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1
Wong, Alfred, and Roxanne Gomes. "Societal and Economic Elements of Trafficking in Human Beings into the European Union." Issues in Ethnology and Anthropology 7, no. 3 (2016): 831–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.21301/eap.v7i3.11.
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The European Union (EU) is an early signatory of the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime. During the past decade, the EU has been undertaking various measures to conform to the "Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons". The mitigating strategy has been largely based on the enforcement of existing and new laws, inside as well as outside of the EU. To date, the results have been largely ineffective. Addressing the societal and economic elements of home and host countries could be a more enduring means to alleviate the problem of trafficking in human beings.
2
Szkurłat, Izabela. "Migration as a Threat to International Security." Security Dimensions 32, no. 32 (2019): 64–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0014.0987.
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The article presents migration as a threat to international security in the 21st century. The first part presents the problem of people migrating to Europe, including third-country nationals. It is shown that uncontrolled mass migration has forced European countries to provide budget, shelter and counselling for migrants. Furthermore, there were many cases when migration met with disapproval of indigenous people and fear of the impossibility of integrating different cultures and customs. European Union has introduced financial tools to support member countries in financing migration-related problems including the Asylum, Migration and Integration Fund; and the Internal Security Fund. The article also mentions the European immigration policy adopted in 1999. The second part of the article refers to negative effects of migration: trafficking in human beings and forced labour. It is shown that they are widely practiced. To eliminate illegal activities, actions, which the author describes, are being taken within Europe. Polish people have also experienced trafficking in human beings and forced labour abroad. Such crimes have been reported within Poland as well. Finally the author states that the security of the European Union is threatened not only by external migrants, but also by citizens who migrate internally.
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Jovanovic, Marija. "International Law and Regional Norm Smuggling: How the EU and ASEAN Redefined the Global Regime on Human Trafficking." American Journal of Comparative Law 68, no. 4 (2020): 801–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ajcl/avaa030.
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Abstract The European Union (EU) and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) have developed fundamentally different regional regimes to address human trafficking despite both drawing on the framework established by the U.N. Palermo Protocol. These regimes have been deployed to achieve different missions: crime control animates the European framework whereas migration management informs the ASEAN regime. These different regional agendas have led to all central elements of the respective antitrafficking regimes being addressed differently including, the legal authority of the regional regime over domestic legislation, the allocation of responsibility between “sending” and “receiving” countries, their approaches to subjects of human trafficking, and the connectedness of each antitrafficking instrument to the wider regional regimes. The two regional responses challenge general assumptions about the universality and coherence of the growing international legal framework on human trafficking.
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Ristić, Vladimir. "The European model of the integrated border management." Pravo - teorija i praksa 39, no. 2 (2022): 91–107. http://dx.doi.org/10.5937/ptp2202091r.
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The enlargement of the European Union has called for a reevaluation of the way the external borders to be protected as a necessary consequence of the free movement of people in the European Union. It also appears to be a result of a fundamental component of the area of freedom, security and justice. The abolition of the internal border checks and a different approach to external borders followed by emerging forms of cross-border crime with a cross-border dimension, illegal migration, trafficking in human beings and terrorist threats constantly being on the rise, have requested a different approach. The lack of economic perspective, poverty, environmental disasters and wars have forced people to look for a better life else where, which has led to the most important global phenomenon of the 21st century migration. Migration issues have made us think about the important matters faced by developed countries independently, and as such they are currently at the top of the European Union's political agenda. To respond effectively to emerging challenges and threats, the European Union has expedited the development of the integrated border management as a generally acceptable border management model, as well as a key factor in improving migration management. The paper is based on the information gathered from the open sources of the European Union institutions, as well as from personal experiences gained throughout the course of border management reform in Republic of Serbia.
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VÂLCU, ELISE-NICOLETA. "EUROPEAN UNION LEGAL PROVISIONS ON THE ADMISSION OF THIRD-COUNTRY NATIONALS FOR THE PURPOSE OF EMPLOYMENTAS SEASONAL WORKERS." Agora International Journal of Juridical Sciences 12, no. 1 (2018): 46–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.15837/aijjs.v12i1.3415.
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”The global approach in matters of migration and mobility”, adopted by the Commission in 2011, sets out a general framework for the relations of the European Union with the third countries in matters of migration. This approach is based on four pillars: legal immigration and mobility, illegal immigration and human trafficking, international protection and asylum policy, as well as maximization of the impact of migration and of mobility on development.On 13th May 2015, the Commission presented”The European Agenda on migration” proposing immediate measures and actions to perform in the following years for a better management of migration under all its aspects. Within it, the Commission proposes orientations in four directions: reduction of factors encouraging clandestine migration; a border management aiming at lifesaving and border security; development of a sounder asylum common policy; and establishment of a new policy in matter of legal migration by modernising and revising the ”blue card” regime, by establishing some new priorities of the integration policies and by optimising the advantages of the migration policy for the aimed persons and the countries of origin. In September 2018, the Commission published a report on the progress made in the implementation of the European Agenda on migration, examining the progress and deficiencies in its implementation.
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van Kampen, Catherine, Elizabeth M. Zechenter, Sophia Murashkovsky Romma, and Robert Jeffrey Powell. "A Survey of Immigration Models and Refugee Protection Schemes and their Consequences: The Case of Ukrainian Refugees." Journal of Human Trafficking, Enslavement and Conflict-Related Sexual Violence 3, no. 2 (2022): 141–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.7590/266644722x16710255213792.
