industry and business life, in the revolutionary movement, preserving their own community, and interacted with Russian realities. The article analyzes the stages and characteristic features of the migration of the Persian population to the North Caucasus in the 19th century. after the conclusion of international treaties between Russia and Persia (Gulistan 1813, Turkmanchay 1828, Convention on the movement of subjects of both states in 1844). Taking into account the general determinants of migration, for the first time, the existing explanations for the emergence of migrant workers from Persia to the South of the Russian Empire in the English-language literature have been investigated. The origin of labor and social migration in Iran in the 19th century, its orientation towards the Caucasus and its broad consequences are considered in connection with social factors that arose under the influence of political events in Iran, which determined the historical conjuncture. In the study of the characteristics of the Persian resettlement and long-term residence in the settlements of the North Caucasus, the starting points, routes and accommodation of Iranian migrants in the Terek region are of great importance. The Terek region got into the migration history of Iranians as a result of the migration policy of Russia, its geographical location and the peculiarities of the developing economy, which provided more favorable and sparing working conditions. about a large number of Iranians who received passports at the consulates in Urmia and Tabriz. Unlike other movements of the Iranian population in the 19th century, the migration of Persians to Russia at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries had its own differences: it was characterized by regularity, the involvement of a significant number of people of different ages and genders, and was mainly caused by economic reasons. Developing trade relations, economic decline in Persia became the reasons for the ever-increasing migration of the Persians to the Russian borders.

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Kapaniaris, Alexandros Georgios. « Social media through mobile devices in the service of archival ethnographic research : The roads & ; places of Greek (Magnesia) migration to the USA ». Advances in Mobile Learning Educational Research 3, n^o 1 (2022) : 562–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.25082/amler.2023.01.004.

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This publication is carried out in the context of the research "Archival Ethnography with the Perspective of New Technologies: From the Land of Magnets to the Promised Land - Following Overseas Migration to the USA from the Late 19th Century to the Present" as a Visiting Research Fellow at the Department of Political Science and International Relations of the University of Peloponnese. In particular, the social media and the group entitled "The roads \& places of migration of residents of Greece (Magnesia) to the USA" on Facebook constituted another research tool. The interested members (relatives of immigrants and citizens of Magnesia in Greece) posted documents for investigation (photographs, letters, newspaper clippings, advertising brochures of the time, birth certificates, manuscripts, letters, etc). The group members quickly posted relevant material via mobile devices (smartphones). At the same time, via messenger, some conversations resulted in oral testimonies (interviews in phases). Social media and the corresponding groups that can be created can be used in humanities research (history, folklore, archival ethnography) as digital notebooks using smartphones at any time and from various parts of a country. This article presents social media as internet technologies that can be used in collecting and digitizing evidence that can be useful in the analysis and elaboration of evidence-based research (archival ethnography).

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K, Manjuntha, et Bheemanagouda Patil. « Examination of suitability of factor endowment theory with the reflection on transportation cost in international business ». Journal of Management and Science 1, n^o 4 (30 décembre 2013) : 476–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.26524/jms.2013.61.

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International Business is a device which provides a support of convenience of exchanging goods or services or both between two or more countries. More prominently in a condition, one good is available abundant in one country and in the identical point of time there is a dearth and much demand from another country for the same or similar goods. During 18th and 19th century a number of international trade theories came into force with the aim of identifying course of action for smooth carrying of business by countries through export and import. Factor Endowment Theory is one of international trade theories focuses on effective international business with the optimum utilization of factors of production. The Factor Endowment theory was contributed by the Swedish Economists Eli Heckscher and Bertil Ohlin. It focuses on smoothening of international business in terms of exports and imports by using abundant factors of production and attaches the restraint on trade in order to get comparative advantage. One country must produce those products associated with such country‘s abundant factor of production and import those products which are difficult to produce or the production leads to high product cost on account of lack of associated factor of production. This argument is justified on the premise that the exporting country is capable of producing the product with relatively low cost by effectivelyexploiting the associated abundant factor of production. Factor Endowment Theory holds valid only within the framework of assumptions. This paper examines the relationship between availability of abundant factors of production and international business with the profound connection with the transportation cost and essentially focuses on suitability of factor endowment theory with current trend.

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Zamor, Helene, Alicia D. Nicholls et Albert Christopher Lee. « The importance of language and culture to the growing Sino-Caribbean commercial relationship ». Global Discourse 11, n^o 4 (1 novembre 2021) : 657–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1332/204378921x16320858067099.

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Language and culture play a critical role in international commercial relations. Since the 19th century, the English language has undeniably held the prominent position as the global lingua franca to facilitate communication between nations. However, China’s contemporary re-emergence as an economic superpower has expanded its global influence. Consequently, awareness of Chinese culture and language is becoming important not only globally, but also in the Caribbean, where China’s economic footprint has expanded considerably in recent years. This article conceptually explores the important role of language and culture within the growing Sino-Caribbean commercial relationship. Specifically, it discusses the potential impact of language on the trade and tourism sectors, which are two key industries that drive the economies of English-speaking Caribbean small island developing states. It does this by charting the development of the English and Chinese languages as dominant languages. It then briefly looks at the current level of Chinese engagement with the region in trade and, more contemporarily, the potential of greater Chinese tourism in the Caribbean. It discusses the value of deeper cultural and linguistic understanding in nurturing and expanding these relationships. Finally, the article concludes by providing meaningful recommendations on ways to mitigate cultural and linguistic barriers in order to promote deeper Sino-Caribbean trade and tourism.

