Thèses sur le sujet « Industry of olive oil »

Thesis (MTech (Food Technology))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2012.
The expansion of the South African olive processing industry has brought an increased threat to the environment. More production activities lead to more wastewater generation that requires more costly treatment. Regulatory bodies concerned with the release of effluents into the environment are imposing evermore-restrictive guidelines. With this information in mind, the South African olive industry is facing a significant challenge of maintaining economic competitiveness while becoming more environmentally benign. To begin addressing this challenge, the olive processing industry must develop and implement new, more effective, tailored treatment technologies to remediate olive wastewater prior to its release into the environment. In this study, the use of indigenous olive wastewater biofilms in combination with a rotating biological contactor (RBC) was investigated for possible bioremediation purposes. The development of microbial biofilms resulted in the breakdown of the hazardous chemical compounds present in the olive wastewater, i.e. reducing the chemical oxygen demand (COD) and polyphenol content. Results showed that indigenous microorganisms within table olive and olive mill wastewater have a strong tendency to form biofilms. Furthermore, when these biofilms are applied to a small-scale RBC system, significant lower levels of both COD (on average 55% for table olive wastewater (TOWW) and 46% for olive mill wastewater (OMWW) and total phenol (on average 51% for TOWW and 39% for OMWW) were obtained. Results from shocking the biofilms with chemicals routinely used during olive processing indicates that most have a negative effect on the biofilm population, but that the biofilms are able to survive and recover in a relatively short time. This study confirms the potential application of indigenous biofilms found in olive wastewater streams for future bioremediation technologies that form the basis for the development of an eco-friendly, easy-to-manage, low cost technologies specifically designed for the small South African olive processing industry.

In this thesis, the need for the step by step transformation of industry towards sustainability is emphasized. This work involves looking at the Olive Oil Industry (OOI) from a systems perspective through the lens of Strategic Sustainable Development (SSD) and applying backcasting from a principled view of socio-ecological sustainability. A specific project is also looked at, the Integrated Waste Management Project (IWMP), which aims at contributing to the sustainability of this particular industry. The OOI was analysed through the ABCD methodology, a tool used in planning for SSD, and measures were drawn up to guide the industry’s transformation. Following this analysis, the IWMP was examined within the context and results of the OOI research. Overall, the industry is transitioning and the IWMP is a good opportunity and contributor to the evolution of the Olive Oil Industry towards sustainability. At the same time, OOI and other industries would benefit greatly from embracing a systems perspective and a strategic approach for sustainable development.

Ayvalik which is located on the Aegean coast of the West Anatolia made its main breakthrough in the 19th century and owe this development to olive oil production which was the main economic input of the settlement since the establishment of Ayvalik. Ayvalik was within the hinterland of izmir which was gained importance as a regional trade centre in the 19th century. Thus, Ayvalik found the way to improve its trade relations in an international level and eventually increase its olive oil production volume due to the growing demands. The new form of olive oil production
factories, developed together with the traditional house and workshop productions in the last quarter of the 19th century in Ayvalik. These three forms of production made up the second significant usage within the Ayvalik after the residential areas. The two or more floored, large volumed buildings were especially located on the shore, near to the port and trade facilities, on a flat terrain and became the most dominant and attractive buildings of the settlement. Besides the impressive industrial buildings, olive oil production itself effected the settlement pattern of Ayvalik. The main transportation axes were formed accordingly to the relationship between raw material areas and production places. The olive oil production also has an effect on the physical development direction of the settlement. The areas influenced from the negative effects of the production i.e., smell and dust were not chosen for development. The development of industrial buildings also blocked the physical relationship between the residential areas and sea. The industrial buildings such as factories, workshops and warehouses along the coast line reflect the industrial character of Ayvalik in the settlement&rsquo
s silhouette.

This study examines the economic development of the Greek Olive Industry. Its focal point is the impact of recent socio-economic processes on the structure and organisation of the industry. In the first part, which is concerned with the rural sector, it is argued that olive cultivation and its development through time, has been constrained by a number of social, structural and institutional factors which are identified and their influence is then discussed. It is contended that recent changes due to the imposition of the EEC regime have brought about socio-economic processes which have considerably affected the mode of organisation of the rural sector in particular and the whole industry in general. In the second part of this study, which is concerned with the urban sector, it is argued that during the last decade, rapid change has transformed the outlook of the second-stage processing of the industry. This change has affected the structure in two ways. First, there has been a large increase inkhe number of small packing units which operate in domestic market niches and compete for a share in the export trade. Secondly, there has been a concentration of output and economic power in the hands of three leading packers, two multinational subsidiaries, and the cooperative enterprise Eleour7_giki. The financial base of this industrial change, though, is somewhat artificial. In particular, expansion in production and the modernisation process which has been taking place recently, are largely based on the CAP support system to the second-stage processing and packing, and also to large amounts of earnings which every year go through tax evasion.

The purpose of this thesis work was the valorization of the main by-products obtained from olive oil production chain (wastewater and pomace) and their utilization in innovative food formulation. In the first part of the thesis, an olive mill wastewater extract rich in phenols were used in the formulation of 3 innovative meat products: beef hamburgers, cooked ham and würstels. These studies confirms that olive mill wastewaters extract rich in phenols could be an alternative for the reduction/total replacement of additives (i.e., nitrites) in ground and cooked meat preparations, which would promote the formulation of healthier clean label products and improve the sustainability of the olive oil industry with a circular economy approach, by further valorizing this olive by-product. In the second part of the thesis, the lipid composition and oxidative stability of a spreadable product obtained from a fermented and biologically de-bittered olive pomace, was assessed during a shelf-life study. This study confirmed that olive pomace represents an excellent ingredient for the formulation of functional foods In the third and last part of the thesis, carried out at the Universidad de Navarra (Pamplona, Spain), during a period abroad (3 months), three extracts obtained from purification of olive mill wastewaters, were subjected to in-vitro digestion and characterized. From the analysis of the three phenolic extracts, it emerged that the most promising extract to be used in the food field is the spry-dried one. Thanks to its formulation containing maltodextrins it manages to maintain its antioxidant capacity even after being underwent to in-vitro digestion. This thesis work is a part of the PRIN 2015 project (PROT: 20152LFKAT) "Olive phenols as multifunctional bioactives for healthier food: evaluation of simplified formulation to obtain safe meat products and new foods with higher functionality", coordinated by University of Perugia.

virgen en spray para cocinar y para consumo directo. Utilizará una novedosa tecnología que evita el contacto entre el gas y el aceite y se orienta a un segmento de la sociedad que busque un producto saludable y de propiedades organolépticas agradables. Con relación al mercado para este producto el consumo interno va en aumento gracias a una tendencia creciente a consumir productos de estas características, proyectando al 2021 una demanda potencial de 807 toneladas de este producto. Sin embargo, considerando la competencia en el sector al que se dirige este producto y su intención e intensidad de compra, estimamos que la demanda del proyecto para el 2017 será de 21.46 toneladas del producto y para el 2021, 53 toneladas. Respecto a la localización de la planta, la provincia más adecuada luego de realizar un ranking de factores es Arequipa. Esto se debe a que, junto con Tacna, su producción de aceitunas es la más alta del Perú y la cercanía a la materia prima es vital. Su mayor proximidad a Lima a comparación a Tacna es lo que la define como el lugar más adecuado. La planta se localizará en el distrito Arequipa.
Trabajo de investigación

