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Littérature scientifique sur le sujet « Great Britain – Colonies – Defenses »

Auteur : Grafiati

Publié le 10 mars 2023

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Articles de revues sur le sujet "Great Britain – Colonies – Defenses"

Clark, F., et D. A. C. McNeil. « CLIFF-NESTING COLONIES OF HOUSE MARTINS DELICHON URBICA IN GREAT BRITAIN ». Ibis 122, n^o 1 (3 avril 2008) : 27–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1474-919x.1980.tb00869.x.

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STANZIANI, ALESSANDRO. « Local Bondage in Global Economies : Servants, wage earners, and indentured migrants in nineteenth-century France, Great Britain, and the Mascarene Islands ». Modern Asian Studies 47, n^o 4 (28 février 2013) : 1218–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0026749x12000698.

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AbstractThis paper compares the definitions, practices, and legal constraints on labour in Britain, France, Mauritius, and Reunion Island in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. It argues that the way in which indentured labour was defined and practised in the colonies was linked to the definition and practice of wage labour in Europe and that their development was interconnected. The types of bondage that existed in the colonies were extreme forms of the notion, practices, and rules of labour in Europe. It would have been impossible to develop the indenture contract in the British and French empires if wage earners in Britain and France had not been servants. The conceptions and practices of labour in Europe and its main colonies influenced each other and were part of a global dynamic.

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Contogouris, Ersy. « Gender, Race, and Nation in Tableau Representing Great Britain and Her Colonies ». RACAR : Revue d'art canadienne 44, n^o 2 (2019) : 65. http://dx.doi.org/10.7202/1068318ar.

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Storey, Kenton Scott. « Colonial Humanitarian ? Thomas Gore Browne and the Taranaki War, 1860–61 ». Journal of British Studies 53, n^o 1 (janvier 2014) : 111–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/jbr.2013.210.

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AbstractThe New Zealand Wars of the 1860s have traditionally been associated with the popularity of antagonistic racial discourses and the growing influence of scientific racism. Building upon recent research into the resonance of humanitarian racial discourses in this period, this article reconsiders the experience of Governor Thomas Gore Browne during the Taranaki War, 1860–61. The Taranaki War was a global news event that precipitated fierce debates within both New Zealand and Great Britain over the war's origins and the rights of indigenous Maori. This article reveals how both Browne and his wartime critics defined themselves as the true defenders of Maori rights. This general usage of humanitarian racial discourses was encouraged by perceptions of metropolitan surveillance, New Zealand's prominence within networks of imperial communication, and an onus to administrate Maori with justice.

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McConnel, Katie. « The Centrepiece of Colonial Queensland's Celebration and Commemoration of Royalty and Empire : Government House, Brisbane ». Queensland Review 16, n^o 2 (juillet 2009) : 15–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1321816600005080.

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Her Majesty's birthday was right royally celebrated last evening by His Excellency the Governor on the occasion of the annual birthday ball at government house.‘Royalty’ and ‘Empire’ were, throughout the second half of the nineteenth century. of supreme significance to all the Australian colonies. While each colony was well integrated within the Imperial framework, they remained largely reliant on the economic and geopolitical management of the British Empire. Though different colonial/national identities developed in Australia, the colonies' economic, military and diplomatic dependence on Britain strongly orientated them towards the Queen and ‘home’. Colonial Governors served as the vital link between the colonies and both the Imperial government and the Queen of the British Empire. Appointed by Britain and entrusted with the same rights, powers and privileges as the Queen, the role of Governor was one of great influence and authority.

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Gorfin, Vladislav L., et Alexander M. Rybakov. « RUSSIA’S ROLE IN THE STRUGGLE FOR THE INDEPENDENCE OF THE NORTH AMERICAN COLONIES ». Historical Search 2, n^o 2 (25 juin 2021) : 5–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.47026/2712-9454-2021-2-2-5-12.

