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Littérature scientifique sur le sujet « Government spending policy – Germany (West) »

Auteur : Grafiati
Publié le 10 mars 2023

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Articles de revues sur le sujet "Government spending policy – Germany (West)"

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Funke, Michael, et Holger Strulik. « Growth and Convergence in a Two-Region Model of Unified Germany ». German Economic Review 1, no 3 (1 août 2000) : 363–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1468-0475.00018.

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Abstract The paper sets up a two-region endogenous growth model to discuss growth and regional convergence of unified Germany. It emphasizes the role of private and public capital accumulation during the developing process. The theoretical part derives fiscal policy rules which establish convergence of regional output per capita and convergence of regional human wealth. To assess the speed of convergence the model is calibrated with German data. Given a fiscal policy rule that is consistent with the data on government spending in East and West Germany after unification the model suggests that East Germany will reach 80 per cent of West Germany's income per capita between 20 and 30 years after unification and that actual transfers are approximately sufficient to equalize regional human wealth. The results are compared with an extension of the model that includes wage-setting behaviour and unemployment in the eastern region.
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Potrafke, Niklas. « Public Expenditures on Education and Cultural Affairs in the West German States : Does Government Ideology Influence the Budget Composition ? » German Economic Review 12, no 1 (1 février 2011) : 124–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0475.2010.00507.x.

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Abstract This paper examines whether government ideology influenced the allocation of public expenditures on education and cultural affairs in the West German states in the 1974-2006 period. I explicitly consider the allocation of policy responsibilities between the federal and the states’ governments. The results suggest that leftist governments slightly increased public spending for schooling, whereas right wing governments spent somewhat more on universities and cultural affairs. This spending pattern appears to be in line with the preferences of the governing parties’ constituencies and indicates political competition in a time of declining electoral cohesion.
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Skousen, Mark. « The Perseverance of Paul Samuelson's Economics ». Journal of Economic Perspectives 11, no 2 (1 mai 1997) : 137–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/jep.11.2.137.

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A reflection of the economics profession through Paul Samuelson's Economics. Samuelson offers an uneasy mix of laissez faire in micro and government interventionism in macro. In earlier editions, Keynesian thinking dominated, with an antisaving, progovernment bias and a need for an activist fiscal policy aimed at alleviating unpredictable chronic business cycles under private enterprise. Middle editions had chapters on the Soviet Union and China, rather than Japan and West Germany. Recently, Samuelson and coauthor William Nordhaus have gradually shifted from antithrift to prosavings policies, from deficit spending to fiscal restraint, and from fiscal policy to monetary policy as effective countercyclical tools.
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Logemann, Jan. « Is it in the interest of the consumer to pay taxes ? Transatlantic differences in postwar approaches to public consumption ». Journal of Consumer Culture 11, no 3 (novembre 2011) : 339–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1469540511417995.

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This article is a comparative analysis of American and West German consumer policy and its underlying definition of the consumer interest during the decades following the Second World War. It traces diverging government responses to a transatlantic debate among economists, policy makers and a wider public over the proper balance between private and public consumption. Whereas postwar America put an emphasis on unrestrained private purchasing power and limited public spending, West German policy makers were more likely to include the provision of publicly supported and tax-funded goods and services as part of their definition of the consumer's interest. This contributed, the article proposes, to a fundamentally different perspective on government spending and taxation by middle-class consumers in both countries. Drawing on media sources, contemporary scholarly literature and government documents, I want to elaborate on our understanding of what counted as ‘consumption’ and ‘consumer goods’ and thereby encourage scholars in the growing field of consumption studies to look beyond the usual array of private goods. I furthermore question the influential notion of an ‘imperial’ reach of the American consumption model in the postwar era. Approaches to consumption and balancing private/public spending were markedly different in Western Europe, and the German case provides a prominent example of this.
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Hayo, Bernd, et Florian Neumeier. « Public Preferences for Government Spending Priorities : Survey Evidence from Germany ». German Economic Review 20, no 4 (1 décembre 2019) : e1-e37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/geer.12149.