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After its illegal occupation and annexation of Crimea in 2014 and continued military support for separatists in the Donbas, Russia escalated its war against Ukraine in February 2022 with direct ground attacks by Russian military forces on Ukraine's eastern, northern and southern borders, a blockade of Ukraine's coast and aerial attacks throughout the country. Millions of Ukrainians fled, including thousands of international students residing in Ukraine. Countries around the world responded to the resulting refugee crisis with varying policies. Many of Ukraine's neighboring countries enacted model immigration laws and developed various support schemes. Some governments, such as in Poland and the European Union (EU), immediately granted Ukrainian refugees the right to live, work, obtain access to education and receive benefits comparable to those to which their own citizens are entitled and created a generous and protective immigration model that attempts to prevent human trafficking and other forms of exploitation. Other countries geographically removed from the conflict used different models, including some with a private sponsorship component that, despite the best of intentions, may in retrospect be exposing refugees to the dangers of human trafficking and exploitation.<br/> Ukrainian refugees – also referred to as internally displaced persons (IDPs) if still remaining in Ukraine or as parolees if attempting to enter the United States (US) – seeking entry into the United Kingdom (UK) or US are required to find a private sponsor who accepts financial responsibility for them during their stay in their host country. In the UK, private sponsors are paid a monthly stipend, while in the US, private sponsors are not paid but actually contract with the US government to be financially responsible for the persons whom they are sponsoring. By contrast, Ukraine's neighbors, including Poland, with notably less economic and fiscal resources than either the UK or the US, have no private sponsorship requirement.<br/> Since the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Ukrainians have been a vulnerable population subjected to human trafficking – a situation exacerbated by Russia's current war against their country. In the first weeks of the war, credible firsthand and in-real-time reports by Ukrainian- and Russian-speaking attorneys and human rights advocates quickly emerged that describe Ukrainian women refugees utilizing online dating platforms, social media sites and online chat rooms to find private sponsors in the UK and the US. While this government policy requiring private sponsorship appeared to be a prudent means for vetting refugees, burden-sharing and shifting the hosting costs away from taxpayers and governments' ledgers, the policy has unintended consequences. Refugee and human trafficking experts state that the private sponsorship requirement compels Ukrainian refugees, 90-plus percent of whom are women and children, to 'market' themselves – often online – to potential private sponsors in the UK and US, thereby exposing themselves to human traffickers. This policy has potentially – albeit unintentionally – increased, exacerbated and even facilitated the human trafficking of Ukrainian refugees, an already vulnerable population experiencing a precariously heightened risk for physical, sexual and economic exploitation due to their growing desperation for physical safety.<br/> This article, written from the practitioners' perspective, discusses how the private sponsorship requirement for Ukrainian refugees is potentially increasing the risk of human trafficking for an already at-risk population, unnecessarily jeopardizing their safety and further stripping them of their human dignity. The unintended consequences of private sponsorship demonstrate that such a requirement in a wartime scenario is ill-conceived, inappropriate and dangerous public policy and, dare it be said, potentially exploitative.
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Tittel-Mosser, Fanny. "The Unintended Legal and Policy Relevance of EU Mobility Partnerships." European Journal of Migration and Law 20, no. 3 (2018): 314–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15718166-12340033.
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Abstract The Mobility Partnerships between the European Union and third countries have a negative image as they are often viewed as a tool of migration control rather than a flexible instrument to enhance mobility. Yet so far scholars have predominantly investigated the asymmetric negotiation of Mobility Partnerships as well as their limited consequences for migrant rights in EU Member States. What is often overlooked is that these partnerships can also influence the development of the legal and policy frameworks of third countries in ways that go beyond what is foreseen at the time of the negotiation of the instruments. This article combines a comparative legal analysis of the development of the legal frameworks in Morocco and Cape Verde with an empirical study of the implementation of Mobility Partnerships’ projects in relation to national migration strategies. The analysis demonstrates that Mobility Partnerships, despite their non-binding nature, have legal and policy relevance for these third countries with regard to the regulation of migration, asylum, human trafficking and even labour law.
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Djorobekova, A., A. Khamzin, A. Boretskiy, and Sh Fayziev. "Labour migration and forced labour in the context of economic integration: new challenges and realities: statement of the problem." Bulletin of the Innovative University of Eurasia 80, no. 4 (2020): 56–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.37788/2020-4/56-61.
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Main problem:The main idea of this study is the development of proposals for improving the legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan, as well as the regulatory framework of the Eurasian Economic Union, taking into account the experience of the European Union countries (as the largest integration association), towards the further development of the legal framework for cooperation in the social-labor sphere, as well as improving the integration and migration policy of the Eurasian Economic Union countries in general, and the Republic of Kazakhstan, in particular. In addition, this study intends to develop practical recommendations aimed at improving the activities of the law enforcement agencies of the Republic of Kazakhstan, as well as the EAEU countries, in the field of combating illegal migration and forced labor on the territory of this integration association. Moreover, this project suggests the legal promotion of the results obtained, both on the territory of the EAEU and beyond. Purpose: The aim of the study. To develop proposals for improving the legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan and the EAEU countries in the field of legal regulation of labour migration and counteracting its negative consequences such as illegal migration, forced labour in the territory of this integration association. Methods: The methodological basis of the study is made up of traditional general scientific and special legal methods used in comparative jurisprudence: system-structural, historical-legal, social-legal and comparative-legal. Results and their significance:All of the above testifies to the relevance and necessity of research in the framework of this study, since its implementation, taking into account the expected results, will further improve the regulatory framework in the field of combating illegal migration, human trafficking and other illegal manifestations resulting from insufficient regulation of the labour migration sphere.
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Bugyáki, Attila. "Milestones in the Foundation and Role of the Most Significant International Organizations against Money Laundering in the European Union." Academic and Applied Research in Military and Public Management Science 16, no. 3 (2017): 135–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.32565/aarms.2017.3.9.
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In this two-piece study, the author introduces the most important international organizations and institutions fighting against money laundering of our time, through the main chapters of the formation of the international institutional system. The first part is focused on the creation of the international institutional system fighting against money laundering.By the 21st century the phenomenon of money laundering—with the need of the laundering of gradually increasing “dirty” money, mainly from drugs, weapons and human trafficking, prostitution and corruption—has become a worldwide problem. With the increasing organization of international criminal groups—taking advantage of the free movement of money and financial services—are using more and more refined techniques to get more profits with their illegal activities. Money laundering will not leave terrorism untouched—casting a shadow on our everyday life—as particular radical groups use every means necessary to lay their hands on money sources anonymously needed for their existence, as it supplies their destructive actions; and naturally procuring this money the best sources are the money laundered by criminals. Recognising the money laundering and the negative and destructive effects of new crimes on everyday economic, financial and political life based on laundering, the leading countries of the world started international legislation against money laundering and terrorism which laws and codes are strictly regulating the different financial and bank supervision of the nation states. Despite the onsetting difficulties and indecisiveness, it was clear for the European Union that only strong international collaboration—and the unified understanding of measures—is the only power to stop the spread of money laundering.
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Hedlin, Simon. "Can Prostitution Law Reform Curb Sex Trafficking? Theory and Evidence on Scale Substitution, and Replacement Effects." University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform, no. 50.2 (2017): 329. http://dx.doi.org/10.36646/mjlr.50.2.can.