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In the article the authors show the place of Russia in the struggle for the independence of the United States. They reveal the concept of «military neutrality», its essence and content. They define the basic principles of the world colonial system in the XVIII century, the foundations of interrelation between world powers and their colonies. They identify the priorities and interests for the development of foreign policy relations. They establish causal links between the war of the North American colonies of Great Britain for their independence and the policies of a number of European powers (Russia, Great Britain, France), as well as the consequences to which it led. The article considers the history of the struggle for independence and the formation of a new state of the United States of America, the development of foreign policy relations. The authors focus on the history of Russian-American relations in the second half of the XVIII century in the political aspect, and emphasize the increasing penetration of Russia’s influence in the scientific and cultural spheres which directly influenced and enriched the two countries. The relations between Russia and the United States and their history are studied. The history of relations between Russia and Great Britain is shown. The authors analyze the history of attempts to involve the Russian Empire in the war on the side of Great Britain, the position of the Russian government and Catherine II, as well as their attitude to these attempts. The authors give prominence to a number of world political figures and note their personal contribution to the process of struggle for independence and the further development of the United States of America. Unknown moments of their biographies are revealed. Conclusions are drawn about the role and the place of the leading countries of the period under study in the struggle for freedom and independence of the future superpower.

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Schwanda. « The Protestant Reception of Jan Hus in Great Britain and the American Colonies ». Journal of Moravian History 16, n^o 2 (2016) : 65. http://dx.doi.org/10.5325/jmorahist.16.2.0065.

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Holman, Brett. « The Phantom Airship Panic of 1913 : Imagining Aerial Warfare in Britain before the Great War ». Journal of British Studies 55, n^o 1 (janvier 2016) : 99–119. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/jbr.2015.173.

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AbstractIn late 1912 and early 1913, people all over Britain reported seeing airships in the night sky, yet there were none. It was widely assumed that these “phantom airships” were German Zeppelins, testing British defenses in preparation for the next war. The public and press responses to the phantom airship sightings provide a glimpse of the way that aerial warfare was understood before it was ever experienced in Britain. Conservative newspapers and patriotic leagues used the sightings to argue for a massive expansion of Britain's aerial forces, which were perceived to be completely outclassed by Germany's in both number and power. In many ways this airship panic was analogous to the much better known 1909 dreadnought panic. The result was the perfect Edwardian panic: the simultaneous culmination of older fears about Germany and the threat of espionage, invasion, and, above all, the loss of Britain's naval superiority. But, in reality, there was little understanding about the way that Zeppelins would be used against Britain in the First World War—not to attack its arsenals and dockyards, but to bomb its cities.

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Goncharenko, A. V., et T. O. Safonova. « Great Britain and the tvolution of the colonial system (end 19th – beginning 20th centuries) ». SUMY HISTORICAL AND ARCHIVAL JOURNAL, n^o 35 (2020) : 60–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.21272/shaj.2020.i35.p.60.