[EN] The main goal of this Thesis was to determine the influence of the main processing stages involved in obtaining natural extracts with high antioxidant potential from byproducts originating in the olive oil industry. Firstly, the effect of freezing and/or the drying methods applied to olive oil byproducts on the polyphenol content and antioxidant capacity of the extracts subsequently obtained was addressed. For this purpose, two byproducts were considered: olive leaves and olive pomace. Secondly, the feasibility of intensifying the extraction of olive leaf polyphenols by means of a new technology, such as power ultrasound, was approached taking both compositional and kinetic issues into account. Thirdly, how the processing conditions (drying and extraction) influence the extract's stability was evaluated. Thus, on the one hand, extracts obtained from olive leaves were subjected to in vitro digestion or dehydrated and stored at different conditions. Finally, the possibility of obtaining a dried vegetable matrix (apple) rich in olive leaf phenolic compounds was explored by addressing the influence of apple pretreatments (blanching and freezing) and drying on the final retention of infused phenolics. The antioxidant potential of extracts and the retention of infused polyphenols in apple were evaluated by means of the total phenolic content and antioxidant capacity analysis, as well as the identification and quantification of the main olive leaf polyphenols by HPLC-DAD/MS-MS. Moreover, in apple samples, the polyphenol oxidase and peroxidase activity and microstructure were also analyzed. The experimental results highlighted that both drying and freezing methods significantly (p<0.05) influenced the concentration of the main polyphenols identified in the olive leaf extracts. Thus, drying at the highest temperature tested was the best processing condition in which to obtain extracts with high antioxidant capacity and phenolic content. Ultrasound application was found to be a relevant, non-thermal way of speeding-up the antioxidant extraction from olive leaves. Thus, by appropriately tuning-up the process variables, the ultrasonic assisted extraction shortened the extraction time from the 24 h needed in conventional extraction to 15 min, without modifying either the extract composition or the antioxidant potential. As far as extract stability is concerned, the processing conditions used for obtaining the olive leaf extracts did not have a meaningful influence on bioaccessibility. Regardless of the method used, stabilizing the extracts by means of dehydration only reduced both the antioxidant capacity and the total phenolic content by around 10 %. Moreover, storage conditions did not show a significant (p<0.05) effect on the antioxidant potential of the extracts for 28 days of storage. A stable dried product (apple), rich in natural phenolic compounds (from olive leaves or tea extracts), was obtained by combining drying-impregnation-drying steps. However, it should be considered that the role of fresh apple drying on the retention of infused olive leaf polyphenols was more important than the further drying of the impregnated apple. In overall terms, olive leaves can be considered a potential source of natural phenolic compounds. Notwithstanding this, the previous drying and freezing steps applied in the raw material processing are decisive factors in the obtaining of natural extracts with high antioxidant potential. Moreover, enhancing the extraction by applying power ultrasound was stated as a non-thermal way of shortening processing times. The stability of olive polyphenols during storage and in vitro digestion was closely related to the individual component considered. Finally, the exploitation of olive leaf extracts as a means of enriching solid foodstuffs requires the use of porous solid matrices free of oxidative enzymes.
[ES] El objetivo principal de esta Tesis fue determinar la influencia de las principales etapas de procesado implicadas en la obtención de extractos naturales con alto potencial antioxidante a partir de los subproductos originados en la industria del aceite de oliva. En primer lugar, se evaluó el efecto de los métodos de congelación y/o secado de la materia prima (hojas y orujo), sobre el contenido polifénolico y la capacidad antioxidante de los extractos. En segundo lugar, se abordó la intensificación de la extracción de polifenoles de hoja de olivo con ultrasonidos de potencia, teniendo en cuenta: composición y la cinética del proceso. A continuación, se estudió cómo las condiciones de procesado (secado y extracción) podían influir en la estabilidad de los extractos. Así, extractos de hojas de olivo fueron sometidos a digestión in vitro o deshidratados y almacenados a distintas condiciones. Por último, se exploró la posibilidad de obtener una matriz vegetal deshidratada (manzana) y rica en compuestos fenólicos de hoja de olivo. Para ello, se evaluó la influencia de los pretratamientos de la manzana (escaldado y congelación) y del secado en la retención final de los polifenoles impregnados. El potencial antioxidante se determinó a través del contenido total en compuestos fenólicos y la capacidad antioxidante y la identificación y cuantificación (HPLC-DAD/MS-MS) de los principales polifenoles. Además, en manzana, se midió la actividad enzimática de la polifenol oxidasa y peroxidasa y se analizó la microestructura. Los resultados manifestaron que el método de secado y el de congelación influyeron significativamente (p<0.05) en la concentración de los principales polifenoles en los extractos. Así, el secado a mayor temperatura resultó ser el mejor tratamiento para obtener extractos con alta capacidad antioxidante y alto contenido fenólico. La aplicación de ultrasonidos resultó ser una alternativa no térmica muy interesante para acelerar la extracción de antioxidantes de hojas de olivo. Con la combinación adecuada de las variables del proceso, la aplicación de ultrasonidos redujo el tiempo de extracción de 24 h necesarias en extracción convencional a 15 min, sin modificar la composición de los extractos y su potencial antioxidante. En cuanto a la estabilidad del extracto, las condiciones de procesado no tuvieron una influencia significativa en la bioaccesibilidad de los extractos. Independientemente del método utilizado, la estabilización de extractos por deshidratación sólo redujo la capacidad antioxidante y el contenido total en compuestos fenólicos en torno a un 10 %. Además, las condiciones de almacenamiento no mostraron ningún efecto significativo (p<0.05) sobre el potencial antioxidante durante los 28 días de almacenamiento. Combinando secado-impregnación-secado, fue posible desarrollar un producto deshidratado (manzana), estable y rico en compuestos fenólicos naturales (de hojas de olivo o extractos de té). No obstante, cabe destacar que el secado de la manzana fresca jugó un papel más importante en la retención de los polifenoles de hoja de olivo infundidos que el secado final de la manzana impregnada. En términos generales, las hojas de olivo pueden considerarse como una fuente potencial de compuestos fenólicos naturales. No obstante, el secado y la congelación durante el procesado de la materia prima son factores decisivos para la obtención de extractos naturales con alto potencial antioxidante. Además, la aplicación de ultrasonidos de potencia durante la extracción puede resultar una alternativa no térmica muy interesante de cara a acortar el tiempo de procesado. La estabilidad de los polifenoles de la hoja de olivo, durante el almacenamiento y la digestión in vitro, dependió claramente del compuesto individual considerado. Finalmente, el empleo del extracto de hoja de olivo como medio para enriquecer alimentos sólidos requiere del uso de matrices s
[CAT] L'objectiu principal d'aquesta tesi va ser determinar la influència de les principals etapes de processament implicades en l'obtenció d'extractes naturals amb alt potencial antioxidant procedents de subproductes de la indústria de l'oli d'oliva. En primer lloc, es va estudiar l'efecte de la congelació i/o els mètodes d'assecatge aplicats a fulles d'olivera i pinyolada sobre el contingut fenòlic i la capacitat antioxidant dels extractes. En segon lloc, es va avaluar, tenint en compte la composició i la cinètica del procés, la intensificació de l'extracció de polifenols de fulla d'olivera amb ultrasons de potència. En tercer lloc, es va avaluar com les condicions de processament (assecatge i extracció) poden influir en l'estabilitat dels extractes. Així, extractes de fulles d'olivera van ser sotmesos a una digestió in vitro o deshidratats i emmagatzemats a distintes condicions. Finalment, es va explorar la obtenció d'una matriu vegetal deshidratada (poma) i rica en compostos fenòlics de fulla d'olivera considerant la influència del pretractament de la poma (escaldament i congelació) i de l'assecatge sobre la retenció final dels fenòlics introduïts en la poma. El potencial antioxidant es va avaluar determinant el contingut fenòlic total i la capacitat antioxidant, així com identificant i quantificant els principals polifenols (HPLC-DAD/MS-MS). A més, en poma l'activitat enzimàtica de la polifenoloxidasa i la peroxidasa i la microestructura. Els resultats experimentals van destacar que el mètode d'assecatge i el de congelació van influir significativament (p<0,05) en la concentració dels principals polifenols identificats en els extractes. L'assecatge a la temperatura més alta que es va provar va resultar la millor condició de processament per a obtenir extractes amb una alta capacitat antioxidant i un alt contingut fenòlic. L'aplicació d'ultrasons va ser una manera rellevant i no tèrmica d'accelerar l'extracció d'antioxidants de les fulles d'olivera. Així, amb la combinació adequada de les variables del procés, l'extracció assistida per ultrasons va escurçar el temps d'extracció, de les 24 h requerides en l'extracció convencional a 15 min, sense modificar la composició de l'extracte ni el potencial antioxidant. Quant a l'estabilitat de l'extracte, les condicions de processament utilitzades per a l'obtenció dels extractes de fulla d'olivera no van tenir una influència significativa en la bioaccessibilitat. Independentment del mètode utilitzat, l'estabilització dels extractes per mitjà de la deshidratació només va reduir la capacitat antioxidant i el contingut fenòlic total al voltant d'un 10 %. A més, les condicions d'emmagatzematge (temperatura i forma de l'extracte: líquid o pols) no van mostrar cap efecte significatiu (p<0,05) en el potencial antioxidant dels extractes durant els 28 dies d'emmagatzematge. Combinant etapes d'assecatge-impregnació-assecatge fou possible obtenir un producte assecat estable (poma) i ric en compostos fenòlics naturals (de fulles d'olivera o te). No obstant això, cal destacar que l'assecatge de la poma fresca va ser més important i determinant en la retenció dels polifenols de fulla d'olivera que no l'assecatge de la poma impregnada. En termes generals, les fulles d'olivera es poden considerar com una font potencial de compostos fenòlics naturals. No obstant això, l'aplicació d'assecatge i congelació durant el processament de la matèria primera són factors decisius per a l'obtenció d'extractes naturals amb un alt potencial antioxidant. A més, l'aplicació d'ultrasons de potència durant l'extracció resultà ser una forma no tèrmica de millorar el procés, tot reduint-ne el temps d'extracció. L'estabilitat dels polifenols d'olivera durant l'emmagatzematge i la digestió in vitro va dependre del compost individual considerat. Finalment, la utilització d'extractes de fulla d'olivera per a desenvolupar aliments sòlids enriquits requ
Ahmad-Qasem Mateo, MH. (2015). ASSESSMENT OF THE INFLUENCE OF PROCESSING CONDITIONS ON THE ANTIOXIDANT POTENTIAL OF EXTRACTS OBTAINED FROM OLIVE OIL INDUSTRY BYPRODUCTS [Tesis doctoral no publicada]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/53452
TESIS
Premiado

Mestrado em Gestão/MBA
A teoria de Porter tem influenciado quer a investigação teórica, quer gestores e em-presarios no desenvolvimento dos planeamentos estratégicos e na busca de vantagens competitivas para as suas empresas. O sector do Azeite ocupa uma posição de destaque no contexto da Economia Agrícola e, nomeadamente, no Sector Agro-Alimentar Português, tanto do ponto de vista económico, como do ponto de vista social. No entanto, a adesão de Portugal à CE iniciou uma nova fase, de mudanças radicais no sector, onde a presença de players externos se tornou uma realidade, bem como a afirmação da industria portuguesa como player internacional se reveste de carácter de urgência. O presente trabalho constitui um exemplo de aplicação da metodologia de Porter, para abordar o sistema concorrencial no sector do Azeite, com o objectivo de, por um lado, caracterizar, à luz dessa teoria, a indústria e a sua atractividade, bem como as estratégias genéricas adoptadas pelos principais players e, por outro, definir alternativas estratégicas para essas empresas, tendo em conta as perspectivas de evolução do mercado. Para o efeito, recorreu-se à realização de entrevistas com profissionais do sector e à elaboração de questionários a efectuar junto dos responsáveis estratégicos das principais empresas.
Porter's theory has had an effect on theoretical research and on managers attitudes, influential in being developed on strategic management and in reaching competitive advantages to their own enterprises. Till now, the olive oil sector has held a strategic position in the Agriculture Economy and primary in Portuguese Agro Alimentary Sector, not only on economical level, but also on social level. However, a new era has begun with Portugal's adhesion to CE; a era of radical removes at olive oil sector, where the presence of external players has became a reality and where it is urgent the Portuguese industry affirmation as an international player. This study is an example of Porter's methodology to approach a competition system on olive oil sector. On one hand, of characterising thp. industry and its qtrrgr-tivpnecc and generical strategies adopted by the headmasters players, on the other hand, to define strategic alternative to those enterprises, not forgetting the perspective of market development. For this study be realized it was necessary to obtain some interviews with professionals on the olive oil sector and to elaborate two questionnaires to be answered by the strategical responsibles for the principal enterprises in Portugal.

Diariamente são descartados no mundo toneladas de resíduos do processamento de frutas que poderiam ser aproveitados pelo seu elevado poder nutricional e funcional, que acabam sendo desperdiçados e podem gerar sérios problemas ao meio ambiente. Outro descarte inadequado que agrava esse problema ambiental é o de embalagens plásticas, que quando não submetidas ao processo de reciclagem trazem enormes danos. Por esses fatores, esse estudo teve como objetivo o aproveitamento de subprodutos da indústria de alimentos para o desenvolvimento de farinhas funcionais e aproveitamento dos resíduos da indústria de capsulas nutracêuticas de gelatina e óleo de chia como matriz para as embalagens biodegradáveis ativas. A quitosana também foi utilizada como matriz no desenvolvimento de filmes aplicados como embalagens. Primeiramente foram avaliados quatro resíduos obtidos de diferentes frutas: resíduo do processamento de suco de mirtilo (bagaço), resíduo do processamento de azeite de oliva (bagaço), cascas de mamão e abacaxi. As propriedades físico químicas, funcionais e antioxidantes desses resíduos foram analisadas, sendo que no geral todos demonstraram alto teor de fibras dietéticas. Em relação às propriedades funcionais a farinha de mamão se destacou pelos elevados valores de capacidade de retenção de água e óleo, pela alta solubilidade e maiores teores de carotenoides (15,56 ± 0,35 mg/100g). A farinha de mirtilo foi a que apresentou o maior poder antioxidante pelo método DPPH (4,62 ± 0,18 IC50 em mg de farinha) e maior teor de compostos fenólicos (23,59 ± 0.85 mg/g GAE), além disso exibiu alto teor de antocianinas. Devido a estas propriedades, a farinha e o extrato do resíduo de mirtilo foram incorporados à gelatina do resíduo do processamento de cápsulas nutracêuticas de óleo de chia para o desenvolvimento de filmes biodegradáveis ativos. Os filmes foram avaliados em relação as suas propriedades mecânicas, de barreira ao vapor da água e luz UV, capacidade antioxidante e aplicação como embalagem em produtos alimentícios. Os resultados sugeriram que a adição de fibras promoveu uma diminuição da resistência à tração e aumento na permeabilidade ao vapor da água. No entanto, a adição de fibra também proporcionou um aumento significativo na barreira de luz UV a 500 nm, sendo eficaz na redução da oxidação lipídica de óleo de girassol. Os filmes com adição de extrato não exibiram alteração nas propriedades mecânicas ou de barreira em comparação com a formulação controle. Além disso, estes filmes exibiram capacidade antioxidante estável por 28 dias. Filmes desenvolvidos com a farinha de mamão e resíduos de gelatina apresentaram comportamento similar aos filmes com resíduos de mirtilo, já que a farinha de mamão também alterou algumas propriedades originais do filme como as propriedades mecânicas e de barreira, e agregaram poder antioxidante. Com o objetivo de melhorar essas propriedades foram então desenvolvidas micropartículas de farinha de casca de mamão em spray drying utilizando o resíduo de gelatina como material de parede. Os resultados indicaram que as micropartículas de casca de mamão ao serem adicionadas na gelatina originaram uma matriz de filme mais contínua e homogênea com aumento da resistência à tração e do módulo de Young. Os filmes com micropartículas (7,5%), quando aplicados como material de embalagem para banha de porco, foram os mais eficientes como barreiras ativas (maior atividade antioxidante), pois um menor teor de peróxidos, dienos e trienos conjugados foram quantificados na amostra após 22 dias. A farinha de resíduos da produção de azeite de oliva também foi utilizada para o desenvolvimento de filmes biodegradáveis, porém o biopolimero utilizado foi a quitosana. A incorporação de farinha de resíduo de oliva na matriz de quitosana também causou alterações na morfologia, tornando o filme mais heterogêneo e áspero. Por esse motivo foram testadas a adição de micropartículas de farinha de oliva nos filmes. A adição de 10% de micropartículas de oliva melhorou significativamente a resistência à tração dos filmes sem alterar as suas propriedades originais. A farinha e as micropartículas de oliva aumentaram a capacidade antioxidante dos filmes, esse aumento foi proporcional à concentração de farinha ou micropartículas adicionadas ao filme. Os filmes com 30% de farinha ou micropartículas foram eficazes como embalagem protetora contra a oxidação de nozes durante 31 dias. A partir dos resultados obtidos neste trabalho fica evidenciado a viabilidade do uso de resíduos da indústria de alimentos e resíduos da indústria de cápsulas nutracêuticas para o desenvolvimento de filmes e uso como embalagens biodegradáveis em diferentes produtos.
Every day tons of fruit processing residues are discarded worldwide that could be harnessed for their high nutritional and functional power and that end up being wasted and generating problems for the environment. Another inadequate disposal that aggravates this environmental problem is the plastic packaging, which when not subjected to the recycling process bring huge damages. Due to these factors, this study aims at the utilization of by-products of the food industry for the development of active biodegradable packaging. Firstly, four residues obtained from different fruits, processing residue of blueberry juice (bagasse), processing residue of olive oil (bagasse), peels of papaya and pineapple were evaluated. The physicochemical, functional and antioxidant properties of these residues were analyzed, and in general, all showed high total dietary fiber content. In relation to the functional properties, papaya flour was distinguished by high water and oil retention capacity, high solubility and higher carotenoid content (15.56 ± 0.35 mg / 100g). The blueberry flour had the highest antioxidant power by the DPPH method (4.62 ± 0.18 IC50 in mg of flour) and a higher content of phenolic compounds (23.59 ± 0.85 mg / g GAE), in addition, it exhibited a high content of anthocyanins. Due to these properties, the flour and extract of the blueberry residue were incorporated into the gelatin from the processing residue of chia oleuroceutical capsules for the development of active biodegradable films for packaging. The films were evaluated in relation to their mechanical properties, water vapor barrier, and UV light, antioxidant capacity and application as packaging in food products. The results suggested that fiber addition promoted a decrease in tensile strength and an increase in water vapor permeability. However, the addition of fiber also provided a significant increase in the UV light barrier at 500 nm being effective in reducing the lipid oxidation of sunflower oil. Films with added extract showed no change in mechanical or barrier properties compared to the control formulation. In addition, these films exhibited a stable antioxidant capacity for 28 days. Films developed with papaya flour and gelatin residues showed similar behavior to films with blueberry residues since papaya flour also altered some of the original properties of the film as mechanical and barrier properties, and added antioxidant power. In order to improve these properties microparticles of papaya peel flour were then developed in spray drying using the gelatin residue as the wall material. The results indicated that the microparticles of papaya peel, when added to gelatin, gave a more continuous and homogeneous film matrix increasing tensile strength and Young's modulus. Microparticles films (7.5%), when applied as packaging material for lard, were the most efficient as active barriers (higher antioxidant activity) because a lower peroxide content was quantified in the sample after 22 days. The residue flour from olive oil production was also used for the development of biodegradable films, but the biopolymer used was chitosan. The incorporation of olive residue flour in the chitosan matrix also caused changes in the morphology, making the film more heterogeneous and rough. For this reason, the addition of olive flour microparticles in the films was tested. The addition of 10% of olive microparticles significantly improved the tensile strength of films without altering their original properties. The flour and the microparticles of olive increased the antioxidant capacity of the films; this increase was proportional to the concentration of flour or micro added to the film. Films with 30% flour or microparticles were effective as protective packaging against Walnut oxidation for 31 days. From the results obtained in this work, it is evident the viability of the use of residues from the food and waste industry of the nutraceutical capsule industry for the development of films and use as biodegradable packaging in different products.