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Sex trafficking, a pervasive problem in many parts of the world, has become increasingly salient to policymakers and the general public. Activists, politicians, and scholars continue to engage in debates about how best to curb it. This Article discusses one especially contentious dimension of these debates: does banning prostitution reduce sex trafficking? Or is legalizing prostitution the optimal approach? Or is there a third, better way? Proceeding both theoretically and empirically, this Article seeks to cast light on the relationship between different types of prostitution laws and the prevalence of sex trafficking and human trafficking. It attempts to make three contributions to the literature. First, it builds on existing theories of the link between the demand for purchased sex and the supply of sex-trafficking victims to create a simple ordinal measure of prostitution laws. This measure, which the Article dubs the Prostitution Law Index (PLI), captures not only whether prostitution overall is legal or illegal, but whether buying sex is legal or illegal and whether selling sex is legal or illegal, which better reflects the actual cross-country variation in prostitution laws. The PLI takes into account scale, substitution, and replacement effects in the market for prostitution, where scale refers to increases in the prevalence of trafficking that are caused by growth of the overall market for prostitution; substitution to decreases in trafficking caused by current consumers who purchase sex with trafficking victims and, based on the risk of criminal sanction, shift to instead purchasing sex with individuals who voluntarily sell sex, thereby crowding out trafficking victims; and replacement to decreases in trafficking caused by new voluntary sellers of sex who, incentivized by changes in prostitution laws, enter the market and crowd out trafficking victims. The PLI ranks prostitution laws across countries on a four-point scale (from 1 to 4), based on their expected effectiveness (from least to most effective) in reducing sex trafficking. Second, the study uses a recent dataset provided by the European Union to map the statistical relationship between PLI scores and prevalence of sex trafficking, based on the Article’s theory of scale, substitution, and replacement effects. The analysis suggests that there generally is an inverse relationship between a country’s PLI score and the prevalence of trafficking in that country. Greater legislative efforts to reduce scale and to increase substitution and replacement appear, on average, to be associated with lower levels of sex trafficking. Third, the Article presents a basic Difference-in-Differences analysis—on the basis of extremely limited data and thus with an unusually large number of caveats— of Norway’s 2009 prostitution law reform. Tentative results indicate that the Norwegian reform, which made it legal to sell but illegal to buy sex, may potentially have helped reduce the prevalence of trafficking there.
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Gordon, Joy. "Introduction." Ethics & International Affairs 33, no. 3 (2019): 275–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0892679419000340.
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It is hard to imagine a threat to international security or a tension within U.S. foreign policy that does not involve the imposition of economic sanctions. The United Nations Security Council has fourteen sanctions regimes currently in place, and all member states of the United Nations are obligated to participate in their enforcement. The United States has some thirty sanctions programs, which target a range of countries, companies, organizations, and individuals, and many of these are autonomous sanctions that are independent of the measures required by the United Nations. Australia, Canada, the European Union, Japan, South Korea, and others also have autonomous sanctions regimes, spanning a broad range of contexts and purpose. Most well-known are those concerning weapons proliferation, terrorism, and human rights violations; but sanctions are also imposed in such contexts as money laundering, corruption, and drug trafficking. States may also impose sanctions as a means to achieve foreign policy goals: to pressure a foreign state to bend to the sanctioner's will, to punish those who represent a threat to the sanctioner's economic or political interests, or to seek the end of a political regime toward which the sanctioner is hostile, to give but a few examples.
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Fasting, Ulla, Jan Christensen, and Susanne Glending. "Children Sold for Transplants: medical and legal aspects." Nursing Ethics 5, no. 6 (1998): 518–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/096973309800500606.
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Over the last few decades there has been a substantially higher percentage of successful organ transplants but also a significant imbalance between the demand for and the supply of organs, creating the basis for a highly profitable black market trade in human organs. Sometimes there are reports that children have been kidnapped, only to reappear later lacking one kidney, or that they simply disappear and are subsequently killed to have all their transplantable organs removed for profit. The European Union feels that there is a need for action and that it has a duty to act in this field, especially for ethical reasons. There is now established close co-operation between the various European transplant organizations. The legal protection of children with regard to organ transplantation is not specifically mentioned in the existing conventions because this issue was not foreseen at the time of their preparation. However, the issue is covered in a broader sense by more general provisions. There are endless rumours surrounding this area. Members of various organizations who travel in the suspected countries say that the trafficking in children who are sold for transplantation is well known, but it is too difficult and very dangerous to catch the people involved. We have to conclude that it has been impossible to prove or disprove the rumours, but they are consistent and we all, especially in the health care professions, have an obligation to be keenly aware of how and where organs are obtained.
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Fihura, V. O. "THE NEED TO IMPLEMENT THE API/PNR SYSTEM AND THE CONCEPT OF INTERVIEWING." Constitutional State, no. 48 (December 19, 2022): 24–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.18524/2411-2054.2022.48.267960.
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The article reveals issues regarding the possibility of implementing the API/PNR system in Ukraine in order to ensure national security and border security of our state. Emphasizing that the basis for the future implementation of advance passenger information and passenger registration records was the signing of the Agreement between the Governments of Ukraine and the United States in 2021. According to the agreements, international airports were to be the first checkpoints where API/PNR was planned to be launched, but, unfortunately, the undeclared war by the Russian Federation and the closing of the air gates of Ukraine did not give an opportunity to start preparations for the operation of this system in time. The implementation of this system in Ukraine will ensure more effective counteraction to cross-border crime at the state border and will provide an opportunity to identify not only persons involved in illegal activities, but also persons who may be potential terrorists, illegal migrants, and drug couriers. It should be noted that the API/PNR system has proven itself positively in most developed countries of the world, such as the United States of America, Canada and most countries of the European Union. So, for example, in European countries, the functioning of this system made it possible to effectively fight and detect potentially illegal migrants, terrorists, people involved in human trafficking among flight passengers. Along with the introduction of the system of advance passenger information (API) and passenger registration records (PNR), we considered the issue of introducing and enshrining at the legislative level the concept of “interviewing”, which, in turn, would provide an additional opportunity for law enforcement agencies to counter organized crime on the state border of Ukraine. Noting the fact that Ukrainian legislation does not provide for the functioning of the API/ PNR system and does not define the body that will be empowered to work with it.
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Lutovac, Zoran. "Migration and European integration of Serbia." Stanovnistvo 54, no. 1 (2016): 41–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/stnv160519002l.