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The article investigates the impact of Great Britain on the evolution of colonialism in the late ХІХ and early ХХ centuries. It is analyzed the sources and scientific literature on the policy of the United Kingdom in the colonial question in the late ХІХ – early ХХ century. The reasons, course and consequences of the intensification of British policy in the colonial problem are described. The process of formation and implementation of London’s initiatives in the colonial question during the period under study is studied. It is considered the position of Great Britain on the transformation of the colonial system in the late XIX – early XX centuries. The resettlement activity of the British and the peculiarities of their mentality, based on the idea of racial superiority and the new national messianism, led to the formation of developed resettlement colonies. The war for the independence of the North American colonies led to the formation of a new state on their territory, and the rest of the “white” colonies of Great Britain had at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries had to build a new policy of relations, taking into account the influence of the United States on them, and the general decline of economic and military-strategic influence of Britain in the world, and the militarization of other leading countries. As a result, a commonwealth is formed instead of an empire. With regard to other dependent territories, there is also a change in policy towards the liberalization of colonial rule and concessions to local elites. In the late ХІХ – early ХІХ centuries the newly industrialized powers (Germany, Italy, and Japan) sought to seize the colonies to reaffirm their new status in the world, the great colonial powers of the past (Spain, Portugal, and the Netherlands) sought to retain what remained to preserve their international prestige, and Russia sought to expand. The largest colonial empires, Great Britain and France, were interested in maintaining the status quo. In the colonial policy of the United Kingdom, it is possible to trace a certain line related to attempts to preserve the situation in their remote possessions and not to get involved in conflicts and costly measures where this can be avoided. In this sense, the British government showed some flexibility and foresight – the relative weakening of the military and economic power of the empire due to the emergence of new states, as well as the achievement of certain self-sufficiency, made it necessary to reconsider traditional foreign policy. Colonies are increasingly no longer seen as personal acquisitions of states, and policy toward these territories is increasingly seen as a common deal of the international community and even its moral duty. The key role here was to be played by Great Britain, which was one of the first to form the foundations of a “neocolonial” system that presupposes a solidarity policy of Western countries towards the rest of the world under the auspices of London. Colonial system in the late ХІХ – early ХІХ century underwent a major transformation, which was associated with a set of factors, the main of which were – the emergence of new industrial powers on the world stage, the internal evolution of the British Empire, changes in world trade, the emergence of new weapons, general growth of national and religious identity and related with this contradiction. The fact that the First World War did not solve many problems, such as Japanese expansionism or British marinism, and caused new ones, primarily such as the Bolshevik coup in Russia and the coming to power of the National Socialists in Germany, the implementation of the above trends stretched to later moments.

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Zernetska, O. « The Rethinking of Great Britain’s Role : From the World Empire to the Nation State ». Problems of World History, n^o 9 (26 novembre 2019) : 129–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.46869/2707-6776-2019-9-6.

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In the article, it is stated that Great Britain had been the biggest empire in the world in the course of many centuries. Due to synchronic and diachronic approaches it was detected time simultaneousness of the British Empire’s development in the different parts of the world. Different forms of its ruling (colonies, dominions, other territories under her auspice) manifested this phenomenon.The British Empire went through evolution from the First British Empire which was developed on the count mostly of the trade of slaves and slavery as a whole to the Second British Empire when itcolonized one of the biggest states of the world India and some other countries of the East; to the Third British Empire where it colonized countries practically on all the continents of the world. TheForth British Empire signifies the stage of its decomposition and almost total down fall in the second half of the 20th century. It is shown how the national liberation moments starting in India and endingin Africa undermined the British Empire’s power, which couldn’t control the territories, no more. The foundation of the independent nation state of Great Britain free of colonies did not lead to lossof the imperial spirit of its establishment, which is manifested in its practical deeds – Organization of the British Commonwealth of Nations, which later on was called the Commonwealth, Brexit and so on.The conclusions are drawn that Great Britain makes certain efforts to become a global state again.

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Thèses sur le sujet "Great Britain – Colonies – Defenses"

Babij, Orest. « The making of Imperial Defence policy in Britain, 1926-1934 ». Thesis, University of Oxford, 2003. https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:fb422556-884e-4d47-9705-92d9ff36181d.