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Abstract Employing data from a representative survey conducted in Germany, this paper examines public preferences for the size and composition of government expenditure. We focus on public attitudes towards taxes, public debt incurrence and public spending in six different policy areas. Our findings suggest, first, that individual preferences for the use of additional tax money can be categorised as either capital-oriented expenditure or public debt reduction. Second, we find that fiscal preferences differ along various dimensions. Specifically, personal economic well-being, economic literacy, confidence in politicians, political ideology and time preference are significantly related to individual attitudes towards public spending, taxes and debt. The magnitude of the effects is particularly large for time preference, economic knowledge and party preference. Third, public preferences for public spending priorities are only marginally affected when considering a public budget constraint.
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Dianda, Issa, et Gnanderman Sirpé. « Effects of the Quality of Governance on Domestic Government Health Spending in West Africa Economic and Monetary Union Countries ». Research in Economics and Management 5, no 1 (6 décembre 2019) : p1. http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/rem.v5n1p1.

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Government health spending is an important source of sustainable health funding in order to attain the health-related Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). In low and middle-income countries, domestic government per capita spending on health needed to ensure universal coverage with the most essential health services is estimated at $112 according to Stenberg et al. (2017). In 2015, in West Africa Economic and Monetary Union (WAEMU), average domestic government spending on health per capita was $26 (about one quarter of all health spending), far short of the $112 target. The purpose of this paper is to analyze the determinants of domestic government health spending with emphasis on the quality of governance. We used panel data from the eight WAEMU member states covering the period 2000-2015 and the generalized least squares method for empirical investigation. The results show that an improvement in the quality of governance increases domestic government health spending. The study suggests the policy-makers of the WAEMU member state to improve the quality of governance in order to increase domestic government health spending and allow people to access essential health services and enjoy a better state of health.
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Schniewind, Aline, Markus Freitag et Adrian Vatter. « Big Cabinets, Big Governments ? Grand Coalitions and Public Policy in the German Laender ». Journal of Public Policy 29, no 3 (22 octobre 2009) : 327–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0143814x09990092.

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AbstractThe inauguration of Germany's grand coalition of Christian Democrats (CDU/CSU) and the Social Democrats (SPD) raises questions about the public policy performance of a coalition of ideological opposite. This paper turns attention to influence of coalition governments on the size of government in the German Laender from 1992 to 2005. We investigate whether grand coalitions at the sub-national level in Germany systematically affect government spending for education (including cultural affairs) and internal security. The article argues that the effects of grand coalitions on the size of the public sector are moderated by partisan politics but sometimes in unexpected ways. For example, government spending in the field of education is reduced when leftist parties are powerful in the Laender.
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حسون عباس, ا. د. صبحي. « دور أدوات السياسة المالية في ردم فجوة الناتج دراسة تحليلية في عينة من الدول للمدة 2000-2020 ». Iraqi Journal For Economic Sciences 2022, no 72 (1 mars 2022) : 42–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.31272/ijes2022.72.3.

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The importance of the research and its distinction from the previous research lies not in dealing with the ability of fiscal policy tools, i.e., government spending and taxes, to bridge the output gap, but also in it calculating the required amount of spending and taxes to close the output gap, as long as there is some amount of spending and taxes more or less than that. The required limit may cause damage to the economy, i.e., the outbreak of inflation or recession. Consequently, this research is considered as a guide for policy makers to know the required change in government spending and taxes accurately to avoid economic problems and achieve economic stability. The output gap, whether positive or negative, is a non-positive case, as long as it generates damage to the economy, represented by inflation or recession. Fiscal policy, with its various tools, may be unable to close the output gap due to the deficiency in the performance of these tools, which requires monetary policy assistance. The research problem is also indicated that when there is a recession, an expansionary fiscal policy (increasing government spending and reducing taxes) is necessary. But when there is inflation, a contractionary policy should be followed (reducing spending and raising taxes). However, the problem is that if the exact amount of government spending and taxes changes is not determined, severe damages are generated, such as an inaccurate drug dose. This is not to mention the slowdowns or lags in the transmission of the impact of fiscal policy measures to the targeted variables. The research chose a time frame that extended from 2000 to 2020. As for the spatial aspect, it was represented in a sample from different continents in order to make a successful comparison between them. These countries are the United States, Germany, Japan and Iraq. The research found that in all countries of the research sample, the government spending gap was positive, which means that it is at a level higher than the level required to bridge the output gap, perhaps because there are other items for spending on it other than closing the output gap, as is the case for the tax gap, which exceeded the required limit to eliminate Output gap, excluding Iraq.
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Micah, Angela E., Catherine S. Chen, Bianca S. Zlavog, Golsum Hashimi, Abigail Chapin et Joseph L. Dieleman. « Trends and drivers of government health spending in sub-Saharan Africa, 1995–2015 ». BMJ Global Health 4, no 1 (janvier 2019) : e001159. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2018-001159.