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This paper focuses on migration in the context of European integration which implies, on the one hand, internal integration, integration within the EU and, on the other hand, the enlargement process related to the countries that have applied to join the EU. The aim is to determine in which way the migration, especially refugee crisis in 2015, had influence on the EU, as a supranational political community, and what was the impact on Serbia which is in the process of integration into the European Union. Migrant crisis has shown that the EU has to confront many different issues including several issues of great importance for its survival and strengthening: how to influence on global processes to a greater extent instead of dealing with the consequences of the global politics of others; how to preserve and keep the values that the EU itself is founded and the values on which should be built upon further construction of the political community and, finally, weather the EU can be transformed in the direction of the United European States, in both the functional and in terms of values, or the EU will move towards deepening of Europe of concentric circles. Faced with extremely complex migration situation, Serbia does not have the appropriate institutional and regulatory framework, nor a political response to a series of complex issues in the area of migration and migration-related issues, such as asylum system, irregular migration, sustainable return of our citizens asylum seekers in EU member states, implementation of the agreement on readmission, the departure of highly educated - brain drain, migration and development, the fight against human trafficking (protection of victims, prevention, criminal prosecution of traffickers), and smuggling of migrants, issues of border management, demarcation and boundary determination (as well as the agreement that should be concluded). Some of these problems migrant crisis has made visible by encouraging coping with the need of systemic response to the flaws in the regulatory framework, in the policy concerning asylum seekers, irregular migration through the territory of Serbia, as well as in the sustainable return of our citizens, applicants for asylum in member states. If we put all this in the context of untimely planning, ineffective management of economic trends, the lack of financial support from Brussels to deal with the refugee crisis, but also in the context of the fact that the enlargement policy is aimed at meeting the Copenhagen criteria, but not on economic growth - then the fears of uncontrolled influx of migrants pose potential capital of radical and populist political options. In the relationship with Brussels, Serbia would have to fight for more under-standing regarding the state of the economy and, in general, regarding help with the costs of joining the EU, especially in case of further escalation of the migrant crisis. Serbia's image in the international arena has been changing for better because of the human attitude towards refugees and migrants who were in transit, but for the citizens of Serbia is much more important that the attitude towards them is a part of the essential changes in the society, and not juste an agile response to the crisis - i. e. what metters most is to make appropriate administrative and legal measures, to effectively manage the problems that migrant crisis put in the foreground, but primarily to change the essence of political community and to have this change of image as a result of state and society transformation towards strengthening democratic institutions, the rule of law, media freedom and developed human rights and freedoms.
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Legka, O. "Legal regulation registration of human genomic information: international and domestic experience." Uzhhorod National University Herald. Series: Law 2, no. 72 (2022): 71–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.24144/2307-3322.2022.72.44.
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The article analyzes the main regulatory and legal documents that regulate the issue of legal regulation of the state registration of human genomic information in Ukraine. It has been established that the functioning of the database of human genomic information in Ukraine is currently regulated by the Instruction on the Organization of the Operation of Forensic Records of the Expert Service of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, approved by the Order of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Ukraine dated September 10, 2009 No. 390. However, the sources of the formation of records of genetic characteristics defined by this Instruction do not provide an opportunity to effectively use the tool of the database data for the identification of missing persons, etc., since it is possible to ensure the effectiveness of the method of molecular genetic research only in combination with the maintenance of an automated DNA database.
 The relevance of the adoption of the Law of Ukraine "On State Registration of Human Genomic Information" is substantiated, which defines the legal principles of processing and state registration of human genomic information in Ukraine. Its main purpose and specifics of application are clarified, and the problems in terms of legal uncertainty regarding its compliance with international standards of human rights compliance are identified. The issues related to the technical protection of the Electronic Register of Information on Human Genetic Traits, which is a functional subsystem of the unified information system of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, are outlined, and suggestions for improving this area are provided. Attention is focused on the relevance of international cooperation regarding the exchange of genomic information with other countries and international organizations.
 The role of the International Committee of the Red Cross was clarified, the statistics of identification of missing persons by this organization were analyzed. Attention was drawn to the role of the International Commission on Missing Persons, which has considerable experience in this field. Analyzed: positive international experience of registering human genomic information of Great Britain, USA, Thailand, Brazil; The Prüm Treaty on providing Member States of the European Union with automatic access to genetic databases, fingerprints and information on crimes related to drug trafficking.
 It was concluded that the realities of the times necessitate the introduction and use of advanced technologies that have existed in the field of human genomic identification for more than three decades - DNA molecular genetic research and a data bank of human genetic features, which will contribute to the prompt solution of socially significant tasks.
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Hughes, Donna M. "Trafficking in Human Beings in the European Union." SAGE Open 4, no. 4 (2014): 215824401455358. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2158244014553585.
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Tallmadge, Rachel, and Robert Jeffrey Gitter. "The Determinants of Human Trafficking in the European Union." Journal of Human Trafficking 4, no. 2 (2017): 155–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/23322705.2017.1336368.
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Staiano, Fulvia. "THE PROTECTION OF EUROPEAN UNION CITIZENS VICTIMS OF HUMAN TRAFFICKING IN EUROPE." Italian Yearbook of International Law Online 25, no. 1 (2016): 159–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/22116133-90000111a.
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On February 2015, Eurostat issued a report highlighting that 65% of registered victims of human trafficking in Europe between 2010 and 2012 were citizens of the European Union (EU). Despite the seriousness of this phenomenon, EU citizens who are victims of trafficking are afforded little protection in the European legal space. First, the multi-level legal framework against trafficking applicable on the Union territory does not recognise clear residence rights to this group. Second, the general freedom of movement granted to all EU citizens under Directive 2004/38 might be precluded to victims of trafficking due to the economic prerequisites required by this instrument. It follows that the granting of refugee status to EU citizens who are victims of trafficking becomes a crucial source of protection. The safe country presumption in force between EU Member States under the so-called Aznar Protocol, however, precludes access to international protection for this group. This article critically reviews the Common European Asylum System, in search of normative and judicial interpretations capable of ensuring a stronger protection of EU citizens who are victims of trafficking. In this context, a special focus is devoted to the jurisprudence of the European Court of Human Rights and of the Court of Justice of the European Union.
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Valkovičová, Veronika. "Gender mainstreaming and tackling human trafficking in the European Union." Czech Journal of Social Sciences, Business and Economics 4, no. 1 (2015): 42–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.24984/cjssbe.2015.4.1.4.
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Vadura, Katharine. "Globalisation and Human Commodities: Combating Child Trafficking in the European Union." International Journal of Interdisciplinary Social Sciences: Annual Review 2, no. 1 (2007): 103–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.18848/1833-1882/cgp/v02i01/52204.