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Pachta, Vasiliki. « HISTORIC AND CONSTRUCTIONAL ASPECTS OF STONE SCHOOLS IN GREECE : THE CASE OF THE ARISTOTLE MUNICIPALITY IN CHALKIDIKI ». JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURE AND URBANISM 45, n^o 2 (5 octobre 2021) : 143–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.3846/jau.2021.14185.

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Historic schools, built during the end of the 19th – beginning of the 20th century, were evolved according to the wider socio-economic changes that took place at regional, national and international level. Their construction usually followed specific principles, governed by their functional role and structural safety requirements. In this study, the historical background of school buildings in Greece is given, in an effort to assess their evolution and physiognomy. To this direction, 14 historic school buildings, located in the Aristotle Municipality of Chalkidiki, N. Greece, were studied, taking into account their architectural and constructional characteristics. These buildings were erected from 1871 up to 1958 and are nowadays mostly used as elementary schools. In some cases, they are in second use or abandoned. They concerned 1 up to 3 storeys buildings, with rectangular ground plan, symmetrically organized around a main corridor. Their size and dimensions varied according to their capacity. From the beginning of the 30’s, supplementary elements of reinforced concrete (slabs, beams) were added, in combination with the existing building techniques. Nowadays, they are generally preserved in good state, due to the consecutive interventions taken place during their service life. However, their documentation and identification as heritage structures should be further assessed, in order to convey the tangible and intangible values they incorporate in the next generations.

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Pachta, Vasiliki. « HISTORIC AND CONSTRUCTIONAL ASPECTS OF STONE SCHOOLS IN GREECE : THE CASE OF THE ARISTOTLE MUNICIPALITY IN CHALKIDIKI ». JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURE AND URBANISM 45, n^o 2 (5 octobre 2021) : 143–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.3846/jau.2021.14185.

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Historic schools, built during the end of the 19th – beginning of the 20th century, were evolved according to the wider socio-economic changes that took place at regional, national and international level. Their construction usually followed specific principles, governed by their functional role and structural safety requirements. In this study, the historical background of school buildings in Greece is given, in an effort to assess their evolution and physiognomy. To this direction, 14 historic school buildings, located in the Aristotle Municipality of Chalkidiki, N. Greece, were studied, taking into account their architectural and constructional characteristics. These buildings were erected from 1871 up to 1958 and are nowadays mostly used as elementary schools. In some cases, they are in second use or abandoned. They concerned 1 up to 3 storeys buildings, with rectangular ground plan, symmetrically organized around a main corridor. Their size and dimensions varied according to their capacity. From the beginning of the 30’s, supplementary elements of reinforced concrete (slabs, beams) were added, in combination with the existing building techniques. Nowadays, they are generally preserved in good state, due to the consecutive interventions taken place during their service life. However, their documentation and identification as heritage structures should be further assessed, in order to convey the tangible and intangible values they incorporate in the next generations.

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Brenni, Paolo. « Prizes, Medals and Honourable Mentions ». Nuncius 34, n^o 2 (12 juin 2019) : 392–420. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/18253911-03402010.

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Abstract Ever since antiquity, medals that were often also remarkable works of art were used to mark the achievements and testify to the glory of a person or his bravery on the battlefield, or to celebrate or commemorate a particular event. Sovereigns and nobles wore medals as symbols of their power, wealth and achievements or distributed them as exceptional gifts in order to maintain or garner support. In the 19th century the use of medals increased dramatically. In fact, with the machine age a new class of heroes was born. These were the engineers, the technicians and the manufacturers who were industrializing the Western world. And these pioneers of technological progress became the new recipients of a tide of medals, diplomas and awards which were primarily distributed at the national, international and universal exhibitions and fairs which abounded during the last decades of the 19th and the first decades of the 20th centuries. This essay will focus on instrument makers, whose activities bridged science and industry. Their products represented the high technology of their day in the sector of precision instruments, and the most outstanding ones, judged to be deserving of an award, were selected following examination by a jury composed of specialists. But what were the criteria adopted by the jurors? Did political considerations influence their judgments? What were the importance and the significance of these awards? Did they have an impact on the instrument maker’s trade or were they just attractive souvenirs to be taken home from the exhibitions? Based on an analysis of many documents (reports, lists of medallists, catalogues, specialized articles, etc.) relating to industrial exhibitions held in Europe and the United States during the 19th century, the present essay provides an answer to these questions.

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Takagi, Yusuke. « The nexus of nationalism and internationalism : the journey of a “diplomat” after the galleons ». Philippine Review of Economics 57, n^o 2 (8 août 2021) : 49–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.37907/4erp0202d.