Thesis (MBA (Business Management))--University of Stellenbosch, 2007.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The increasing global demand for and dependency on oil provides tremendous opportunities for oil-producing countries. Supported by the unprecedented economic growth in developing countries such as China and India, the global demand for oil is estimated to increase by 50% from the present 83 million barrels a day to 120 million barrels a day by 2025. This increased demand for oil provides the African oil industry with vast possibilities. Countries such as Angola, Cameroon and Nigeria are already experiencing a large increase in direct foreign investment, a higher Gross National Product en more favourable balance of trade. The logical conclusion from the abovementioned advantages of oil-rich countries would seem to imply a sharp rise in the standard of living for the citizens of these countries in the recent past. The purpose of this report is to determine if Angola, as the world’s fastest growing oil-producer in terms of increased production of barrels per day, offers its citizens an economically prosperous future. Points highlighted by the report include the inevitable problems caused by Angola’s colonial history and the recent twenty seven year long civil war. Angola faces internal and external problems caused by • “Dutch Disease” • Fluctuating oil prices • Poor governance • Institutional capacity China now plays an important if somewhat controversial role in Angola’s prosperity by providing finance and aid with less stringent conditions than Angola’s traditional sources. With Chinese aid Angola is now undertaking the rebuilding of its infrastructure which is essential to counteract the negative aspects of the country’s dependency on oil resource exploitation. There is still significant corruption within the oil industry and it seems clear that any attempts by international companies and non-governmental organisations to counteract the problem will have limited success unless the governments and all concerned parties take note of and accept new ethical and socially responsible codes of behaviour. Africa however is entering a new phase of accepting responsibility for its own internal problems. The democratisation of the continent is setting new standards for the fight against corruption. Finally the report indicates that there are lessons to be learned from other countries about using income from natural resources to benefit future generations. Countries such as Botswana (diamonds) and Norway (oil) use investment funds to limit their dependence on the resources and to counteract the effect of fluctuating prices of the commodities. Bearing in mind the above considerations, Angola cannot be expected to achieve success overnight, but the country has all that is required to eventually assume its rightful position on the continent and become another African economic success story.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die wêreld se toenemende vraag na- en afhanklikheid van olie bied tans geweldige geleenthede vir olie-produserende lande. Daar word beraam dat die wêreldwye vraag na olie, gesteun deur ongekende ekonomiese groei in ontwikkelende lande soos China en Indië, met meer as 50% van die huidige vlak van 83 miljoen vate per dag teen 2025 tot 120 miljoen vate per dag sal toeneem. Die moontlikhede wat hierdie verhoogde vraag vir die oliebedryf in Afrika bied, is legio. Lande soos Angola, Kameroen en Nigerië ondervind reeds ʼn groot toename in direkte buitelandse investering, ’n verhoging in bruto binnelandse produk en gunstiger handelsbalanse. In die lig van bogenoemde voordele vir lande wat ryk is aan oliehulpbronne, sou die logiese afleiding wees dat die lewenstandaard van die burgers van hierdie lande die afgelope paar jaar drasties moes verhoog het. Hierdie verslag het dit ten doel om te sien of Angola, wat die wêreld se vinnigs groeiende olieprodusent in terme van verhoogde produksie in vate per dag is, werklik sy burgers ekonomiese voorspoed vir die toekoms bied. Belangrike punte wat in die verslag na vore kom, is die onvermydelike probleme waarmee Angola te kampe het weens die land se historiese agtergrond en die onlangse burgeroorlog van sewe-en-twintig jaar. Interne en eksterne probleme wat Angola teister is die gevolge van • “Dutch Disease” • Skommelende oliepryse • Swak staatsbestuur • Institusionele kapasiteit China is ’n nuwe, hoewel ietwat kontroversiële, faktor in Angola se vooruitgang en stel minder beperkende voorwaardes as Angola se tradisionele bronne vir finansiering en hulpverlening. Met Chinese hulp is Angola nou besig met die heropbou van sy infrastruktuur, wat noodsaaklik is as hy die negatiewe aspekte van die land se afhanlikheid van olie-ontginning wil afskud. Korrupsie binne die oliebedryf is egter nog beduidend en dit is duidelik dat die pogings van internasionale maatskappye en nie-regeringsorganisasies om die probleem die hoof te bied, beperk sal bly tensy die regerings en alle belanghebbende partye kennis neem van nuwe etiese en sosiaal verantwoordelike optredes en dit aanvaar. Afrika gaan deur ’n nuwe fase waar die vasteland self verantwoordelikheid aanvaar vir sy interne probleme. Die demokratisering van die vasteland behels die aanvaarding van nuwe standaarde ten opsigte van die bekamping van korrupsie. Ten slotte noem die verslag dat daar lesse te leer is van ander lande wat hul inkomste uit hulpbron-ontginning tot voordeel van toekomstige geslagte aanwend. Lande soos Botswana (diamante) en Noorweë (olie) maak gebruik van beleggingsfondse om die land se afhanklikheid van die hulpbron te beperk en om die uitwerking van prysskommelings van die kommoditeit teen te werk. Met inagneming van bogenoemde oorwegings kan nie verwag word dat Angola oornag ekonomiese sukses sal behaal nie, maar die land het alles wat nodig is om mettertyd sy regmatige plek op die vasteland in te neem en na vore te tree as nog ’n ekonomiese suksesverhaal uit Afrika.

Projeto de Pós-Graduação/Dissertação apresentado à Universidade Fernando Pessoa como parte dos requisitos para obtenção do grau de Mestre em Ciências Farmacêuticas
As indústrias agroalimentares produzem anualmente grandes quantidades de resíduos cuja valorização é mínima ou nula. Atualmente sabe-se que apenas uma pequena parte é reaproveitada para a alimentação direta de animais ou para compostagem. Tendo em conta que esses resíduos contêm importantes teores de nutrientes e de compostos bioativos, são aqui referidas algumas vias alternativas de aproveitamento desses subprodutos, nomeadamente para a indústria farmacêutica. Esta estratégia de gestão de resíduos, para além de valorizar fortemente um subproduto, diminui consideravelmente a carga poluente resultante da atividade agroindustrial. A sustentabilidade é um conceito bastante complexo que se resume no desenvolvimento económico e social, sem provocar grandes danos ao ambiente e aos recursos naturais. Atualmente existem inúmeros casos de aproveitamento e consequente valorização de materiais que no passado eram rejeitados pelas indústrias agroalimentares e que devem servir de exemplo para todos os processos de produção alimentar, potenciando outras indústrias, como a farmacêutica. Assim, a utilização de recursos subaproveitados, com o objetivo de aumentar a produtividade e criar riqueza, terá de merecer, cada vez mais, maior atenção. A nível nacional, os setores mais importantes são os da vitivinícola, produção de azeite, setor cervejeiro, produção de frutas e hortaliças e de torrefação do café. Atendendo a este mercado emergente, neste trabalho tentou-se caracterizar os resíduos alimentares que apresentam maior impacto ambiental, social e económico, através de uma descrição detalhada da caracterização química e propriedades biológicas dos constituintes químicos presentes nestes resíduos e que podem beneficiar a indústria farmacêutica.
Each year, the agri-food industries produce large amounts of waste, which are often discarded. Only a minor percentage is usually used for animal feeding or for composting. As this waste contains important amounts of nutrients and bioactive compounds, routes for their recovery and valorization are here identified, in particular to pharmaceutical industry. The adoption of such strategy of waste management also results in a strong decrease of its pollution burden. Sustainability is a complex concept that can be explained as the economic and social development without causing significant damages to the environment and natural resources. Currently there are many cases reporting the use and valorization of materials that were rejected by the food industries and this should be an example for all food producing processes, enhancing other industries, as the pharmaceutical industry. Thus, the use of underutilized resources, in order to increase productivity and create wealth, must have to earn increasingly greater attention. At the national level the most important sectors are the wine, olive oil, beer industry, fruits and vegetables production and coffee roasting. In view of this emerging market, this study attempted to characterize the main food waste with the greatest environmental, social and economic impact, through a detailed description of the chemical and biological properties that many of the chemical constituents present in these residues may provide in the pharmaceutical industry.

Olive (Olea europaea, Z.), an evergreen tree has been cultivated for thousands years, in many semi-arid and arid mountainous areas surrounding the Mediterranean Sea. Olive oil is extracted from the olive fruit by mechanical means, without any chemical treatment thus preserving all of its natural constituents, which are responsible for the unique flavor, as appreciated by consumers. This thesis concentrates on the important factors that might affect the quality of olive oil. These comprise: cultivar / agricultural methods / weather / processing / storage. Of the quantitative and qualitative results obtained, the following are of particular interest. The olive variety influenced the chemical composition and sensory quality of the olive oil. Particularly affected were the composition of fatty acids, sterols, aliphatic and triterpene alcohols, phenolic compounds and sensory attributes. Osmotic stress, due to no irrigation or to saline irrigation, influenced the size and oil content of the fruit and the composition of triacylglycerol molecular species, fatty acids, total phenols, secoiridoid derivatives as well as volatile compounds and sensory attributes of olive oil The processing methods affected the sensory quality and the phenolic compounds of olive oil. The most significant variations occured mainly due to the quantity of water added to the system of extraction and the duration and temperature of malaxation. The alteration of these during the extraction process was reflected in oxidative processes. The rate of olive oil oxidation was a function of both the time and the various conditions of storage. Virgin olive oil keeps its qualitative characteristics under the category of extra virgin olive oil for 15 months if it is stored in tin containers indoors at room temperature and with nitrogen in the headspace. The present studies provide information for the olive oil industry in order to improve the overall olive oil quality by optimising each step of the production chain.