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Although the period between 1926 and 1934 was relatively peaceful, Imperial Defence policy-making in Britain focused on threats along the periphery of the Empire. This included a short-lived, but serious concern over Communist expansion in China and Afghanistan and a fear that American naval construction would undermine the Royal Navy's position in the world. The first threat receded by 1928 and the second was met by negotiating the highly successful London Naval Conference of 1930. Throughout these years, the need to reorient the Imperial Defence system to meet a perceived Japanese threat in the Far East, and the Treasury's opposition to the very idea, remained constants within policy-making circles. The world-wide depression led to serious defence cutbacks which the services met largely by cutting back even further on war reserves and mobilization potential. The Japanese assault on Manchuria in 1931, and then in Shanghai in 1932, exposed the inability of the Imperial Defence system to meet a Far Eastern threat. This led to pressure from the navy, in particular, for an increase in service estimates, but the economic situation and the World Disarmament Conference kept the government from agreeing to any significant change in policy. From 1931-193, Imperial Defence concerns were centred on the Far East, but Hitlerâs rise to power in March 1933 turned attention hack toward Europe. Nevertheless, the first large-scale review of Imperial defence deficiencies, the Defence Requirements Sub-Committee, presented a report which balanced the needs of European and Far Eastern defence. In the spring of l934. however, the Cabinet found itself unable to come to a consensus on the DRC's recommendations and the Chancellor of the Exchequer, Neville Chamberlain, stepped forward with his own defence vision. He discounted the need for Far Eastern defence and re-oriented defence policy toward homeland defence. It was his intervention that set the tone for British rearmament in the 1930s.

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Taylor, Michael Hugh. « The defence of British colonial slavery, 1823-33 ». Thesis, University of Cambridge, 2015. https://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.708768.

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Lehane, Richard J. R. « Lieutenant-General Edward Hutton and 'Greater BRitain' : late-Victorian imperialism, imperial defence and the self-governing colonies ». Phd thesis, Department of History, 2005. http://hdl.handle.net/2123/6831.

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Gollannek, Eric Frederick. « "Empire follows art" exchange and the sensory worlds of Empire in Britain and its colonies, 1740-1775 / ». Access to citation, abstract and download form provided by ProQuest Information and Learning Company ; downloadable PDF file, 427 p, 2008. http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did=1625773591&sid=9&Fmt=2&clientId=8331&RQT=309&VName=PQD.

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Percox, David A. « Circumstances short of global war : British defence, colonial internal security, and decolonisation in Kenya, 1945-65 ». Thesis, University of Nottingham, 2001. http://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/10927/.

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This thesis fills a significant gap in current secondary literature on post-war British defence and internal security policy. Hitherto, post-war British defence policy in Kenya has only been considered in passing, in relation to the larger question of Middle East strategy. Very little attention has been paid to Kenya's particular importance in the post-1956 ‘east of Suez’ role. Current works on British internal security policy in Kenya concentrate either on post-war policing in general or, more specifically, on the British counter-insurgency campaign during the Mau Mau revolt (1952-6). In examining post-war British defence and internal security policy and practice in Kenya until 1965, this thesis demonstrates the essential continuity in British strategic priorities in the area. Far from having to ‘scram from Africa’, Britain adapted its defence requirements to an acceptable minimum, thereby ameliorating the more ‘extreme’ face of African nationalism, and denying it political capital with which to apply pressure to Britain's ‘moderate’ collaborators. The success of this flexible approach to defensive requirements is clear because, in losing its politically unacceptable army base, Britain gained a great deal in terms of retention of communications, leave camp, overflying, staging and training rights and facilities, in exchange for arming and training the Kenyan military and assisting in the maintenance of post-independence internal security. Such arrangements continued well beyond the apparent demise of the ‘east of Suez role’. This thesis sets British internal security policy in Kenya in its broad Cold War context (1945-65). Even after apparent military victory in 1956, Britain remained fearful of a recurrence of Mau Mau, and the possible failure of attempts to fudge a ‘political solution’ in Kenya. Britain also had to ensure that its ‘moderate’ successors would be safe from the more radical elements in Kenya African politics, especially given the earlier contradictions inherent in the divisive political and socio-economic reforms which had been designed to foster economic and political stability. Quite simply, therefore, this study demonstrates that British defence and internal security interests in Kenya were far more important, and far more intricately connected with the transfer of political power, than has hitherto been acknowledged.

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Kelly, Saul Mark Barrett. « Great Britain, the United States and the question of the Italian colonies, 1940-1952 ». Thesis, University of London, 1995. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.283688.

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Jeppesen, Christopher. « Making a career in the British Empire, c. 1900-1960 ». Thesis, University of Cambridge, 2013. https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/252295.