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After the galleons, Benito J. Legarda’s masterpiece on socioeconomic transformation after the galleon trade, has enriched our knowledge of the semi-open colonial economy in the 19th-century Philippine Islands, which witnessed the rise of nationalism at the end of that century. In this paper, I shed new light on the nature of the Ilustrados’ nationalism and their international activism by revisiting the life of the country’s “first diplomat”, Felipe Agoncillo, who battled in vain to achieve independence through a diplomatic channel. While class politics tends to be a focal point of the scholarly debate over the Ilustrados’ nationalism, this paper highlights the international dimensions of their advocacy. Agoncillo’s mission in the United States and Europe seems a reasonable option from our perspective, which has been shaped by the norm of modern diplomacy, but it was a risky adventure considering the overwhelming influence of imperialism. Why did Agoncillo conclude they had to send a mission? What kinds of negotiation strategies did they have? Combining Legarda’s global insights on the Philippines’ colonial economy with Agoncillo’s ideational and actual travel, this paper reveals how Philippine nationalism and internationalism created a nexus whose legacy exists in current Philippine diplomacy, one of whose achievements was the award of the arbitration case over the South China Sea in 2016.

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Shukatka, Oksana, et Illya Kryvoruchko. « THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF LEGAL AND REGULATORY LEGISLATION ON PRESERVATION OF HEALTH IN QUARANTINE CONDITIONS ». Scientific Bulletin of Uzhhorod University. Series : «Pedagogy. Social Work», n^o 1(48) (27 mai 2021) : 465–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.24144/2524-0609.2021.48.465-468.

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The article raises an issue of preservation and strengthening health in pandemic conditions, because self-isolation and restrictions on the movement of people cause the loss of physical activity and the emergence of chronic diseases. It is known that all quarantine restrictions and rules are being created and regulated by the state at the legislative level. We appeal to the primary sources of quarantine legislation for deeper understanding of the issue. The purpose of the article is to investigate the historical background of legal and regulatory legislation on preservation of health in quarantine conditions. The following methods of analysis have been used: comparison and synthesis of theoretical data. The period of formation of quarantine legislation is divided into 3 phases: the period of the Middle Ages, the period before the First World War (the 19th century) and the postwar period. The article investigates the history of conduction of the first quarantine measures in Europe during the Middle Ages and the history of creation of the first quarantine legislation in Venice, Hetmanshchyna and the Russian Empire during the 14th – 18th centuries. It has been revealed that the rules of the fight against the spread of epidemiological diseases were established in the 19th century, the first international sanitary conventions and medical authorities in the Russian and Ottoman Empires were created to slow the spread of such dangerous diseases as cholera, plague and yellow fever, not harming the free international trade at that time. The article analyses the results of the first (1851), the fourth (1874) and the seventh (1892) International Sanitary Conferences and the positive and negative consequences of them. It also describes the creation of the first international medical organisations, such as the Office International d'Hygiène Publique (L'Office International d'Hygiene Publique), established in 1907, the Health Organization of the League of Nations, established in 1923 after the First World War, the Hygiene Committee of the League of Nations, established in 1926, and the World Health Organisation (WHO), established in April, 7, 1948 as the medical authority of the United Nations Organisation. The article generalizes the aims of the above-mentioned organisations and their contribution to the combat against the epidemiological diseases of the first half of the 20th century. It has been concluded that we should adhere to the classical principles of the preservation of health in the conditions of coronavirus pandemic to effectively withstand the spread of this virus.

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Palikidis, Angelos. « Why is Medieval History Controversial in Greece ? Revising the Paradigm of Teaching the Byzantine Period in the New Curriculum (2018-19) ». Espacio, Tiempo y Educación 7, n^o 2 (7 juillet 2020) : 177–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.14516/ete.314.

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In which ways was Medieval and Byzantine History embedded in the Greek national narrative in the first life steps of the Greek state during the 19th century? In which ways has it been related to the emerging nationalism in the Balkans, and to relationships with the West and the countries of south-eastern Europe during the Balkan Wars, the First and Second World Wars, and especially the Cold War, until today? In which ways does Byzantium correlate with the notion of Greekness, and what place does it occupy in Neo-Hellenic identity and culture? Moreover, which role does it play in history teaching, and what kind of reactions does any endeavour of revision or reformation provoke? To answer the above questions I performed a comparative analysis on the following categories of sources: (a) Greek national and European historiography, (b) School history curricula and textbooks, (c) Public history sources, (d) The new History Curriculum for primary and secondary school classes, and (e) The principles and guidelines of international organizations such as the Council of Europe. In the first three sections of this paper, I provide an overview of the conformation and integration of the Byzantine period in Greek national historiography, in association with the dominant European philosophical and historical perspectives during the era of modernity, as well as the evolving national politics, foreign affairs, prevailing ideological schemas and the role of history teaching in shaping the common identity of the Neo-Hellenic society throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. The fourth section briefly deals with the current situation in history teaching in Greek schools, while the fifth section critically presents the innovative elements and features of the new History Curriculum, which, to some degree, aspires to be considered a paradigm shift in the teaching of Medieval History in school education. Finally, I summarize and draw several conclusions.

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