De la plantation des oliviers à leur récolte, depuis les moulins jusqu’au design des bouteilles d’huile d’olive, mon enquête propose une relecture de la filière oléicole à l’aune de la division sexuée du travail. Cette culture emblématique de la Méditerranée offre un cadre pertinent pour questionner plus largement les rapports sociaux de sexe à l’œuvre dans le fonctionnement de l’agriculture, au sein des familles rurales, et dans l’économie de la province de Jaén.À partir de matériaux ethnographiques collectés lors d’un terrain en Andalousie entre 2021 et 2023, ma thèse invite à retracer la genèse de la « mer d’oliviers » pour comprendre comment les femmes ont été privées de l’accès aux terres, écartées des imaginaires liés à la production de ce paysage, et reléguées aux marges, à l’image de la position subalterne qu’occupe l’Andalousie dans la construction de l’Espagne moderne.J’analyse par la suite le fonctionnement patriarcal de l’agriculture familiale, au sein duquel s’opère un premier apprentissage des hiérarchies par les membres de la famille, et ce d’autant plus dans le contexte des petites exploitations de Jaén. Je resserre ensuite l’analyse sur la saison de récolte des olives pour donner à voir comment les hommes et les femmes « vont aux olives ». Je montre que, d’une part, la division sexuée opère un partage inégalitaire des rôles et des outils qui est défavorable aux femmes, et que, d’autre part, la récente modernisation de la récolte vient paradoxalement creuser ces inégalités et évincer les femmes de cette étape clé du secteur et des ressources qu’elle génère.Enfin, parce que la filière oléicole ne se réduit plus aux seules oliveraies et huileries coopératives, mon enquête explore les nouvelles branches du secteur pour comprendre pourquoi et dans quelles conditions les femmes investissent particulièrement les moulins privés, la chimie, la dégustation ou le tourisme, des nouveaux mondes oléicoles à partir desquels je questionne une féminisation de la filière.Ainsi, cette thèse donne à comprendre comment les femmes, à l’ombre des oliviers, participent activement à la vie économique et sociale de la province depuis diverses places au sein d’un continuum allant des activités de subsistance aux professions qualifiées, en passant par le travail domestique et les emplois de journalières agricoles
From the planting of olive trees to their harvest, from milling to the design of bottles, my research seeks to shed light on the olive oil supply chain, through the lens of the gendered division of labor. This emblematic Mediterranean crop provides a relevant framework for a broader examination of the gender relations at work in agriculture, within rural families, and in the economy of the province of Jaén.Based on ethnographic materials collected during fieldwork in Andalusia between 2021 and 2023, my thesis invites us to retrace the genesis of the « sea of olive trees » to understand how women were denied access to the land, excluded from the iMáginaries linked to the production of this landscape, and relegated to the margins, reflecting in many ways the subaltern position occupied by Andalusia itself in the construction of modern Spain.I subsequently analyze the patriarchal functioning of family agriculture, within which family members first learn about hierarchies, and even more so in the context of Jaén’s numerous small family farms. I then focus my analysis on the olive harvest season to show how, on the one hand, the gendered division of roles and tools works to the disadvantage of women and how, on the other, the recent modernization of harvesting techniques paradoxically deepens these inequalities and squeezes women out of this key stage of the supply chain and the resources it generates.Finally, because the olive supply chain is no longer comprised of solely olive groves and cooperative oil mills, my research explores new branches of the sector with the ambition of understanding the motivations and conditions under which women are investing in, specifically, private mills, food chemistry, oil tastings, or tourism. In other words, new olive-growing worlds from which I examine a broader feminization of the supply chain.This dissertation shows how, from under the symbolic canopy of olive trees, women actively participated in the province's economic and social life from various positions on a continuum ranging from subsistence activities to so-called skilled professions, from domestic housework to agricultural day labor

Com a busca pela praticidade e rapidez na obtenção dos resultados, torna-se cada vez mais importante a implementação de métodos que possam ponderar se os resultados quantitativos são realmente necessários. Os métodos qualitativos são utilizados como uma triagem que antecedem a quantificação e que permite uma redução tanto de tempo como de custos. Estes métodos têm cada vez mais ganhado importância e o uso instrumental proporcionou novas perspectivas e garantia de uma maior confiabilidade e aplicabilidade. O desenvolvimento de metodologias qualitativas aliando métodos instrumentais e quimiometria podem ser apropriados para autenticação de amostras. Desta forma, associado à espectroscopia na região do ultravioleta e visível (UV-Vis) o método quimiométrico de reconhecimento de padrões supervisionado de mínimos quadrados parciais com análise discriminante (PLS-DA), mostrou ser uma ferramenta capaz de autenticar amostras de óleo de soja transgênica e não transgênica, bem como, a autenticação de azeite de oliva extra virgem de acordo com os percentuais de acidez. Além disso, o método proposto permite uma análise rápida e não destrutiva da amostra. Nos estudos, a autenticação de óleos de sojas transgênicos e não transgênicos pode ser atribuída ao deslocamento batocrômico, provavelmente devido às diferenças no grupo cromóforo presente nas amostras transgênicas e não transgênicas, enquanto que nos azeites extra virgem de diferentes percentuais de acidez a autenticação pode ser atribuída a ocorrência de efeitos hipercrômico e hipocrômico. A espectroscopia na região do UV-Vis permitiu a autenticação geográfica de azeites de oliva da região do Mediterrâneo através do método quimiométrico de análise de componentes independentes (ICA). Por ser um método baseado na independência estatística, diferenças entre as amostras provenientes de diferentes países banhados pelo mar Mediterrâneo puderam ser discriminadas, bem como amostras provenientes de um mesmo país.
The search for practical and quickly results increase the importance of methodologies that can ponder if the quantitative results are really needed. The qualitative methods are used as a prior screening to quantification and allows a reduction of time and costs. These methods have increasingly its importance and the instrumental employ provided new perspectives and ensuring greater reliability and applicability. The development of qualitative methods combining instrumental and chemometric can be appropriate for authentication samples. Thus, coupled with spectroscopy in the ultraviolet and visible region (UV-Vis) the supervised pattern recognition method of partial least squares with discriminant analysis (PLS-DA), showed be a tool to authenticate transgenic and non-transgenic soybean oil samples, as well, extra virgin olive oil according to the acidity percentage. Furthermore, the proposed method promote a rapid and non-destructive analysis of the samples. Authentication studies of transgenic and non transgenic soybeans oils can be attributed to the bathochromic shift, due to differences in the chromophore group present in the transgenic and non transgenic samples, while in the extra virgin olive oils with different acidity percentages the authentication can be attributed to the occurrence of hyperchromic and hypochromic effects. UV-Vis spectroscopy allowed the geographic authentication of extra virgin olive oils from the Mediterranean region through the chemometric method of independent component analysis (ICA). Due the ICA be a method based on statistical independence, differences between samples from different countries around the Mediterranean Sea were authenticated, as well the samples from the same country.

Mestrado em Biotecnologia
O objetivo deste trabalho incidiu no desenvolvimento de um processo multi-stage económico para a produção de polímeros biodegradáveis, polihidroxialcanoatos (PHA), por culturas microbianas mistas, usando como matéria-prima águas residuais de lagares de azeite. Neste processo foram utilizadas águas residuais de lagares de azeite pré-fermentadas, nas quais 60% do conteúdo de CQO (Carência Química de Oxigénio) solúvel foi convertido em ácidos gordos voláteis (AGV) que são substratos mais directos para a produção de PHA. Esta corrente rica em AGV foi utilizada como alimento na fase sucessiva do processo, efetuada num reator descontínuo sequencial (SBR) à escala laboratorial. O objetivo desta etapa foi a selecção e enriquecimento da cultura mista microbiana em microrganismos com capacidade de acumulação de PHA elevada e estável, recorrendo ao regime de “fome e fartura”. Foram testadas duas cargas orgânicas diferentes no SBR – 2.37 e 4.74 g L-1 d-1 (referentes a CQO solúvel) – diluindo as águas residuais pré-fermentadas com meio mineral. A resposta de acumulação da cultura selecionada com a carga orgânica mais elevada foi estudada na etapa seguinte, tendo como objetivo o aumento do conteúdo intracelular de polímero na biomassa, através de uma estratégia de alimentação por pulsos sucessivos das águas residuais (as quais possuem baixo conteúdo de azoto) não diluídas. O polímero produzido consistia no poli β-hidroxibutirato-hidroxivalerato [P(HB-HV)] contendo entre 10 e 15% (w/w) de HV. Por fim foi desenvolvido o processo de extração do PHA obtido através de um processo de separação sólido-líquido seguido de digestão química com hipoclorito de sódio. Este estudo permitiu determinar o potencial do processo proposto para transformar resíduos orgânicos, como águas residuais de lagares de azeite, em produtos de valor acrescentado.
The aim of this research was the development of a low-cost multi-stage process for the production of biodegradable polymers, polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs), by using mixed microbial cultures (MMCs) and olive oil mill effluents (OMEs) as feedstock. Prefermented OMEs were used, in which about 60% of the soluble chemical oxygen demand (COD) had been transformed into volatile fatty acids (VFAs) that are more direct substrates for PHA storage. This VFA-rich stream was fed to a successive stage performed in a lab scale sequencing batch reactor (SBR), 1 L working volume. The aim of this stage was to select and enrich MMCs in microorganisms with high and stable storage ability through the establishment of “feast and famine” regime. Two different organic loading rates (OLRs) – 2.34 and 4.74 g L-1 d-1 (referred to the soluble COD) – were assayed in the SBR by diluting the fermented OMEs (soluble COD = 23.7 ± 1.1 g L-1) with mineral medium. The storage response of the microbial culture selected at the higher investigated OLR was analyzed in a following stage, aimed at maximizing the intracellular PHA content in the biomass by successive pulse feeding of no diluted OME (whose nitrogen content is very low). The produced polymer was a poly β-hydroxybutyrate-hydroxyvalerate [P(HB-HV)] with an HV content between 10 and 15 % (w/w). Finally, the attention has been paid at developing the further PHA recovery stage which consisted in a solid-liquid separation followed by chemical digestion using sodium hypochlorite. In conclusion, this study pinpoints the great potential of the proposed process to convert organic wastes, such as OMEs, into valuable products.

Mestrado em Engenharia Alimentar - Processamento de Alimentos - Instituto Superior de Agronomia
Olive oil has been widely used in the cuisine of the Mediterranean basin, due to its organoleptic properties and also to its oxidative thermostability.ascribed to the richness in monounsaturated fatty acids and high concentration of natural antioxidants. Two heating trials were performed to.evaluate the thermostability of two olive oils with the name: “extra virgin olive oil” and “olive oil” (moisture of virgin olive oil with refined olive oil): one of these trial consisted on heating at 180ºC (±2ºC) during 63 hours and the other one was a heating trial with frying periods of frozen potato chips, for 45 hours. Several physico-chemical parameters were evaluated in the different olive oil samples collected along the experiments: viscosity, acidity, peroxide index, p-anisidine, absorbance in the UV (232 and 270 nm), polar compounds and fatty acid profile. The results showed that oxidation was higher in the samples heated at 180°C than in the corresponding samples from the trials with frying periods due to the decrease in temperature when the frozen potatoes were immersed in the olive oil. The extra virgin olive oil showed more stability than the “olive oil”, due to the presence of higher concentrations of natural antioxidants which are removed during refining

Throughout Australia, a great number of resources have been devoted to the burgeoning billion dollar Australian olive industry. Recently a rapid increase in olive oil production has been witnessed. This growth combined with aggressive international competition will see pressure put on Australian producers to supply quality and price-effective olive oil into the Australian market. This will require a detailed understanding of consumers' perceptions of and thoughts about olive oil and a comprehension of how, when, where and why consumers utilise olive oil.