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Lee, Kit-wai, et 李潔慧. « Power politics in post-colonial narrative ». Thesis, The University of Hong Kong (Pokfulam, Hong Kong), 2002. http://hub.hku.hk/bib/B31953591.

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Kruer, Matthew 1981. « Red Albion : Genocide and English Colonialism, 1622-1646 ». Thesis, University of Oregon, 2009. http://hdl.handle.net/1794/10306.

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viii, 170 p. A print copy of this thesis is available through the UO Libraries. Search the library catalog for the location and call number.
This thesis examines the connection between colonialism and violence during the early years of English settlement in North America. I argue that colonization was inherently destructive because the English colonists envisioned a comprehensive transformation of the American landscape that required the elimination ofNative American societies. Two case studies demonstrate the dynamics ofthis process. During the Anglo-Powhatan Wars in Virginia, latent violence within English ideologies of imperialism escalated cont1ict to levels of extreme brutality, but the fracturing ofpower along the frontier limited Virginian war aims to expulsion of the Powhatan Indians and the creation of a segregated society. During the Pequot War in New England, elements of violence in the Puritan worldview became exaggerated by the onset of societal crisis during the Antinomian Controversy. The resulting climate of fear unified the colonies and created an ideological commitment to the genocide of the Pequots.
Committee in Charge: Dr. Jack Maddex, Chair; Dr. Matthew Dennis; Dr. Jeffrey Ostler

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Allpress, Roshan John. « Making philanthropists : entrepreneurs, evangelicals and the growth of philanthropy in the British world, 1756-1840 ». Thesis, University of Oxford, 2015. https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:ab20c0ea-6720-474d-947c-b66f89c37680.

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This thesis traces the development of philanthropy as a tradition and movement within the United Kingdom and the British world, with attention to both the inner lives of philanthropists, and the social networks and organizational practices that underpinned the dramatic growth in philanthropic activity between the late 1750s and 1840. In contrast to studies that see philanthropy as primarily responsive to Britain's shifting public culture and imperial fortunes during the period, it argues that philanthropic change was driven by innovations in the internal culture and structures of intersecting commercial and religious networks, that were adapted to philanthropic purposes by philanthropic entrepreneurs. It frames the growth of philanthropy as both a series of experiments in effecting social change, within the United Kingdom and transnationally, and the fostering of a vocationally formative culture across three generations. Chapter one focuses on John Thornton, a prominent merchant and religious patron, reconstructing his correspondence networks and philanthropic practices, and revealing patterns of philanthropic interaction between mercantile and Evangelical clerical networks. Chapter two uses the reports and minutes of representative metropolitan societies and companies to develop a prosopography of more than 4000 philanthropic directors, mapping their nexus of interconnections in 1760, 1788 and 1800, and arguing for the importance of firstly Russia Company networks and later country banking networks for philanthropy. Chapters three and four offer an extended case study of the 'Clapham Sect' as an example of collective agency, reframing their influence within the philanthropic nexus, and, through a close reading of their published works, showing how as intellectual collaborators they developed a unique conception of 'trust' that informed their activism. Chapter five shows how philanthropists extended their reach transnationally, with case studies in Bengal, Sierra Leone and New Zealand, and chapter six addresses multiple paths by which philanthropy became intertwined with Empire and the globalizing world in the British imagination.

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Livres sur le sujet "Great Britain – Colonies – Defenses"

Distant drums : The role of colonies in British imperial warfare. Brighton : Sussex Academic Press, 2010.

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Imperial Federation League. Defence Committee. The colonies and maritime defence. [London ? : s.n., 1986.

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N, Cole Howard, dir. Formation badges of World War 2 : Britain, Commonwealth, and Empire. London : Arms and Armour Press, 1985.

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Withdrawal from empire : A military view. London : Batsford, 1986.