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Beleš, Andrej. "Combating Trafficking in Human Beings (Sexual Exploitation) in EU Law: Current Challenges." Slovak Yearbook of European Union Law 2 (December 31, 2022): 9–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.54869/syeul.2022.2.331.
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Trafficking in human beings is a serious organised crime that appears in several forms. Sexual exploitation is the most common form of trafficking in human beings. The European Union combats sexual exploitation by harmonising substantive criminal law (Directives 2011/36/EU and 2011/93/EU) and certain procedural issues and by actively enforcing its policies. Nevertheless, the statistical data from the Member States concerning this crime indicate that the fight against this serious social phenomenon is not sufficiently effective. The European Commission has proposed a reform of Directive 2011/36/EU, but several aspects of this reform are insufficient and problematic.
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Symeonidou-Kastanidou, Elisavet. "Directive 2011/36/EU on Combating Trafficking in Human Beings." New Journal of European Criminal Law 7, no. 4 (2016): 465–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/203228441600700406.
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Directive 2011/36/EU constituted a very important step towards a “holistic” tackling of human trafficking in the European Union, incorporating provisions not only for the criminalisation and prosecution of trafficking, but also for victim protection and crime prevention. Nonetheless, many problems still exist with regard to the content or the implementation of these provisions, which seem to prevent or limit their effective application. Therefore, after presenting the main changes that Directive 2011/36/EU introduced in the institutional framework to address human trafficking, an effort is made in this study both to identify these problems and to present specific proposals for their confrontation in view of the Commission's plans to develop a new post-2016 anti-trafficking Strategy.
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Hołdyńska, Marta. "Illegal migration and trafficking in human beings in the European Union after 2012." Rozprawy Społeczne 15, no. 2 (2021): 70–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.29316/rs/137334.
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Jain, Rajendra K. "India, the European Union and Human Rights." India Quarterly: A Journal of International Affairs 73, no. 4 (2017): 411–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0974928417731640.
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Growing media attention and international criticism about human rights violations in the wake of the resurgence of insurgency led India to make major policy changes in its attitude towards human rights and begin to discuss human rights with the European Union for the first time in 1990. This article critically examines Indian perceptions of the EU’s approach towards human rights since the 1990s to the present. It evaluates Indian responses to the inclusion of human rights provisions in trade agreements and criticism of the ‘one size fits all’ model of the Europeans for the promotion of human rights. It explores the sources of Indian scepticism about the international human rights regime and criticism of Western countries’ selectivity in enforcing human rights. In the ultimate analysis, the responsibility for initiating and implementing the multitude of structural, economic, social and political reforms necessary to improve human rights implementation must be taken by Indians themselves. External players can only play a supportive role and their capacities to bring about fundamental change are necessarily limited.
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Figus, Alessandro. "European Union and Russia: international relations evolution." Geopolitical, Social Security and Freedom Journal 3, no. 2 (2020): 124–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/gssfj-2020-0016.
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Abstract Today the relationship between Russia and the today EU-28 (today EU-27) members of the European Union is essential and very strategically important; this issue is bound to become more urgent as the two draws closer together over the next decades. In this paper, we discuss this and the Russian Federation’s role in the Ukraine conflict that has seriously affected EU-Russia relations. The EU and Russia have a long record of cooperation on issues of bilateral and international concern in several fields, from climate change to drug and human trafficking, but also the organized crime, terrorism, and non-proliferation. In particular, Europe, the “old traditional Europe”, acquires special weight for Russia in the context of the cooling down of relations between Russia and the United States. We will discuss gas, oil, and energy, but we can see that the solution can be only economic, and the oil and agriculture sectors could help do just that. “Business is business”.
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Samoilenko, Oleksandr, Viktor Bereziuk, Olena Zabolotna, Artem Chornyi, and Oleksandr Adamchuk. "SWOT analysis to assess the threat of illegal arms trafficking on the Ukrainian border with the European Union countries in the context of the war." Cuestiones Políticas 40, no. 75 (2022): 694–716. http://dx.doi.org/10.46398/cuestpol.4075.42.
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The problem of combating threats of illegal trafficking of arms, ammunition and explosives at the border points of Ukraine with the countries of the European Union EU has become urgent under martial law. The aim of the study was to develop an optimal strategy for the State Border Guard Service of Ukraine (hereinafter referred to as "SBGSU") to combat threats of illegal arms trafficking at border points with EU countries under martial law. A comprehensive methodological approach combining the following scientific methods was used: comparative method, systems analysis method, structural-functional method, survey and group expert evaluation method, classification method and determination of numerical characteristics. A model was developed to assess the threat of illegal arms trafficking on the border of Ukraine with the EU countries under martial law based on SWOT-analysis. As a result, the factors of strengths and weaknesses, opportunities and threats, which exist in the Ukrainian border guard agency, were identified. It is concluded that the results of this study cannot be applied to the border areas of Ukraine with such countries as the Russian Federation, Belarus and Moldova.
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Ayata, Ali. "Human rights aspects of european foreign policy." New Trends and Issues Proceedings on Humanities and Social Sciences 2, no. 2 (2016): 01–07. http://dx.doi.org/10.18844/prosoc.v2i2.406.
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The development policy of the European Union is a policy area that has developed rapidly, especially after the Cold War and the conflicts between Eastern countries. In the 1990s, the EU issued a development profile and started the human rights and democracy concepts into the Treaty of European Union officially as guiding principles in its foreign policy. Even before the importance of human rights and democracy in the founding treaties of the European Union was mentioned, strengthening the identity of the European Union could be brought at the international level from the start with respect for these criteria together, because these criteria were the grounds for the EU. The specific aim of this work is to consider the human rights dimension of EU development, cooperation and also some related policy issues and implementation problems in practice, which are considered in theoretical approaches in the study. It should be also noted that while the EU acts as an institution and also relief organization, it makes use of its own funds and budgets, not its Member States. Within this context, the activities of the Union to promote human rights could be interpreted as cultural imperialism.    Keywords: Human Rights, European Union, Foreign Policy, Cultural Imperialism.
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Jordana Santiago, Maria Esther. "The European Union Fight against Trafficking of Human Beings: Challenges of the Victim’s Statute." Paix et Securite Internationales, no. 8 (2020): 467–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.25267/paix_secur_int.2020.i8.16.