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IntroductionGovernment health spending is a primary source of funding in the health sector across the world. However, in sub-Saharan Africa, only about a third of all health spending is sourced from the government. The objectives of this study are to describe the growth in government health spending, examine its determinants and explain the variation in government health spending across sub-Saharan African countries.MethodsWe used panel data on domestic government health spending in 46 countries in sub-Saharan Africa from 1995 to 2015 from the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation. A regression model was used to examine the factors associated with government health spending, and Shapley decomposition was used to attribute the contributions of factors to the explained variance in government health spending.ResultsWhile the growth rate in government health spending in sub-Saharan Africa has been positive overall, there are variations across subgroups. Between 1995 and 2015, government health spending in West Africa grew by 6.7% (95% uncertainty intervals [UI]: 6.2% to 7.0%) each year, whereas in Southern Africa it grew by only 4.5% (UI: 4.5% to 4.5%) each year. Furthermore, per-person government health spending ranged from $651 (Namibia) in 2017 purchasing power parity dollars to $4 (Central African Republic) in 2015. Good governance, national income and the share of it that is government spending were positively associated with government health spending. The results from the decomposition, however, showed that individual country characteristics made up the highest percentage of the explained variation in government health spending across sub-Saharan African countries.ConclusionThese findings highlight that a country’s policy choices are important for how much the health sector receives. As the attention of the global health community focuses on ways to stimulate domestic government health spending, an understanding that individual country sociopolitical context is an important driver for success will be key.
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Yuliarti, Yuliarti. « Realisasi Pengeluaran Pemerintah Daerah Terhadap Pertumbuhan Ekonomi di Provinsi Sumatera Barat ». JESS (Journal of Education on Social Science) 4, no 1 (1 juin 2020) : 136. http://dx.doi.org/10.24036/jess.v4i1.253.

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To create positive economic growth and maintain economic stability, the role of the government is needed. The implementation of regional autonomy since early 2001 is a form of government strategy to encourage economic growth not only in the regions around the center but also in areas that are far from the center's reach. The implementation of regional autonomy is in accordance with Law No.22 of 1999 concerning regional autonomy, as well as Law No. 32 of 2004 concerning local government. The government can regulate the course of the economy by determining the amount of government revenue and expenditure each year, which is reflected in the National Budget (APBN) for the national budget and the Regional Budget (APBD) for the region or region. This government expenditure is a form of fiscal policy. During the period of 2010-2019, it can be seen that the realization of the expenditure of the government of West Sumatra is more used for indirect expenditure than direct expenditure. For the average economic growth rate over the past ten years, West Sumatra has the second highest average growth rate compared to other provinces, which is 2.24%, but the growth rate per year is still fluctuating and even more often decreases in percentage. Therefore, the authors are interested in examining how the influence of the realization of government spending on economic growth in West Sumatra. The purpose of this study is to find out how much influence the realization of government spending on economic growth in West Sumatra Province. This research uses quantitative data. The data analysis model used is simple linear regression and includes statistical tests. The results of the study show that government spending has a significant effect on economic growth in the province of West Sumatra.
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Thèses sur le sujet "Government spending policy – Germany (West)"

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Vonyó, Tamás. « Post-war reconstruction and the economic miracle : the dynamics of West German economic growth during the 1950s and 1960s ». Thesis, University of Oxford, 2010. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.669982.

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LESSMANN, Sabine. « Electoral politics as determinants of policy outputs : an empirical investigation of the West German case ». Doctoral thesis, 1985. http://hdl.handle.net/1814/5270.