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James, Lawrence. Imperial rearguard : Wars of empire, 1919-1985. London : Brassey's Defence Publishers, 1988.

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Defending the Empire : The Conservative Party and British defence policy, 1899-1915. New Haven, Conn : Yale University Press, 1991.

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Army and empire : British soldiers on the American frontier, 1758-1775. Lincoln : University of Nebraska Press, 2004.

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Page, Malcolm. A history of the King's African Rifles and East African forces. London : Leo Cooper, 1998.

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Neillands, Robin. A fighting retreat : The British Empire 1947-1997. London : Cornet Books, 1997.

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Neillands, Robin. A Fighting Retreat : The British Empire, 1947-1997. London : Hodder & Stoughton, 1996.

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Chapitres de livres sur le sujet "Great Britain – Colonies – Defenses"

Dickinson, Harry T. « [Phelps], The Rights of the Colonies, and the Extent of the Legislative Authority of Great-Britain ». Dans British Pamphlets on the American Revolution, 1763-1785, 193–216. London : Routledge, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781003113720-5.

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Dickinson, Harry T. « Anon., The Constitutional Right of the Legislature of Great Britain, to Tax the British Colonies in America ». Dans British Pamphlets on the American Revolution, 1763-1785, 69–144. London : Routledge, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781003113720-3.

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Dickinson, Harry T. « [Cawthorne?], a Conciliation with America : Adapted to the Constitutional Rights of the Colonies and the Supremacy of Great Britain ». Dans British Pamphlets on the American Revolution, 1763-1785, 317–81. London : Routledge, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781003113751-7.

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Sarson, Steven, et Jack P. Greene. « The Rights of the English Colonies Established in America Stated and Defended ; Their Merits and Importance to Great Britain Displayed ; ». Dans The American Colonies and the British Empire, 1607–1783, 151–93. Routledge, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781003074144-14.

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Connors, Linda E., et Mary Lu Macdonald. « Kingdoms and Colonies ». Dans National Identity in Great Britain and British North America, 1815–1851, 153–92. Routledge, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315597423-ch-6.

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Sarson, Steven, et Jack P. Greene. « The True Interest of Great Britain ». Dans The American Colonies and the British Empire, 1607–1783, 111–12. Routledge, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781003074137-12.

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Sarson, Steven, et Jack P. Greene. « [Langrishe], Considerations on the Dependencies of Great Britain ». Dans The American Colonies and the British Empire, 1607–1783, 33–34. Routledge, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781003074144-3.

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Weightman, Gavin. « A Suttonian in America ». Dans The Great Inoculator, 79–85. Yale University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.12987/yale/9780300241440.003.0009.

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This chapter explores the practice of Suttonian inoculation in America. In Britain, there were not really any challenges to the Suttons' claim of their inoculation method's originality. However, most of those who practised the new method in Britain were members of the Sutton family or practitioners who were credited, having bought the Sutton seal of approval. Not many tried their luck abroad. In particular, there seemed to be little incentive to set up in practice in the American colonies. Smallpox inoculation had been pioneered in Boston in 1721, the same year as the Newgate trial in London. In some of the thirteen counties of colonial America it had been banned altogether, in others it had been practised with considerable success. Why cross the Atlantic for such an unpromising venture? One who did was James Latham, an army sergeant who, before he was posted to Quebec with the threat of revolution growing in the colonies to the south, had got himself accredited as a Suttonian inoculator.

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Sarson, Steven, et Jack P. Greene. « The Mutual Interest of Great Britain and the American Colonies ». Dans The American Colonies and the British Empire, 1607–1783, 5–13. Routledge, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781003074137-2.

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Sarson, Steven, et Jack P. Greene. « [Bollan], The Mutual Interest of Great Britain and the American Colonies ». Dans The American Colonies and the British Empire, 1607–1783, 1–3. Routledge, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781003074137-1.