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Probst, Evelyn. "Victims’ protection within the context of trafficking in human beings and European Union standards." ERA Forum 19, no. 3 (2018): 357–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12027-018-0526-3.
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Friesendorf, Cornelius, and Jacqueline Berman. "EU Foreign Policy and the Fight Against Human Trafficking: Coercive Governance as Crime Control." European Foreign Affairs Review 13, Issue 2 (2008): 189–209. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/eerr2008014.
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Since the late 1990s, the European Union has increased significantly its efforts against human trafficking. These efforts have, however, been fraught with contradictions, misconstrued as part of other policy debates (e.g. security, migration and enlargement) and generally ineffective in their ability to fight this global phenomenon. In practice, the EU has built a response to trafficking that privileges certain coercive practices (i.e. stronger borders, internal law enforcement and external state ‘capacity–building’) over comprehensive measures able to redress trafficking (i.e. prevention, prosecution and protection). It is the neglect of the latter that accounts, in part, for the transformation and persistence of the trafficking industry.The EU needs to address path dependencies that have led to the pursuit of a coercive and ineffective counter–trafficking governance system, paying particular attention both to the interaction between external and internal policy and to the unintended effects that this system has had on the practice of human trafficking.
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Major, Iván. "Will Central and Eastern European Countries Dismantle the European Union?—Contrasting European Developments to Current Trends in the US." Journal of Economics and Public Finance 5, no. 2 (2019): p234. http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/jepf.v5n2p234.
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This paper analyzes the historical background of the current developments in Central Eastern Europe, in other parts of Eastern Europe and in previously member countries of the former Soviet Union. The author concludes that the political and economic transformation of these countries to a solid democracy and well-functioning market economy have not been successful for most of them yet, and this may have serious consequences on the European Union, too.The paper contrasts these trends with what we can observe in the United States now. The author turns to the “hard facts” next, when he discusses the different factors of human and economic development and the issue of migration in the Central and East European post-socialist countries and in a selected group of advanced countries.
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Heywood, Loria-Mae. "Before Saying “I Do”: Legal and Policy Considerations for Facilitating Clarity on Human Trafficking and the Protection of Children in Albania." Violence and Victims 35, no. 3 (2020): 285–306. http://dx.doi.org/10.1891/vv-d-19-00067.
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Data available on victims of human trafficking in Albania does not appear to point to a significant problem of human trafficking in the country. For example, from the years 2016 to 2018, 61 persons were officially determined to be victims of human trafficking, in a context where the average population for that period was 2,871,978 persons. However, beneath this representation of an ostensible average level of trafficking in Albania are signs which seem to be suggestive of a more serious problem in the country. Reports, for example, indicate that authorities have sometimes associated trafficking with a transnational element, while challenges have continued to be posed to the identification of those involved in forced begging, particularly unaccompanied children, street children, and children crossing borders. In addition to highlighting and assessing evident challenges that exist in the identification of real and potential victims of trafficking and the gaps that exist in the protection of children and vulnerable groups in law and in practice, this report provides clarity on the meaning of human trafficking and what could be done to provide a clearer picture of victims of trafficking in Albania. As Albania is being considered for accession negotiations in respect of entry into the European Union, the time is opportune to address challenges and gaps to the prevention and response to trafficking particularly given the European Commission's concerns on human trafficking and child trafficking in Albania.
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PIETROBON, ALESSANDRA. "Challenges in Implementing the European Convention against Trafficking in Human Organs." Leiden Journal of International Law 29, no. 2 (2016): 485–502. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s092215651600011x.
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AbstractThe newest convention of the Council of Europe requires states parties to criminalize all activities related to the trafficking in human organs. It is the first international agreement specifically aimed at addressing this form or criminal trade. Trafficking in human organs is mostly a transnational criminal enterprise: the article highlights how contracting states will have to face specific problems in prosecuting offences committed in foreign countries. The effectiveness of the convention depends on the parties’ determination in solving such problems and in avoiding taking advantage from some reservations that – though admitted by the convention – could undermine its possible value as a means of combating transnational crime.
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Man, Marcus-Radu, and Sorana Vătavu. "Can progressive taxation contribute to human development?" Journal of Financial Studies 7, no. 13 (2022): 132–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.55654/jfs.2022.7.13.10.
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This paper aims to understand and quantify the impact of taxation on the Human Development Index. The countries considered for this research are members of the European Union and the period overviewed is 2011-2019. According to the computation of the data relevant to this research, progressively taxed countries have a higher Human Development Index than the ones that practice a flat tax system. Subsequently, the income tax as a share of GDP is also at a much higher rate in progressively taxed countries than in flat-taxed countries. Additionally, countries in the European Union that have a progressive taxed system also collect more taxes as a share of GDP than the countries that have a flat tax system. Ultimately, this paper aims to reinforce the need for the European Union’s member states that do not have a progressive taxed system to transition to one in order to have a fairer tax system that leads to a higher value of the Human Development Index and higher governmental revenues.
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Isaieva, Ilona, Serhii Zabolotnyi, Yurii Moisienko, Olena Androshchuk, Oleh Reznik, and Iryna Kovalska. "Development of online learning course in combating human beings trafficking for border guard officers of Ukraine." LAPLAGE EM REVISTA 7, Extra-B (2021): 536–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.24115/s2446-622020217extra-b967p.536-543.
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The article outlines the important role of training the border guard agencies personnel to prevent and combat trafficking in human beings. The course development methodology included defining the professional competencies according to the Sectoral Qualification Framework for border guarding in European Union, determining the level of the course and learning outcomes, elaborating learning and assessment strategies. The online course was organized in 3 main stages: self-paced (asynchronous), synchronous and reflective. During the reflective learning stage the participants analysed and systematized the course materials and studied the cases of human trafficking, prepared reports with analysis of how the victims of human trafficking were identified, the way profiling was carried out and what indicators helped in this.
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Furåker, Bengt. "European trade union cooperation, union density and employee attitudes to unions." Transfer: European Review of Labour and Research 26, no. 3 (2020): 345–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1024258920933118.
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European trade unions have much to gain from cooperating with each other. Such cooperation does exist, but it is still fairly limited and many obstacles need to be overcome if cooperation is to be improved. According to our survey data, higher-level union officials regard differences concerning financial resources and national labour market regulations to be particularly substantial barriers to cooperation. The enormously varying union density across Europe, and its general decrease, also creates barriers. Therefore, employee attitudes to unions are examined using data from the International Social Survey Programme. As expected, union members tend to be more positive about trade unions than non-members. The most interesting finding, however, is that employees in some countries with low union density exhibit fairly positive views or at least views that are not less positive than what we find among employees in many countries with higher density rates. This suggests that there is potential for recruiting members.