The principal objective of this study was to extract olive oil from the fruit of Olea europaea by means of supercritical carbon dioxide (sc-C02) as an alternative to traditional methods. Extractions were performed on a laboratory scale supercritical fluid extractor of the latest design, featuring three mutually independent flow systems and extremely high flow rates. A number of extraction runs based on a statistical design was performed to establish the conditions (time, pressure, temperature) for a maximum yield of extracted olive oil. These conditions turned out to be 50 OC and 460 atm (corresponding density of 0.953 g/mL) for a 60 minute extraction run. The influence of different variables on the yield of extracted oil was investigated by means of computer-assisted surface response analysis. Additional extraction runs were performed at selected conditions to make reliable conclusions regarding the temperature, pressure and density dependencies of the extraction process and the nature of the mechanism of extraction. The density of the extracting fluid was found to be the key variable which limits the extraction by the extent to which olive oil dissolves in sc-CO2. The composition of the sc-C02 derived oil was determined by GC-GCTTOF-MS analysis and compared to that of commercial olive oil. A total of 27 peaks were detected in the chromatogram of the sc-C02 derived oil as opposed to 37 peaks observed for commercial olive oil. These peaks could all be identified, and the two major components in the sc-C02 derived olive oil are hexadecanoic and oleic acid. The quality and composition of the oil were evaluated against standard specifications of the International Olive Oil Council and classified on the basis of these criteria as lampante olive oil. This oil is suitable for industrial use but not for human consumption.
Thesis (M.Sc. (Pharmaceutical Chemistry))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2006.

Mestrado em Biotecnologia
O objectivo principal deste trabalho foi estudar a aplicação de líquidos iónicos de cadeia alquílica longa na formação de sistemas micelares, para melhorar a hidrólise enzimática de azeite comercial com o objectivo de produzir ácidos gordos de valor acrescentado. Este trabalho está dividido em duas partes. Na primeira, diferentes parâmetros, como o tipo e concentração de líquido iónicos e a razão volumétrica água/óleo, foram estudados com o objectivo de determinar as condições capazes de criar emulsões mais estáveis. A segunda parte incluiu a optimização das condições da reacção de hidrólise de forma a maximizar a produção dos ácidos gordos. Nesta fase, os parâmetros estudados foram a velocidade de agitação, a quantidade de enzima, a temperatura, o pH e a força iónica do sal usado para tamponizar a reação. Os resultados obtidos mostram que a actividade da CaLB aumentou 1.6 vezes, quando a reacção de hidrólise foi realizada a 314.2 (±0.1) K, 400 rpm, 2.08 mg proteina/mL e a formulação da emulsão era 15% azeite, 85 % (v/v) de tamão fosfato de sódio e 0.100 M de [C10mim]Cl. Assim, a superactividade da lipase foi conseguida, embora o seu valor seja menor que o reportado em literatura para outros sistemas reacionais de hidrólise usando a CaLB.
The main objective of this work was to study the application of long alkyl chain ionic liquids in the formation of micellar systems to improve the enzymatic hydrolysis of a commercial olive oil to produce valuable fatty acids. This work was divided in two major parts. The first part addresses the optimization of the emulsion preparation, where different parameters were studied in order to determine the conditions capable to create the most stable emulsion, namely the ionic liquid type and concentration and different water/olive oil volumetric ratios. The second part includes the optimization of the hydrolysis reaction conditions in order to maximize the fatty acids production. Here, the stirring speed, the amount of enzyme added to the reaction systems, the temperature, the pH and the ionic strength of the buffer used to maintain the pH during all the reaction experiments, were the parameters studied. The results obtained showed that the CaLB activity increased 1.6 times, when the hydrolysis was performed at 314.2 (±0.1) K, 400 rpm, 2.08 mg protein/mL and the emulsion was composed of 15% of olive oil, 85 % (v/v) of sodium phosphate buffer and 0.100 M of [C10mim]Cl. In summary, the lipase superactivity was achieved although its value was much lower than the reported in literature for other hydrolysis reactions using CaLB.

This dissertation project examines how value is changed and created through organic certification and the universalizing ideas of capacity building within the olive oil industry in Jordan and how these shifts affect the social and material processes of production. I approach organic olive oil production in Jordan as one method that producers use in accessing markets and capacity building. By shifting from looking strictly at organic certified farms to examining the larger context of capacity building and international standards, I identify how organic is just one strategy in a larger effort to diversify Jordanian agricultural production and to access global markets. However, more work needs to be done to elucidate how development shapes organic and other ‘alternative’ initiatives differently than in European and North American contexts. In order to do this, I incorporate postcolonial critiques of GPN and critical development studies to further our understanding how of these certifications and standards are taken up, challenged, and sometimes abandoned in favor of other production methods in local spaces of the Global South. The local embeddedness of olive oil production and the relative recent history of export provide a unique opportunity for examining how producers, organizations, governments, and universities create new export industries. In order to trace how these capacities are built, this dissertation examines the following questions: how is value redefined as producers try to access distant consumers? What are the material and social strategies? In answering these questions, I examine three types of value: taste/sensory, organic/environmental, and gendered tradition. Through the examination of these values, I found that they were each built through a mechanism: re-asetheticizing local taste, creating a new commodity network, and pushing domestic labor into the public sphere. Each mechanism has intended and unintended consequences for the social relations of production. In summary, this dissertation explores the use (and abandonment) of organic certification within the larger context of development and capacity building in Jordan. In order to explore how value is being created in new ways, the three empirical chapters examine extra virginity, organic certification, and women’s rural organizations. By looking beyond a singular commodity chain, this dissertation examines the processes through which institutional assemblages are formed and destabilized. Therefore, each of the three empirical chapters covers a different aspect of the institutions that are defining value within the larger network of the olive industry. This approach will further our understanding of how quality and conventions function in systems under transition. (Higgins, Dibden, and Cocklin 2008a). Together these findings provide a broad picture of efforts in Jordan to improve and expand the Jordanian olive oil industry. A large aspect of this effort is to produce exportable olive oil. While only a small percentage of producers are exporting, governmental and development networks want to build the capacity of the olive industry so that more farmers are producing to international standards. Through this broad initiative, traditional ideas of quality and the best practices of production are being challenged. These shifts create new networks and products through which rural producers try to capture value. While the overall ramifications of this shift for the average farmer are small now, with further government standardizing, production and its associated social relations could be significantly changed. The traditional farmers who were able to sell within their personal networks may lose their ability to sell flexibly, and simultaneously larger irrigated producers may flourish, having larger environmental impacts.

The aim of this thesis is the optimization of the anaerobic digestion of wastes derived from olive oil production, which represent one important economic sector of all the Mediterranean Countries. The main byproducts of this activity are the semi-solid Olive Pomace (OP), characterized by low pH, high content of organic matter and in particular of ligno-cellulosic materials, and a liquid one, the Olive Mill Waste Water (OMWW) which have a dark color, low pH and high content of polyphenolic substances. Because their features, these wastes are very polluting and not recommended with the traditional methods, which consists essentially to dispose on the soil with the consequent alteration of the chemical characteristics of the ground and the possibility to contaminate the groundwater. For these reasons anaerobic digestion represents the most sustainable method to treat these wastes, which permits the production of a gas rich in methane and a stabilized sludge poor in organic matter, the digestate usable as fertilizer. A first test, conducted in laboratory scale (about 100 ml) was made in order to evaluate the biogas production from a 10% w/w mixture composed by OP and OMWW. The biogas production was very low (0.22 NL/L) and consequentially the efficiency of process resulted of 0.3%. The high poly-phenols content in the OMWW are responsible of the inhibition of the methanogenic bacteria activity and owing the lignocelluloses nature of the largest organic structures determined the low biodegradability of the OP and OMWW. The first part of the thesis’ work consisted in the identification of the effects of chemical and physical pretreatments by AD fermentation tests in order to evaluate the biogas and methane production, abatement of the organic matter and reduction of the lag phase of 133 pretreated OP and OMWW to score the best one. In addition, considering that AD is aimed to produce energy, operational energy costs to perform the pretreatments were investigated, based on the consumption of direct energy (heat and electricity) as well as the indirect energy spent to produce the chemicals used. To this aim an Energy Sustainability Index (ESI) were introduced and applied to select the most efficient pretreatment method from an energy sustainability perspective. The simply dilution of OP with tap water (WP) has a beneficial effect in the anaerobic digestion, improving over 57 times the energy production respect to un-treated waste (NP). However considering the CH4 production, the best pretreatments resulted to be the CaCO3, FeCl3 addition and the ultrasonic pretreatment, which had an efficacy of 108, the highest among the tested pretreatment processes. Between the three best pretreatments the addition of 5g/L of CaCO3 to the reaction medium, resulted the only one able to give a positive energy balance between the energy obtained and that spent, due to the low energy required for the CaCO3 production. The CaCO3 pretreatment permits to pass from an efficiency of 0.3% to about 21%. After the identification of the CaCO3 addition as the best pretreatment, a test including the same OP- OMWW mixture with 5 g/L of CaCO3 has been conducted in a CSTR reactor having a volume of 2 Liters. Since the beginning of the prove, it was evident a problem with the mixing system due to a elevate value of the mixture’s viscosity, 160- 200 cP. The Rushton impeller resulted totally unable to guarantee an homogenous mixing of the reactor medium. In fact, the Rushton impeller can give a boost to the fluid only in a radial direction, resulting to be inefficient along the axial one and not able to guarante the circulation of the solid present in the feed, derived mainly from the breaking of the olive seeds during the olive oil production’s process. To improve the mixing of the reaction medium, four different impellers were tested:  Pelton Impeller;  Rushton impeller with six 45° inclined blades;  Marine Impeller with 3 blades;  Anchor Impeller. The best performances were obtained with the marine and the anchor impellers. The first is designed to guarantee mainly an axial movement to the fermenting fluid, which, at constant rpm, results to be superior than the Rushton with inclined blades. it guarantees also a radial movement to the reaction medium, which consents to involve in the mixing all 134 the reactor volume. Conversely, the optimal performances of the test conducted with the anchor impeller can be explained observing the presence of a well mixed region in the superior part of the reactor where anchor impeller was located, for the effect of the tangential movement given to the fluid, and a less agitated, but no stagnant, part in the inferior part of the reactor. This more quiet zone resulted ideal for the methanogenic bacteria’ conditions which do not tolerate intense mechanical stress derived from the impeller rotation. In this way their growth, reproduction and metabolism activity was favored with a consequent increasing of the methane production. An ulterior attempt to increase the efficiency of the AD process consisted in the simultaneous experimentation of the two best impellers (the marine and the anchor) with the two stage AD configuration, based on the separation into two interconnected steps, of the two distinctly different groups of bacteria (acidogens and methanogens), in order to maximize their growth by maintaining optimum conditions in each step for each particular group of bacteria. The two stage configuration resulted advantageous only for the AD conducted with the marine impeller using a reactor with a semi spherical bottom to improve the solids circulation. In this test the efficiency passed from 22.64% (mono-stage) to 30.24% (two stage configuration) with an improvement of rhe efficacy (η) of 1.34 times. Conversely, the two stage has worsened the efficiency of the AD with the anchor impeller whose efficiency dropped down from over 33% to 17.5%, which corresponds to η = 0.52. The marine impeller, in fact, gives an axial boots to the reaction medium which permits to the gas bubbles to leave the reaction volume, preventing the inhibition of the reactions involved in the AD. The semi-spherical bottom of the reactor also had a beneficial effect on the AD, permitting a better homogenization of the biomass and of the substrates into the reaction medium. Conversely, the anchor impeller which give a strong radial impulse and only a gentle axial movement to the reaction medium. This configuration gives a behavior, which can be similar to an UASB reactor, permits the growth, the reproduction and the activity of the methanogenic microorganisms which are not disturbed by strong mechanical stress transmitted by the mixing system. Although this good aspect, the quasi stagnant region does not consent the complete degassing of the hydrogen gas in the first acidogenic phase from the reaction medium. On the contrary the anchor impeller has not any impact on the mono-stage configuration where the biogas is formed essentially by methane, but has a strong inhibiting effect on the two stage configuration where the formed hydrogen is a reaction intermediate products. Lastly, a continuous test has been conducted using a pilot reactor having a working volume 135 of 1,800 liters. The olive oil production’s wastes were fed with milk whey, a byproduct form dairy activity. The codigestion was conducted in mesophilic conditions and had a duration of 75 days. The system reached a stationary condition with a biogas production of 1.4 L/L and a methane content of 70-75% v/v. This gas flow has an energetic annual potential of 55 GJ. Taking in account that Puglia’ s annual energetic consumption is of 375,000 GJ (Piano Energetico Ambientale Regionale – Regione Puglia, 2004), the anaerobic digestion of olive oil and dairy’s waste is able to cover the 0.015% of the regional energetic demand.