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FISCHER, Peter. « Die Anfänge der Atompolitik in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland im Spannungsfeld von Kontrolle, Kooperation und Konkurrenz (1949-1955) ». Doctoral thesis, 1989. http://hdl.handle.net/1814/5775.

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Examining board: Prof. Dr. A.S. Milward, London (Doktorvater) ; Prof. Dr. R.T. Griffiths, Florenz ; Prof. Dr. P. Guillen, Grenoble ; Prof. Dr. P. Hertner, Florenz ; Prof. Dr. J. Radkau, Bielefeld
Defence date: 17 November 1989
PDF of thesis uploaded from the Library digitised archive of EUI PhD theses completed between 2013 and 2017
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ACKERMANN, Ute. « Geheimrezept oder chemische Reaktion ? Die westdeutsche chemische Industrie (1950-1964) : Firmen, Produkte und Märkte ». Doctoral thesis, 2000. http://hdl.handle.net/1814/5701.

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NAUMANN, Ingela. « Childcare politics in the West German and Swedish welfare states from the 1950s to the 1970s ». Doctoral thesis, 2006. http://hdl.handle.net/1814/6348.

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Defence date: 2 October 2006
Examining board: Prof. Klaus Eder (Humboldt-University, Berlin) ; Prof. Birgit Pfau-Effinger (University Hamburg) ; Prof. Bo Stråth (European University Institute) ; Prof. Colin Crouch (The University of Warwick)
PDF of thesis uploaded from the Library digitised archive of EUI PhD theses completed between 2013 and 2017
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HUBER, Michael. « Das regulative Netzwerk Risiko und regulative Politik im bundesdeutschen Kernenergiekonflikt ». Doctoral thesis, 1991. http://hdl.handle.net/1814/5154.

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Defence date: 16 May 1991
Examining board: Klaus Eder (EUI, supervisor) ; Prof. Christian Joerges (EUI/Univ. Bremen) ; Prof. Giandomenico Majone (EUI, supervisor) ; Prof. Helga Nowotny (Univ. Vienna) ; Prof. Wolfgang van den Daele (Free University, Berlin)
PDF of thesis uploaded from the Library digitised archive of EUI PhD theses completed between 2013 and 2017
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Whisnant, Clayton John 1971. « Hamburg's gay scene in the era of family politics, 1945-1969 ». 2001. http://hdl.handle.net/2152/10877.

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Livres sur le sujet "Government spending policy – Germany (West)"

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Gorham, Lucy. No longer leading : A scorecard on U.S. economic performance and the role of the public sector compared with Japan, West Germany and Sweden. Washington, D.C : Economic Policy Institute, 1986.

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Office, General Accounting. Budget issues : Budgeting practices in West Germany, France, Sweden, and Great Britain : fact sheet for the chairman, Committee on Government Operations, House of Representatives. Washington, D.C : The Office, 1986.

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E, Paterson William, et Whitston Colin, dir. Government and the chemical industry : A comparative study of Britain and West Germany. Oxford [England] : Clarendon Press, 1988.

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Grant, Wyn. Government and the chemical industry : A comparative study of Britain and West Germany. Oxford : Clarendon Press, 1988.

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von, Beyme Klaus, et Schmidt Manfred G. 1948-, dir. Policy and politics in the Federal Republic of Germany. New York : St. Martin's Press, 1985.

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1934-, Beyme Klaus von, et Schmidt Manfred G, dir. Policy and politics in the Federal Republic of Germany. New York : St. Martin's Press, 1985.

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Dockrill, Saki. Britain's policy for West German rearmament, 1950-1955. Cambridge [England] : Cambridge University Press, 1991.

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J, Katzenstein Peter, dir. Industry and politics in West Germany : Toward the Third Republic. Ithaca, N.Y : Cornell University Press, 1989.

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Szabo, Stephen F. The changing politics of German security. New York : St. Martin's Press, 1990.

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Die Legitimitätskrise der bundesdeutschen Sicherheitspolitik : Ursachen, Rückwirkungen der Deutschen Frage, Möglichkeiten ihrer Bewältigung. Frankfurt am Main : P. Lang, 1989.