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Máčaj, Adam. "Impact of European Union Tariff Preferences on International Human Rights Treaties." Slovak Yearbook of European Union Law 2 (December 31, 2022): 61–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.54869/syeul.2022.2.329.
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Tariff preferences of the EU seek to, inter alia, incentivize third countries through more beneficial scheme of preferences to act in accordance with international human rights standards and other values prioritized by the EU. The aim of this contribution is to assess whether this motivation has real impact on third countries as regards their approach to core international human rights treaties and provide answer to the question whether improved tariff preferences influenced conduct of those countries, as regards accession to the said treaties and expansion of their territorial applicability. Through this assessment, the research seeks to analyse impact the positive conditionality had on acceptance and ratification of human rights treaties by countries that have not showed previous inclination to ratifications without the prospect of obtaining tariff preferences by the EU. The central method is to consider the international human rights treaty ratification years of all states benefitting from the EU regime of tariff preferences. By comparing the time of ratifying the required human rights treaties, and the year in which the respective states became beneficiaries of tariff preferences, the study confirms that, safe for several specific cases, the states receiving tariff preferences had little to no new obligations in terms of ratifying human rights conventions they were previously not bound by.
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Žmuk, Berislav. "Quality of Life Indicators in Selected European Countries: Hierarchical Cluster Analysis Approach." Croatian Review of Economic, Business and Social Statistics 1, no. 1-2 (2015): 42–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/crebss-2016-0004.
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Abstract The average expected duration of human life is rising because of different reasons. On the other hand, not only the duration, but the quality of life level is important, too. The higher the quality of life level, the citizens’ happiness and satisfaction levels are higher, which has positive impact on the development and operating of an economy. The goal of this paper is to identify groups of European countries, using statistical hierarchical cluster analysis, by using the quality of life indicators, and to recognise differences in quality of life levels. The quality of life is measured by using seven different indicators. The conducted statistical hierarchical cluster analysis is based on the Ward’s clustering method, and squared Euclidean distances. The results of conducted statistical hierarchical cluster analysis enabled recognizing of three different groups of European countries: old European Union member states, new European Union members, and non-European Union member states. The analysis has revealed that the old European Union member states seem to have in average higher quality of life level than the new European Union member states. Furthermore, the European Union member states have in average higher quality of live level than non-European Union members do. The results indicate that quality of life levels and economic development levels are connected.
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Syroid, T. L. "ORGANIZATIONAL AND LEGAL MECHANISM FOR COMBATING THE CRIME OF HUMAN TRAFFICKING IN THE EUROPEAN UNION." South Ukrainian Law Journal 3, no. 4 (2022): 42–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.32850/sulj.2022.4.3.8.
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Cupara, Snezana, Vitomir Cupic, Olivera Milovanovic, Ana Radovanovic, and Mihailo Kipic. "Homeopathy in human and veterinary medicine." Veterinarski glasnik 69, no. 3-4 (2015): 283–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/vetgl1504283c.
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Classical homeopathy is a method belonging to complementary and alternative medicine and is used in treatment of both people and animals. In human medicine, classical homeopathy has a different status within the European Union, depending on legislation that applies in the member countries Veterinary homeopathy has currently being developed in three directions: scientific researches are being conducted, animals are being treated by homeopathy and education for homeopathic treatment of animals is being organized as well. European Council for Classical Homeopathy (ECCH) in 2007. published a report on homeopathic treatment of animals in Europe. The report encompassed a variety of issues related to homeopathic treatment in veterinary medicine in the countries of the European Union (EU) as well as ECCH members, wherein the situation in Serbia is also mentioned. The current veterinary homeopathy in Serbia is in the early development. Compared to the moment of publication of the report, there is a slight positive change, but there still lacks a standardized education and licencing system in this field.
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Alfaro Cortés, Esteban, and José-Luis Alfaro Navarro. "Do ICT Influence Economic Growth and Human Development in European Union Countries?" International Advances in Economic Research 17, no. 1 (2010): 28–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11294-010-9289-5.
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Rollnik-Sadowska, Ewa. "YOUNG PEOPLE IN THE EUROPEAN UNION LABOUR MARKET." Latgale National Economy Research 1, no. 8 (2016): 80. http://dx.doi.org/10.17770/lner2016vol1.8.1482.
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In an era of aging of the European Union population, it is crucial to take care of human resources in various spheres of their life. The potential of young people is particularly important, as their economic activity creates the basis of maintaining the European welfare state model. However, the labour market situation of young people is difficult. Moreover, the phenomena, which have recently attracted increasing attention, are remaining for young people without employment, education or training (NEET). The occurrence of NEET's resources is harmful at micro level - due to pauperization of European households as well as for the whole economy due to insufficient usage of human resources. The paper aim is to compare how the situation of young people differs in the European Union labour markets.The paper was based on both the desk-research of literature as well as the analysis of selected economic indicators of young people (aged 15-29 years). The indicator analysis was made through the usage of cluster analysis (Ward's method and k-means method). The data was gathered from the databases of Eurostat. The selected indicators determine the labour market situation of young people in the EU countries and they are derived from two years – 2006 and 2014.Ward's and k-means methods allowed for dividing the EU countries into three groups. It occurred that the groups in 2006 have a completely different composition of countries than in 2014, which was mainly determined by crisis influences on the labour markets as well as directions of conducted reforms. Additionally, the k-means method allowed for comparison of selected groups on the basis of chosen variables and determination of countries with the best and the worst situation of young people.
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Hoffmann, Tomasz. "The Status of the European Institutions Officials." Polish Political Science Yearbook 36, no. 1 (2007): 224–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.15804/ppsy2007015.
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The European Union increasingly inuences the member states, their political institutions, business groups, commercial business sector and the citizens. The institutions, politics and legal regulations of the Communities inuence also countries and human beings from outside the Union. is inuence means that each member state of the European Union has its own representative in the European Institutions such as European Parliament, European Commission, the Court of Justice and the Court of Auditors
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Planitzer, Julia. "Trafficking in Human Beings for the Purpose of Labour Exploitation." Netherlands Quarterly of Human Rights 34, no. 4 (2016): 318–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/016934411603400404.