Mestrado em Engenharia Alimentar - Instituto Superior de Agronomia
This thesis aimed to highlight the importance that traditional olive mills still have among small olive growers, through the analysis of socio-economic and environmental aspects. The study took place in Sertã (Beira Interior region), at the Cooperativa Agrícola dos Olivicultores de Palhais. The adopted methodology included monitoring of the olive oil production cycle of, fromolive harvesting to its processing, and subsequently physico-chemical analyzes of olive, olive pomace and wastewater from olive washing and olive oil clean-up. The results obtained allowed us to conclude that there are some aspects of processing procedure that should be improved in order to optimize the quality of olive oil as it was classified as “Lampante”. On the other hand, it would be necessary to do a more complete environmental evaluation, especially regarding the characterization and quantification of the different wastewater streams and its quantification, in order to be able to propose more sustainable alternatives than the ones currently implemented. However, it should be noticed that it was possible to illustrate the fact that traditional olive mills play a key role at a social level, in the communities where they are located.

L’olio extravergine d’oliva (Extra-Virgin Olive Oil, EVOO) e l’estratto di foglie d’ulivo (Olive Leaves Extract, OLE) rappresentano un'importante fonte di composti nutraceutici, tra cui si annoverano composti a struttura fenolica e polifenolica come i fenil alcoli, gli acidi fenolici, i lignani, i flavoni, i flavonoli ed i secoiridoidi, una classe di composti esclusivi della famiglia delle Oleaceae. I secoiridoidi principalmente presenti nell’EVOO sono l’oleaceina e l’oleocantale, mentre nelle foglie si ritrova l’oleuropeina. Questi composti possiedono proprietà nutraceutiche, quali quelle antiproliferative, cardioprotettive, antiossidanti ed antinfiammatorie. Il progetto di ricerca della mia tesi di dottorato è stato focalizzato sullo studio dei composti fenolici e polifenolici presenti nell’EVOO e nell’OLE e si è articolato in varie direttrici:  Sviluppo di metodi efficienti per l'estrazione e la purificazione di oleocantale ed oleaceina da EVOOs Durante il dottorato sono state messe a punto delle procedure che hanno permesso di ottimizzare le precedenti metodiche di estrazione e purificazione ottenendo quantità significative di oleaceina ed oleocantale con buona purezza, partendo da EVOO fresco.  Studio delle proprietà nutraceutiche di oleocantale ed oleaceina L’oleocantale e l’oleaceina estratti e purificati dagli EVOOs sono stati sottoposti a studi farmacologici al fine di investigare le loro proprietà nutraceutiche. Questi studi hanno evidenziato il ruolo dei due secoiridoidi nell'infiammazione degli adipociti associata all'obesità e nella via di segnale NF-κB. È stato possibile evidenziare la capacità dell'oleaceina di inibire la proliferazione delle cellule di melanoma cutaneo in vitro (cellule 501Mel). Inoltre, è stato provato che l'oleocantale esercita un effetto anti-fibrotico, sia su modelli in vitro che in vivo di fibrosi epatica.  Studio delle variazioni della composizione fenolica e polifenolica degli EVOOs nel tempo Queste ricerche sono state condotte analizzando differenti EVOOs mediante metodiche HPLC sviluppate in questo dottorato. I risultati di queste analisi hanno confermato che i composti fenolici presenti nell’EVOO subiscono nel tempo un processo idrolitico, che differisce in ciascun campione di EVOO ed è fortemente correlato alle condizioni di conservazione.  Studio di nuovi componenti negli EVOOs e delle loro potenziali proprietà nutraceutiche Tra i pochi studi relativi ai processi ossidativi subiti dai composti fenolici e polifenolici presenti nell’EVOO, recentemente è stato individuato un nuovo prodotto di ossidazione dell’oleocantale, l’acido oleocantalico, che da studi preliminari è risultato essere particolarmente interessante per le sue potenziali proprietà neuroprotettive. La mia attenzione si è quindi focalizzata sull’acido oleocantalico al fine di ottenerlo ad alto grado di purezza, per poterlo poi sottoporre ad ulteriori studi per investigare le sue proprietà nutraceutiche. È stata valutata per la prima volta la sua attività antiossidante, dimostrando che l’acido oleocantalico possiede un’attività radical scavenging di specie reattive dell’ossigeno.  Studio della composizione di EVOOs toscani per la determinazione della loro tracciabilità geografica Questa parte della mia attività è stata svolta nell’ambito di un progetto che si propone di sviluppare un modello che permetta di verificare e garantire l’origine dell’olio, legandolo indissolubilmente al suo territorio di produzione. In particolare, mi sono dedicata allo studio delle caratteristiche di quaranta EVOOs toscani (acidità totale, contenuto dei composti fenolici e dei principali acidi grassi) al fine di correlarle con dati relativi ad altri parametri, quali la concentrazione di macroelementi, microelementi, elementi in traccia essenziali e non essenziali, nonché terre rare, presenti sia nei campioni di EVOOs che in quelli di suolo dove gli ulivi sono stati coltivati.  Sviluppo di device utili nel campo della rigenerazione tissutale a partire da fitoestratti di foglie d’ulivo (OLEs) ottenute da ulivi di Cultivar autoctone toscane Questa parte dell’attività di ricerca è stata svolta nell’ambito di un progetto che ha come obiettivo quello di studiare fibre biocompatibili che incorporano OLEs per lo sviluppo di dispositivi biomedicali utili nel processo di rigenerazione tissutale. Nell’ambito di questo progetto mi sono dedicata all’analisi di diversi OLEs al fine di selezionare quello più appropriato in termini di composizione fenolica e polifenolica, che è stato quindi incorporato nei biopolimeri. Ho quindi confermato l’avvenuta incorporazione dell’OLE nei biopolimeri e verificato che questi fossero in grado di rilasciare i fenoli ed i polifenoli dell’OLE. Inoltre, è stato dimostrato che i biopolimeri che incorporano l’OLE possiedono promettenti proprietà anti-infiammatorie ed immunomodulatorie, utili per il possibile sviluppo dei device.
Extra-virgin olive oil (EVOO) and olive leaves extract (OLE) represent an important source of nutraceutical compounds, including phenolic and polyphenolic compounds such as phenyl alcohols, phenolic acids, lignans, flavones, flavonols and secoiridoids. Secoiridoids are a class of compounds exclusive of Oleaceae family. Oleocanthal and oleacein are the most important secoiridoids present in EVOO, while oleuropein is the main representative in OLE. These compounds possess nutraceutical properties, such as antiproliferative, cardioprotective, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. My PhD project was focused on the study of the phenolic and polyphenolic compounds in EVOO and in OLE and it was aimed to several parallel objectives:  Development of efficient methods for the extraction and the purification of oleocanthal and oleacein from EVOOs During this PhD, new procedures were developed by improving previous extraction and purification methods, obtaining significant quantities of oleacein and oleocanthal from fresh EVOO, with good purity.  Study of the nutraceutical properties of oleocanthal and oleacein Oleocanthal and oleacein extracted and purified from EVOOs were then submitted to pharmacological studies to investigate their nutraceutical properties. The results of these studies highlighted the role of the two secoiridoids in obesity-associated adipocytes inflammation and in the NF-κB pathway. The ability of oleacein to inhibit the proliferation of skin melanoma cells in vitro (501Mel cells) was demonstrated. Moreover, the antifibrotic effect of oleocanthal, in both in vitro an in vivo models of liver fibrosis, was proved.  Study of the variations in the phenolic and polyphenolic composition of EVOOs during storage This study was conducted by analysing several EVOOs using HPLC methods developed during this PhD thesis. The results of these analyses confirmed that the phenolic compounds present in EVOO underwent a hydrolytic process during storage. However, the evolution of this pathway differs in each EVOO sample, and it is strongly related to storage condition.  Study of novel components in EVOOs and their potential nutraceutical properties The oxidative process involving phenolic and polyphenolic compounds in EVOO are poorly investigated. A new oleocanthal oxidation product, named oleocanthalic acid, has been recently identified and preliminary studies showed the potential neuroprotective properties of this compound. My attention was therefore focused on obtaining oleocanthalic acid with high purity in order to submit it to further studies for its nutraceutical properties investigation. A detailed assessment of its in vitro radicals quenching activity was performed for the first time, demonstrating its scavenging capacity against reactive oxygen species.  Study of composition of Tuscan EVOOs for the determination of their geographical traceability This part of my PhD work was carried out as a part of a project aimed to develop a model that would allow to verify and guarantee the origin of the oil, indissolubly linking it to its production area. In particular, I studied the characteristics of forty Tuscan EVOOs (free acidity, phenolic compounds content and main fatty acids content). The results of these analyses will be correlated with other parameters studied, such as the concentration of macro-elements, micro-elements, essential and non-essential trace elements, as well as rare earth elements, present both in the samples of EVOOs and in those of soil where the olive trees were cultivated.  Development of devices useful in tissue regeneration fields from olive leaves phytoextracts (OLEs) obtained from autochthonous Tuscan olive trees Cultivars This part of my research was carried out under a project that aims to study biocompatible fibers incorporating OLEs for the development of biomedical devices useful in the tissue regeneration field. In particular, I analysed the phenolic and polyphenolic composition of several OLEs in order to select the most appropriate one to incorporate into the biopolymers. I therefore confirmed the incorporation of the OLE into the biopolymers and their capability to release the OLE phenols and polyphenols. Furthermore, the biopolymers incorporating OLE showed promising anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory properties, useful for the development of devices.

This work proposed a deep learning approach to a multi-class classification problem. In particular, our project goal is to establish whether there is a connection between olive oil molecular composition and its geographical origin. To accomplish this, we implement a method to transform structured data into meaningful images (exploring the existing literature) and developed a fine-tuned Convolutional Neural Network able to perform the classification. We implement a series of tailored techniques to improve the model.

I denna kandidatuppsats besvaras frågan om vilka designlösningar på förpackningen till en olivolja som i butikssammanhang positionerar sig som mer exklusiv och därmed bidrar till att målgruppen inhandlar produkten. För att ta reda på detta har observationer på sådana olivoljeflaskor gjorts i tre utvalda butiker. Utifrån dessa observationer har sedan en trendanalys gjorts. Med utgångspunkt ur trendanalysen har ett designarbete gjorts där fyra olika olivoljeförpackningar tagits fram baserade på element som används på en majoritet av dagens olivoljeförpackningar som positionerar sig som mer exklusiva. Förpackningarna är 3D-modeller modellerade i 3D Studio Max och etiketterna har skapats i Illustrator och Photoshop och har i den sistnämnda programvaran sammanfogats med förpackningarna. Med hjälp av bärbar eye-trackingutrustning fick fyra deltagare se de framtagna förpackningarna och med blicken svara på frågor angående dessa. Förpackningarna visades med hjälp av en projektor på en vägg, i naturlig storlek och uppradade på en simulerad butikshylla. Efter detta intervjuades deltagarna genom att använda kvalitativa frågor angående deras åsikter om olivoljeförpackningarna. Resultaten visar att varumärkesnamnets utformning är viktigt samt att en förpackning till en olivolja som positionerar sig som mer exklusiv bör vara gjord av glas, vara mjuk och följsam, samt innehålla ett mönster på etiketten. Form och mönster är de element som verkar vara de mest minnesvärda elementen och för att locka målgruppen är det viktigt med en förpackning som sticker ut på butikshyllan. En alltför innovativ form är inte att rekommendera medan en innovativ etikett kan vara fördelaktig. Tidigare erfarenheter har en betydelse vid val av förpackning och varumärkesnamn, produktbeskrivare och produktnamn bör tydligt uttryckas. Det är även fördelaktigt om designlösningen får konsumenten att vilja använda förpackningen som en del av köksinredningen. Färger, ovanliga för denna typ av produkt, kan skapa ett positivt ”hyllintryck” och färger som associeras till positivitet, värme, sol och energi kan i synnerhet locka konsumenter inom målgruppen. Symmetri i utformningen av etiketter för olivoljor som positionerar sig som mer exklusiva är fördelaktigt liksom användningen av en ljus nyans i etiketten i kontrast till ett mörkare textelement och/eller grafiskt element.
In this bachelor thesis the question regarding which design solutions, concerning the packaging to an up-market olive oil, contribute to the target group purchasing the product. To find out, observations on the up-market olive oil packaging of today was made in three selected stores. Based on the observations a trend analysis was made. With this analysis as a base, a design task, where four different olive oil packages were produced. These packages were based on elements frequently used on the present olive oil packaging. The packages are 3D-models made in 3D Studio Max and the labels were made in Illustrator and Photoshop. The labels were then merged with the packages using Photoshop. Using portable eye-tracking equipment, four participants were shown the four different olive oil packages, and got to answer questions concerning these packages, by using their eyes. The packages were shown through a projector, on a plain wall, in natural size and lined up on a simulated store shelf. Afterwards the participants answered qualitative questions regarding their opinions concerning olive oil packaging. The results show that the formation of the brand name is of importance and that a packaging for an up-market olive oil should be made out of glass, have a streamlined shape and a label that contains a pattern. The most memorable elements seem to be shape and pattern and in order to attract the target group, it is important to use a packaging design that stands out on the store shelf. An overly innovative shape is not to be recommended, but an innovative label can be beneficial. Prior experiences are of importance when choosing a packaging and brand name, product descriptor and product name should clearly be expressed. It is also beneficial if the design solution makes the consumer want to use the packaging as a part of the interior design in the kitchen. Colors unusual for this type of product can be used to create a positive ‘shelf impact’ and colors associated with positivity, warmth, sun and energy can especially tempt the consumers of the target group. Symmetry in the layout of the labels for up-market olive oil is beneficial as well as the use of a light color tone on the label in contrast to a darker text element and/or graphic element.