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Actes de conférences sur le sujet "Great Britain – Colonies – Defenses"

Креленко, Н. С. « REVOLUTION IN THE NORTH AMERICAN COLONIES IN THE ASSESSMENT OF H. WALPOLE ». Dans Конференция памяти профессора С.Б. Семёнова ИССЛЕДОВАНИЯ ЗАРУБЕЖНОЙ ИСТОРИИ. Crossref, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.55000/mcu.2021.45.40.012.

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Статья посвящена анализу восприятия Х. Уолполом конфликта между Великобританией и североамериканскими колониями. Х. Уолпол был близким к придворным кругам членом парла-мента, видным интеллектуалом. Его отношение к происходившим событиям отражены в письмах, которые он писал своим единомышленникам и знакомым. Содержание писем позволяет просле-дить, как менялись взгляды и настроения их автора, как корректировалась вигская система ценно-стей по мере изменения политической ситуации. The article is devoted to the analysis of H. Walpole's perception of the conflict between Great Britain and the North American colonies. H. Walpole was a member of parliament close to court circles and a prominent intellectual. His attitude to the events that took place are reflected in the letters that he wrote to his associates and acquaintances. The content of the letters allows us to trace how the views and moods of their author were changing, how the Whig system of values was corrected as the political situation changed.

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Campos, João. « The superb Brazilian Fortresses of Macapá and Príncipe da Beira ». Dans FORTMED2020 - Defensive Architecture of the Mediterranean. Valencia : Universitat Politàcnica de València, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.4995/fortmed2020.2020.11520.

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During the eighteenth century Portugal developed a large military construction process in the Ultramarine possessions, in order to compete with the new born colonial trading empires, mainly Great Britain, Netherlands and France. The Portuguese colonial seashores of the Atlantic Ocean (since the middle of the sixteenth century) and of the Indian Ocean (from the end of the first quarter of the seventeenth century) were repeatedly coveted, and the huge Portuguese colony of Brazil was also harassed in the south during the eighteenth century –here due to problems in a diplomatic and military dispute with Spain, related with the global frontiers’ design of the Iberian colonies. The Treaty of Madrid (1750) had specifically abrogated the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) between Portugal and Spain, and the limits of Brazil began to be defined on the field. Macapá is situated in the western branch of Amazonas delta, in the singular cross-point of the Equator with Tordesillas Meridian, and the construction of a big fortress began in the year of 1764 under direction of Enrico Antonio Galluzzi, an Italian engineer contracted by Portuguese administration to the Commission of Delimitation, which arrived in Brazil in 1753. In consequence of the political panorama in Europe after the Seven Years War (1756-1763), a new agreement between Portugal and Spain was negotiated (after the regional conflict in South America), achieved to the Treaty of San Idefonso (1777), which warranted the integration of the Amazonas basin. It was strategic the decision to build, one year before, the huge fortress of Príncipe da Beira, arduously realized in the most interior of the sub-continent, 2000 km from the sea throughout the only possible connection by rivers navigation. Domingos Sambucetti, another Italian engineer, was the designer and conductor of the jobs held on the right bank of Guaporé River, future frontier’s line with Bolivia. São José de Macapá and Príncipe da Beira are two big fortresses Vauban’ style, built under very similar projects by two Italian engineers (each one dead with malaria in the course of building), with the observance of the most exigent rules of the treaties of military architecture.

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Fatima Hajizada, Fatima Hajizada. « SPECIFIC FEATURES OF THE AMERICAN VERSION OF THE BRITISH LANGUAGE ». Dans THE FIRST INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC – PRACTICAL VIRTUAL CONFERENCE IN MODERN & SOCIAL SCIENCES : NEW DIMENSIONS, APPROACHES AND CHALLENGES. IRETC, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.36962/mssndac-01-10.