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This article gives an overview of current legal initiatives for enhanced transparency regulations for corporations and the actions they take against trafficking in human beings (THB). The California Transparency in Supply Chains Act (CTSCA) has an influence on legal initiatives in Europe, in particular in the United Kingdom. The UK's Modern Slavery Act includes the obligation for corporations to report on actions taken against THB and slavery. In addition, at the European Union level, measures to enhance obligatory reporting on non-fnancial matters, such as human rights matters, are to be implemented in national legislation in the next years. This article compares the California Transparency in Supply Chains Act with the UK's Modern Slavery Act. In order to decrease exploitation along the supply chain, the article concludes that legislation should not only require obligatory reporting but also oblige corporations to implement measures to prevent THB related to their activities.
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Rijken, Conny. "Challenges to criminal justice co-operation in combating trafficking in human beings in the European Union." ERA Forum 6, no. 2 (2005): 267–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12027-005-0035-z.
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Sardelić, Julija. "The Exclusion of Roma and European Citizenship." Current History 120, no. 824 (2021): 100–104. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/curh.2021.120.824.100.
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Some 10-15 million members of the Roma minority live in Europe; an estimated 6 million are citizens of the European Union. It was not until the 1990s that European Union institutions began treating Roma as an ethnic minority deserving of human rights protections. Concerns about mass migration of Roma from Eastern European countries where they face severe discrimination was one of the reasons the EU included protections for Roma among the conditions that candidate countries had to meet to qualify for consideration in its most recent rounds of enlargement. Those EU efforts have overlooked similar discrimination and neglect in western member states.
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Kelemen, Katalin, and Märta C. Johansson. "Still Neglecting the Demand that Fuels Human Trafficking: A Study Comparing the Criminal Laws and Practice of Five European States on Human Trafficking, Purchasing Sex from Trafficked Adults and from Minors." European Journal of Crime, Criminal Law and Criminal Justice 21, no. 3-4 (2013): 247–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15718174-21042030.
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This article discusses the implementation of duties to reduce the market for sexual services of trafficked persons, both adults and children. The article begins by describing the duties that stem from international and European obligations. It then presents the legislation and practice of five European states (Hungary, Italy, the Netherlands, Sweden and the United Kingdom) regarding human trafficking and the purchase of sexual acts from trafficking victims. The states in the study have introduced measures to combat human trafficking by effective prosecutions and sentencing of traffickers. They have, however, taken few measures to combat demand for the sexual services of trafficked persons; in some countries, no measures at all. As all the countries criminalise the purchase of sexual acts from children below the age of 18, the article examines whether this has afforded trafficked children effective protection against sexual exploitation. One key element in the crime of purchasing sex from a minor is knowledge of the child’s age. The subjective elements that states require range from strict liability (below certain ages) to negligence, and their practice also varies. The article ends by discussing the lacunae that remain before states can be said to secure trafficked persons’ right to effective protection against sexual exploitation.
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Dennison, James, Daniel Seddig, and Eldad Davidov. "The Role of Human Values in Explaining Support for European Union Membership." Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 52, no. 4 (2021): 372–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/00220221211005082.
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In recent years, there has been greater scholarly enquiry into explaining variation in support for European Union membership. We theorise that one cause of such variation is likely to be non-political psychological predispositions, such as one’s personal values. We test this proposition by applying Schwartz’s theory of basic human values to predict voting intentions in hypothetical referendums on EU membership. We theorise that these values determine both voting intentions and more proximate explanatory variables of support for EU membership: attitudes to immigration and identifying as European. Using data on 13 countries from the European Social Survey ( N=24,703 citizens) and multigroup structural equation modeling, we demonstrate that this psychological framework effectively predicts voting intentions, notably in terms of the consistent cross-country evidence for indirect effects of values on support for membership via European identity and attitudes to immigration. We then discuss the implications of our findings, including differences in effects between countries.
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Kleszcz, Agnieszka. "Principal components of innovation performance in European Union countries." Wiadomości Statystyczne. The Polish Statistician 66, no. 8 (2021): 24–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0015.2305.
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Innovation is one of the main determinants of economic development. Innovative activity is very complex, thus difficult to measure. The complexity of the phenomenon poses a great challenge for researchers to understand its determinants. The article focuses on the problem of innovation-related geographical disparities among European Union countries. Moreover, it analyses the principal components of innovation determined on the basis of the European Innovation Scoreboard (EIS) dimensions. The aim of the paper is to identify the principal components of the innovation index which differentiate countries by analysing the structure of the correlation between its components. All calculations were based on indicators included in the EIS 2020 Database, containing data from the years 2012–2019. A comparative analysis of the studied countries’ innovation performance was carried out, based on the principal component analysis (PCA) method, with the purpose of finding the uncorrelated principal components of innovation which differentiate the studied countries. The results were achieved by reducing a 10-dimensional data set to a 2-dimensional one, for a simpler interpretation. The first principal component (PC1) consisted of the human resources, attractive research systems, and finance and support dimensions (understood as academia and finance). The second principal component (PC2), involving the employment impacts and linkages dimensions, was interpreted as business-related. PC1 and PC2 jointly explained 68% of the observed variance, and similar results were obtained for the 27 detailed indicators outlined in the EIS. We can therefore assume that we have an accurate representation of the information contained in the EIS data, which allows for an alternative assessment and ranking of innovation performance. The proposed simplified index, described in a 2-dimensional space, based on PC1 and PC2, makes it possible to group countries in a new way, according to their level of innovation, which offers a wide range of application, e.g. PC1 captures geographic disparities in innovation corresponding to the division between the old and new EU member states.
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Al-Jaberi, Prof Dr Sattar Jabbar. "Iraq and the European Union towards a Strategic Partnership." ALUSTATH JOURNAL FOR HUMAN AND SOCIAL SCIENCES 220, no. 2 (2018): 95–122. http://dx.doi.org/10.36473/ujhss.v220i2.487.
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The Iraq's relations with the European Union countries of the oldest and surest Iraq's foreign relations, in spite of the damage to those relationships during certain time periods, and sometimes degradation several considerations, they quickly return to normal, the importance of Iraq's strategy for European countries on the one hand, and interest in Iraq, the European its relations On the other hand .
 The EU played an important role in Iraq in the era after 2003, through important political relations with the Iraqi government, and try to achieve a real partnership in the political, economic and cultural fields, and interested in EU areas of human rights, and civil society organizations, and strengthen the Iraqi security capacity and we will try in this Find the study of the positions of the European Union countries of Iraq, and then try the European Union and Iraq to establish a strategic partnership between them.