Globalization increased the complexity of the olive oil value chain: this work analyzes its features and evolution using the Global Commodity Chain framework to provide sector stakeholders with insights on core actors and phenomena. Results show that olive oil is produced in Mediterranean areas - though new producers are growing - and globally traded and consumed, spreading in non-traditional countries in USA, Europe and Asia. Spain – focused on quantity - and Greece – with high quality but low promotional strength - are the core bulk exporters. Italy is the main bulk importer, which it blends, bottles and sells in global markets exploiting the Italian reputation but competing on price: this represents the dominant and debated scenario, where MNCs lead reducing the competitiveness of weaker higher quality regional producers. With globalization, new actors appeared; regulations intensified to combat fraud. The power of demand increased; authority shifted to large bottlers and retailers; fragmented producers suffer from agricultural squeeze, except for efficient Spanish cooperatives. Actors upgraded improving products, processes and international reach; relationships became modular, where however quality and brand promotion entail stronger coordination, bulk production and focus on quantity result in more price-driven relations. Future prospects will continue in these directions: cooperation, balance between quality and efficiency and international markets are key to succeed.

Extra-virgin olive oil is a very appreciated vegetable fat used mainly for food purposes due to its pleasant flavour and taste and to the demonstrated and well-known health promoting effects, which include anti-inflammatory and antioxidant functions and protection against cardiovascular diseases. Olive oil quality depends on many factors, among which environmental (climate and soil), genetic (variety), agronomic and technological factors play important roles. Among the agronomic factors, the maintenance and use of healthy fruits, and, most of all, the choice of the best ripening stage of olive fruits represent the factors having a prominent role in determining olive oil quality. The ideal cultivation area for olive tree is the Mediterranean region, which usually has mild winters and long dry summers. Despite these climatic limitations, olive trees grown in marginal areas such as Northern Italy are known to yield extra-virgin olive oils with a pleasant flavour and an overall high quality profile. However, the often unfavourable climatic conditions in this area make necessary optimising the choice of the best harvesting period and setting up technological factors in order to improve oil quality. Many different approaches have been suggested so far for the definition of a simple and reliable way to assess the right harvesting time and to maximise oil quality. More in detail, physiological and biochemical changes that occur throughout olive ripening have been taken into account, such as loss of firmness, skin colour changes, pigment content or ratio, sugar content, oil accumulation, decrease in phenolics and some others. Results were however often conflicting due to the great variability among cultivars, growing areas, and technological aspects. It is therefore necessary to study all these factors in every specific growing area. In this dissertation different approaches have been chosen to characterise a cultivar grown locally in Veneto, i.e. cv. Grignano, yielding a unique oil with lemon peel aromatic notes and to evaluate factors involved in the definition of oil quality also in comparison with Frantoio, a common Italian variety. First of all, a study on anoxic oil extraction has been performed in order to understand the influence of the absence of oxygen, which can oxidise olive oil components but is also a required reagent for the biosynthesis of flavour compounds, on the global volatile profile of oils extracted from olives harvested at four consecutive ripening stages across véraison. The analysis of the volatile components of oils has been performed by means of PTR-MS (Proton Transfer Reaction-Mass Spectrometry), a spectrometric technique that allows an evaluation of the global volatile fingerprint of samples without any preparatory step. This “real-time” evaluation of the spectral signature of extra-virgin olive oils from cv. Grignano coupled with unsupervised multivariate analyses, i.e. principal component analysis and hierarchical clustering, allowed to explore the complex spectra by means of the construction of a heat map. Results showed that the ripening stage has a predominant effect on the definition of the global volatile profile compared to anoxic extraction, and that the progression of ripening is characterised by the biosynthesis of specific groups of volatiles that seem to be “expressed” only transiently. Moreover, the progression of fruit ripening causes a saturation effect in the volatile profile. Consequently, given that ripening is predominant over technological factors, an in depth study regarding olive ripening in Veneto region has been carried out focusing on fruit firmness, oil accumulation, chlorophyll a content, colorimetric analyses (calculating colour indices), and gene expression profiles. Results demonstrated that in Grignano and Frantoio cvs. ripening-related events were different, since Grignano showed an earlier and faster ripening course, both in loss of firmness and in oil accumulation. These findings suggest that monitoring cv. Grignano ripening stages is more difficult, since changes in ripening-related physiological parameters occur very quickly. Moreover, differences among two consecutive harvest seasons were observed resulting in a complex reading of the overall ripening profile. Statistical analyses have been performed, and principal component analysis established that cultivar Frantoio shows a greater variability in oil accumulation data, confirming that cv. Grignano ripening course is somehow more compact. One of the colour indices calculated in this study, namely CI, was suitable to distinguish drupe samples picked at different ripening stages. Then, to investigate on the peculiar flavour features of Grignano oil, a study on the terpenic metabolism in olive has been carried out isolating and characterising for the first time three enzymes responsible for the biosynthesis of terpenes (terpene synthases) in this species. To this end, a thorough search for putative terpene synthases in a published olive EST (expressed sequence tag) database was performed. Fragments have been then amplified and the full length genes have been used to deduce the amino acidic sequence to be heterologously expressed in E. coli. Expressed proteins have been checked for enzymatic activity and one of them turned out to be an active geraniol synthase, whilst the other two terpene synthases seemed inactive, a phenomenon not unusual in terpene metabolism. qPCR demonstrated that the three isolated terpene synthase genes have a ripening-dependent trend in transcript accumulation, suggesting a role in flavour development. Finally, gene expression analyses performed in the previous works emphasised the absence of validated reference genes suitable for gene expression studies in olive. Therefore, an extensive search for candidate reference genes to be used for olive gene expression studies has been performed using the above-mentioned EST database and retrieving studies regarding validated reference genes in other plant species. 13 candidate genes were identified for Olea europaea, which were tested both in olive drupes and leaves for their transcriptional stability. Stability analyses performed with genormPLUS and NormFinder software packages showed that 12 over the 13 genes in this work represented actually good reference genes and that, among these genes, the optimum number that must be used for good data normalisation was two. The best two reference genes identified in the study, specifically suitable for normalisation of gene expression data in fruit samples at different developmental stages, were GAPDH2 and PP2A1.
L’olio extravergine di oliva è un olio vegetale molto apprezzato utilizzato principalmente per scopi alimentari a causa del profilo aromatico piacevole e a effetti salutistici noti e dimostrati, che includono proprietà antinfiammatorie e antiossidanti e una protezione nei confronti di alcune malattie cardiovascolari. La qualità dell’olio di oliva dipende da molti fattori, e tra questi fattori ambientali (clima e suolo), genetici (cultivar), agronomici e tecnologici hanno un ruolo importante. Tra i fattori agronomici, la gestione e l’uso di frutti sani e, soprattutto, la scelta dello stadio di maturazione adatto dei frutti rappresentano le variabili che hanno un ruolo fondamentale nella determinazione della qualità globale dell’olio di oliva. Le zone adatte per la coltivazione dell’olivo sono le regioni mediterranee, che sono caratterizzate solitamente da inverni miti ed estati lunghe e secche. Nonostante queste limitazioni climatiche, olivi cresciuti in zone marginali come l’Italia settentrionale conferiscono oli extravergini con profili aromatici gradevoli e di alta qualità. Le condizioni climatiche spesso avverse in queste aree rendono però necessarie un’ottimizzazione della scelta del miglior periodo di raccolta e l’implementazione di processi tecnologici allo scopo di migliorare la qualità dell’olio. Molti approcci diversi sono stati proposti finora per la definizione di un modo semplice e affidabile per valutare il periodo di raccolta corretto e massimizzare la qualità dell’olio estratto. Più in dettaglio, i cambiamenti fisiologici e biochimici che si verificano durante la maturazione dell’oliva sono stati presi in considerazione, come ad esempio la perdita di consistenza, cambiamenti del colore superficiale delle drupe, contenuto di pigmenti o loro rapporti, contenuto in zuccheri, inolizione, diminuzione di componenti fenoliche e altri. I risultati si sono dimostrati però molto spesso discordanti, a causa della grande variabilità presente tra diverse cultivar, aree di coltivazione e aspetti tecnologici. Si rende perciò necessario uno studio di questi fattori in ogni singola area di coltivazione. In questa tesi diversi approcci sono stati adottati per la caratterizzazione di una varietà coltivata localmente in Veneto, la cultivar Grignano, da cui si estrae un olio dal profilo sensoriale unico con note di buccia di limone, e per la valutazione di fattori coinvolti nella determinazione della qualità dell’olio anche attraverso un confronto con la cultivar Frantoio, una varietà diffusa comunemente in tutta Italia. Inizialmente è stato condotto uno studio che prevedeva l’estrazione di olio in atmosfera priva di ossigeno, che può essere responsabile dell’ossidazione di componenti dell’olio ma è anche un reagente richiesto nella biosintesi di composti aromatici, per valutare l’effetto dell’estrazione in atmosfera controllata sul profilo volatile globale di oli ottenuti da olive raccolte in quattro stadi consecutivi di maturazione a cavallo dell’invaiatura. L’analisi delle componenti volatili è stata condotta mediante PTR-MS (spettrometria di massa con reazione di trasferimento di protoni), una tecnica di spettrometria che permette una valutazione del fingerprint globale dei volatili senza fasi preliminari o trattamento dei campioni. Questa valutazione “real-time” dei profili spettrali di oli extravergini da cultivar Grignano unita a analisi multivariata dei dati, mediante analisi delle componenti principali e clustering gerarchico, ha permesso di proiettare i complessi spettri ottenuti tramite l’analisi spettrometrica in una heat map. I risultati hanno dimostrato che lo stadio di maturazione ha un effetto predominante sulla definizione del profilo volatile rispetto all’estrazione in atmosfera controllata, e che il progredire della maturazione è caratterizzato dalla biosintesi di specifici gruppi di molecole volatili che sembrano quindi “espresse” in modo transiente. Inoltre, è stato osservato un effetto saturazione nel profilo volatile con il progredire della maturazione. Conseguentemente, dato che lo stadio di maturazione ha un effetto prevalente rispetto ai fattori tecnologici studiati, uno studio approfondito della fisiologia della maturazione in Veneto è stato condotto ponendo particolare attenzione a perdita di consistenza, inolizione, contenuto in clorofilla a, dati colorimetrici (calcolo di indici di colore) e dati di espressione genica. I risultati hanno dimostrato che gli eventi collegati alla maturazione sono differenti nelle cultivar Grignano e Frantoio, dato che Grignano manifesta una dinamica di maturazione più precoce e rapida, sia considerando la perdita di consistenza che l’accumulo di olio nella drupa. Questi risultati suggeriscono come monitorare la maturazione in Grignano sia più difficile, dato che i cambiamenti nei parametri di maturazione si verificano molto velocemente. Inoltre, sono state osservate differenze importanti nei parametri elencati in due stagioni successive, da cui consegue una notevole difficoltà nella comprensione del profilo globale di maturazione. Sono state condotte analisi statistiche sui campioni descritti e l’analisi delle componenti principali ha stabilito che la cultivar Frantoio mostra maggiore variabilità nei dati di inolizione, confermando che il decorso di maturazione della cultivar Grignano è in qualche modo più compatto. Tra gli indici di colore calcolati nello studio, uno, cioè CI, sembra appropriato per distinguere campioni raccolti in diversi stadi di maturazione. Successivamente, per approfondire le caratteristiche aromatiche tipiche della cultivar Grignano, è stato condotto uno studio riguardante il metabolismo terpenico in olivo, con l’isolamento e la caratterizzazione di tre enzimi responsabili della biosintesi di terpeni (terpene sintasi) per la prima volta in questa specie. A questo scopo è stata condotta una ricerca approfondita di putative terpene sintasi in un database di EST (expressed sequence tag) di olivo recentemente pubblicato. I frammenti selezionati sono stati amplificati permettendo di ottenere i geni full length, le cui sequenze sono state utilizzate per dedurre le sequenze aminoacidiche che sono state espresse in E. coli. Le proteine espresse sono state sottoposte a saggi enzimatici per determinarne l’attività e una di queste si è dimostrata una geraniolo sintasi attiva, mentre le altre due proteine non hanno dato prodotti anche se la presenza di terpene sintasi inattive non è così infrequente. Analisi qPCR hanno dimostrato come le tre terpene sintasi isolate abbiano un andamento legato alla maturazione nell’espressione genica, ed è possibile perciò un loro ruolo nella determinazione del profilo aromatico. Infine, l’utilizzo della qPCR come analisi di espressione genica nei lavori precedenti ha evidenziato come geni reference validati e adatti per studi di espressione genica in olivo non siano disponibili in letteratura. Una ricerca di geni reference candidati per questo scopo è stata quindi condotta utilizzando il database di EST citato sopra e cercando in letteratura studi riguardanti la validazione di geni reference in altre specie vegetali. Sono stati quindi identificati 13 geni candidati in Olea europaea, la cui stabilità dei trascritti è stata testata sia in drupe che in foglie di olivo. Analisi di stabilità condotte mediante gli strumenti genormPLUS e NormFinder hanno dimostrato che 12 tra questi geni sono effettivamente geni reference funzionali e utilizzabili per studi di espressione genica in olivo e che, tra questi, il numero di geni ottimale da utilizzare per una buona normalizzazione dei dati corrisponde a due. I migliori geni reference identificati in questo studio, adatti per analisi di espressione genica in frutti a diversi stadi di sviluppo, sono stati GAPDH2 e PP2A1.