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English is one of the most spoken languages in the world. A global language communication is inherent in him. This language is also distinguished by a significant diversity of dialects and speech. It appeared in the early Middle Ages as the spoken language of the Anglo-Saxons. The formation of the British Empire and its expansion led to the widespread English language in Asia, Africa, North America and Australia. As a result, the Metropolitan language became the main communication language in the English colonies, and after independence it became State (USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand) and official (India, Nigeria, Singapore). Being one of the 6 Official Languages of the UN, it is studied as a foreign language in educational institutions of many countries in the modern time [1, 2, s. 12-14]. Despite the dozens of varieties of English, the American (American English) version, which appeared on the territory of the United States, is one of the most widespread. More than 80 per cent of the population in this country knows the American version of the British language as its native language. Although the American version of the British language is not defined as the official language in the US Federal Constitution, it acts with features and standards reinforced in the lexical sphere, the media and the education system. The growing political and economic power of the United States after World War II also had a significant impact on the expansion of the American version of the British language [3]. Currently, this language version has become one of the main topics of scientific research in the field of linguistics, philology and other similar spheres. It should also be emphasized that the American version of the British language paved the way for the creation of thousands of words and expressions, took its place in the general language of English and the world lexicon. “Okay”, “teenager”, “hitchhike”, “landslide” and other words can be shown in this row. The impact of differences in the life and life of colonists in the United States and Great Britain on this language was not significant either. The role of Nature, Climate, Environment and lifestyle should also be appreciated here. There is no officially confirmed language accent in the United States. However, most speakers of national media and, first of all, the CNN channel use the dialect “general American accent”. Here, the main accent of “mid Pppemestern” has been guided. It should also be noted that this accent is inherent in a very small part of the U.S. population, especially in Nebraska, Iowa, and Illinois. But now all Americans easily understand and speak about it. As for the current state of the American version of the British language, we can say that there are some hypotheses in this area. A number of researchers perceive it as an independent language, others-as an English variant. The founder of American spelling, American and British lexicographer, linguist Noah Pondebster treats him as an independent language. He also tried to justify this in his work “the American Dictionary of English” written in 1828 [4]. This position was expressed by a Scottish-born English philologist, one of the authors of the “American English Dictionary”Sir Alexander Craigie, American linguist Raven ioor McDavid Jr. and others also confirm [5]. The second is the American linguist Leonard Bloomfield, one of the creators of the descriptive direction of structural linguistics, and other American linguists Edward Sapir and Charles Francis Hockett. There is also another group of “third parties” that accept American English as a regional dialect [5, 6]. A number of researchers [2] have shown that the accent or dialect in the US on the person contains significantly less data in itself than in the UK. In Great Britain, a dialect speaker is viewed as a person with a low social environment or a low education. It is difficult to perceive this reality in the US environment. That is, a person's speech in the American version of the British language makes it difficult to express his social background. On the other hand, the American version of the British language is distinguished by its faster pace [7, 8]. One of the main characteristic features of the American language array is associated with the emphasis on a number of letters and, in particular, the pronunciation of the letter “R”. Thus, in British English words like “port”, “more”, “dinner” the letter “R” is not pronounced at all. Another trend is related to the clear pronunciation of individual syllables in American English. Unlike them, the Britons “absorb”such syllables in a number of similar words [8]. Despite all these differences, an analysis of facts and theoretical knowledge shows that the emergence and formation of the American version of the British language was not an accidental and chaotic process. The reality is that the life of the colonialists had a huge impact on American English. These processes were further deepened by the growing migration trends at the later historical stage. Thus, the language of the English-speaking migrants in America has been developed due to historical conditions, adapted to the existing living environment and new life realities. On the other hand, the formation of this independent language was also reflected in the purposeful policy of the newly formed US state. Thus, the original British words were modified and acquired a fundamentally new meaning. Another point here was that the British acharism, which had long been out of use, gained a new breath and actively entered the speech circulation in the United States. Thus, the analysis shows that the American version of the British language has specific features. It was formed and developed as a result of colonization and expansion. This development is still ongoing and is one of the languages of millions of US states and people, as well as audiences of millions of people. Keywords: American English, English, linguistics, accent.

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