Nitric oxide (NO) is an important signaling molecule involved in many physiological and pathological processes. NO contributes to vessels vasodilatation and blood flow increasing, but also to the vessel homeostasis by inhibiting vascular smooth muscle contraction and growth, platelet aggregation, and leukocyte adhesion to the endothelium. In the intestinal epithelium, NO may play, at low levels, a protective role against the inflammatory process, while after acute or chronic exposure a toxic mechanism of action leads to injurious effects. Dietary polyphenols and their metabolites have been found to be directly involved in the modulation of the intracellular signals that lead to the production of NO. The purpose of this study was to investigate the mechanism of the modulatory action of extra-virgin olive oil (EVOO) phenylethanoids, tyrosol (Tyr) and hydroxytyrosol (HT), and hydroxycinnamates, ferulic acid (FA), hydroferulic acid (DHFA) and isoferulic acid (IFA), in comparison to their glucuronide and sulfate metabolites, on the production of NO both at vascular and intestinal level. The first part of this investigation was assessed in endothelial cells (HUVEC and HAEC) to evaluate the superoxide production, the release of NO and cGMP and the activation of eNOS via Akt phosphorylation in endothelial cells. It was observed that the tested phenolic compounds enhanced NO concentration inhibiting its depletion caused by superoxide overproduction. Moreover, some of them enhanced its production through the modulation of Akt activation and of eNOS phosphorylation. DHFA and IFA showed better effectiveness than FA, as well as HT, which worked better than Tyr either as superoxide inhibitor or as eNOS enhancer. Interestingly, some of the tested metabolites worked in the same way of their parent compounds: it is the case of HT, whose metabolites were significantly effective in Akt and eNOS activation, as well as in superoxide counteraction. Overall, obtained data showed that these compounds promote NO production and availability, so their intake by EVOO dietary consumption can help in the prevention of cardiovascular diseases such as hypertension, thrombosis, hypercholesterolaemia and atherosclerosis. The second part of this study was focused on the modulation of NO and cGMP production in intestinal cells (Caco-2), with the aim of investigating the ability of EVOO phenolics to inhibit iNOS activation and the underlying mechanism of action. Treatments with pathological concentrations of lypopolysaccharide (LPS) were carried out to stimulate iNOS activation pathway, which involves NF-ĸB activation through IĸBα and Akt phosphorylation, and evaluate the transepithelial resistance changes on Caco-2 monolayers. It was overally observed that all the tested compounds inhibited NO release induced by LPS, acting as inhibitors of iNOS expression. Considering hydroxycinnamates, they were able to down-regulate Akt phoshorylation. IFA sulf was surprisingly the most effective in the Akt inhibition, while DHFA and its glucuronide better inhibited IĸBα degradation and iNOS. No one of the phenylethanoids instead were able to inhibit Akt activation. However, they were effective in the inhibition of IĸBα degradation, suggesting a modulatory action on a parallel mechanism upstream NF-ĸB translocation to the nucleus. All the tested phenolic compounds counteracted the deleterious effect of LPS on Caco-2 cell monolayer permeability, suggesting the ability of preserving intestinal barrier integrity. Thus, it can be assumed that reaching relevant concentrations of EVOO phenols in the gut lumen may exert beneficial effects against intestinal inflammation, which is one of the major features of many intestinal diseases.

La culture de l’olivier et la production d’huile, du Néolithique à l’Empire romain : le cas particulier de la péninsule Ibérique. Ce titre met en lumière les deux axes principaux de cette recherche doctorale. La première concerne la domestication de la plante à partir des zones refuges de l’oléastre en Méditerranée ; la deuxième, l’apparition des différentes technologies de production oléicole, leur évolution, ainsi que les héritages observés entre les différents peuples du Bassin entre le Néolithique et l’Empire romain. Toutes ces problématiques sont analysées à partir du cas précis de la péninsule Ibérique, extrémité occidentale de la Méditerranée, lieu d’échanges et d’influences d’origine orientale – phéniciennes et grecques, principalement. Grâce à l’étude de la domestication et des premières implantations de l’olivier il a pu être mis en évidence la nécessité d’associer l’archéobotanique – identification d’endocarpes, du charbon de bois et du pollen – à la génétique. Cette dernière a récemment permis de démontrer l’autochtonie de la plante en Méditerranée occidentale depuis les dernières glaciations, contestant ainsi les théories diffusionnistes d’une origine phénicienne – exclusivement orientale – de l’espèce et de l’oléiculture. La deuxième partie consacrée à l’étude de la technologie oléicole péninsulaire, démontre l’importance d’une machinerie de type artisanal et local, contemporaine d’une mécanique de type « préindustrielle » d’origine orientale. Les deux groupes typologiques se complètent et s’influencent jusqu’à l’arrivée de l’industrie oléicole romaine
The culture of olive tree and the production of olive oil from the Neolithic Era to the Roman Empire: the case of the Iberian Peninsula. The title highlights the two main research lines of this doctoral thesis. On the one hand, the domestication of the olive plant from the refuge areas of oleaster in the Mediterranean Sea; on the second hand, the emergence of different technologies of oil production, evolution and legacy observed between the different cultures of the Mediterranean from the Neolithic Era to the Roman Empire. All these issues are studied within the specific context of the Iberian Peninsula, western end of the Mediterranean world and place of exchanges and influences of from Eastern cultures - namely Phoenician and Greek. Through the study of domestication and first implantations of the olive tree emerged the need of involving scientific research from archaeobotany - identification of endocarps, wood charcoal and pollen - to genetics. The latter has recently demonstrated the indigeneity of the plant in West Mediterranean since the last glaciations, thus disputing the “diffusionist” theories of a Phoenician origin - exclusively Eastern - of the varieties of olive and their production. The second part of the research, dedicated to the study the Peninsular technology of olive oil, demonstrates the importance of craft and local machinery, as well as contemporary ‘preindustrial’ types of Eastern origin. Both typological groups complement and influence each other until the introduction of Roman olive industry

Mestrado em Engenharia Agronómica - Instituto Superior de Agronomia
The purpose of this work is to draw an Analysis of the Export Market of Portuguese Olive Oil. For such, a characterization was made of the domestic olive oil market, a quick look to the world market and the selection and analysis of three target markets. Two questionnaires were also made, one to the national companies that export olive oil and another to the companies that import olive oil in the three target markets, Brazil, China and United Kingdom, previously selected. The olive oil imports/exports involves several attributes that affect in a different way the buy/selling operations. With the purpose to understand how important those attributes are, the answers from both questionnaires were analysed and gathered information was crossed, because that was the only reasonable way. It was concluded that the best way to overcome the difficulties of national olive oil exports companies would be to create a strong cluster that would aloud a bigger percentage of market to the national products, through increased sales of the brands already on market and the help to market entry of new national products.

L'huile d'olive est la principale source d’apports lipidique dans le régime méditerranéen. Elle est reconnue comme une source de nutriments et est à l’origine de plusieurs effets biologiques bénéfiques pour la santé. Plusieurs études montrent notamment que la consommation d'huile d'olive peut être efficace dans le traitement de maladies cardiovasculaires. Cependant, peu d'études mettent en évidence un effet antiinflammatoire, antiallergique et anti-Alzheimer de l’huile d’olive. De même, aucune étude n’a déterminé un lien entre ces effets et les variétés d’olives dont sont issues les huiles ainsi que les composés présents responsables de ces effets. Le but de ce travail est donc d'évaluer l'effet biologique, et plus particulièrement le potentiel antiinflammatoire et antiallergique des composés hydrophiles obtenus après extraction en phase solide (SPE-Diol), à partir de plusieurs variétés d’huiles d'olive extra vierge (EVOO) issues de trois années de récolte différentes. L'effet neuroprotecteur de la variété Picholine, contre la maladie d'Alzheimer a également été évalué. Les résultats montrent que l'effet anti-inflammatoire et l’effet anti-allergique varies de façon concentration dépendante et en fonction de la variété d’EVOO. De plus, nous avons mis en évidence que la variété de Picholine a un effet neuroprotecteur. L’ensemble de ce travail a établi une corrélation entre des activités anti-inflammatoire, anti-allergique et anti-Alzheimer des huiles d’olives issues de plusieurs variétés et les différents composés présents, ce qui a permis de mettre en avant la variété Picholine
Olive oil is the primary source of fat in the Mediterranean diet. It is not only known as a distinctive source of nutrients but also as an origin of several biological effects that represent a very important factor for the health. Several studies demonstrate that olive oil consumption has to be effective against heart and cardiovascular diseases. Few studies show up the anti-inflammatory, the anti-allergic and the anti-Alzheimer effects of olive oil but there is no study about the cultivar effect and the interference that could occur between the different olive oil compounds. The aim of this work is to evaluate the biological effect and more particularly the potential anti-inflammatory and anti-allergic of hydrophilic components obtained by solid phase extraction (SPE-Diol) of different extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) cultivars and from three different harvest years. Moreover the neuroprotective effect of Picholine cultivar against Alzheimer’s disease was also studied. The results show that the anti-inflammatory and the anti-allergic activities differ depending on the EVOO cultivar and they are concentration-dependent. The results show also that Picholine cultivar has an anti-Alzheimer activity. All of these studies have established a correlation between the anti-inflammatory, the anti-allergic and the anti-Alzheimer effects of different EVOO cultivars and different compounds present, which enabled us to highlight the Picholine cultivar

Streptomyces clavuligerus is a gram positive filamentous bacterium that produces clavulanic acid, a potent 13-lactamase inhibitor that prevents development of resistance to 13-lactam antibiotics by pathogenic bacteria. S. clavuligerus is unable to utilise glucose or other sugars therefore alternative carbon sources such as glycerol are used by the industry for production of clavulanic acid. Here, the possibility that S. clavuligerus can use food-based oils is tested, since they have benefits such as low price and anti-foam properties, and often lead to higher antibiotic yields. The process of oil utilisation was initially optimised in shake flasks and after use of various food-based oils, olive oil was found to give the highest clavulanic acid levels. An olive oil-containing medium was used for S. clavuligerus fermentations in a laboratory-scale bioreactor. Samples from olive oil- and glycerol-containing cultures were collected every 12 or 24 h and monitoring of the medium components was performed. Biomass levels were similar in both culture media, however clavulanic acid yield was higher with olive oil than glycerol.