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Chapitres de livres sur le sujet "Government spending policy – Germany (West)"

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DiFilippo, Anthony. « Military Spending and Government High-Technology Policy : A Comparative Analysis of the US, West Germany, Japan and Great Britain ». Dans Towards a Peace Economy in the United States, 3–28. London : Palgrave Macmillan UK, 1991. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-12105-2_1.

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« 1. A New Course for British Policy : The Second Labour Government ». Dans Locarno Diplomacy : Germany and the West, 1925-1929, 279–86. Princeton : Princeton University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/9781400869619-030.

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Boehling, Rebecca. « U.S. Military Occupation, Grass Roots Democracy, and Local German Government ». Dans American Policy and the Reconstruction of West Germany, 1945–1955, 281–306. Cambridge University Press, 1994. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/cbo9781139052559.014.

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Exley, Sonia. « Private education in South Korea : lessons for the West from past mistakes ». Dans Welfare Reform and Social Investment Policy, 61–84. Policy Press, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1332/policypress/9781447352730.003.0003.

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This chapter studies the consequences of excessive private social investment and the government's struggle to tackle private tutoring in Korea. It argues that the country is a critical case in the study of private social investments because it has the most extensive engagement in shadow education across the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) world. The chapter demonstrates the three main ways that the Korean government has endeavoured to curtail private tutoring, and how all these reforms have had limited success to date. It then suggests that the drivers of the shadow education frenzy might lie outside the area of education policy, pointing to the 'hakbul' traditions in Korean society (that is, the strong belief that a degree from a few elite universities is imperative for securing high-status, well-paid jobs) as a driver of excessive shadow education. Ultimately, the chapter seeks to deliver some insights, considering policy lessons and recommendations not only for South Korea but also for Western societies where spending on private education is growing. It draws on data from a 2017 research project in which interviews were carried out by the author with 29 experts and key stakeholders in the South Korean education system.
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Gallagher, Jim. « The Ghost in the Machine ? The Government of England ». Dans Governing England, 69–90. British Academy, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.5871/bacad/9780197266465.003.0004.

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The asymmetry of the UK as a union means that England, unlike Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, not only has no domestic legislature but no executive of its own either. Westminster is England’s Parliament and the UK Government is England’s Government. Much attention has been devoted to the (parliamentary) anomaly of the West Lothian Question, but there has been little discussion of England’s Government. This chapter asks whether the UK Government contains a ghost in the machine: an embryonic English Government, perhaps in English departments or cabinet committees, or shown in social or economic policy or in taxation and spending. It notes how deeply entangled UK and English economic and fiscal policy are, notably via the Barnett formula, and considers the options for more explicit English governance such as a ‘Minister for England’, but questions how politically salient this would be when the main issue is England’s relations with Europe.
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Aubrey, Thomas. « The West German Experiment and the Decline of Ordo ». Dans All Roads Lead To Serfdom, 54–74. Policy Press, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1332/policypress/9781529225280.003.0004.

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The foundation of West Germany is of interest as it is one of the intellectual sources of ordoliberal policy debate, and is concurrent with the prosperity experienced during the 1950s under Erhard’s leadership. There is some evidence that institutional development in West Germany was influenced by ordoliberal ideas, however, by the end of the 1950s ordoliberalism was in decline. These ideas were subsequently revived by Michel Foucault in the late 1970s, and have the potential to provide a new public policy framework to reinvigorate a liberal order. The focus on legislative or constitutional rules that can be monitored and improved upon related to the dispersal of power, largely resolves the question raised by Hayek on whether government intervention can succeed given our lack of knowledge of complex environments. This does require some agreement on how the dispersion of private and public power might be measured. A framework derived from Eucken’s principles is proposed to assess public policy across five specific fields including a suggested set of measurement indicators.
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Stott, Rosemary. « Transit to East Germany : The Distribution and Reception of Once Upon a Time in the West in the German Democratic Republic ». Dans Spaghetti Westerns at the Crossroads. Edinburgh University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/edinburgh/9780748695454.003.0012.

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This chapter examines the relocation, transition, and appropriation of the Spaghetti Western in a hitherto under-researched context: the German Democratic Republic (East Germany), prior to its unification with the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) in 1990. It explores the selection, distribution and reception of Once Upon a Time in the West (C'era una volta il West, Sergio Leone, 1968) in the German Democratic Republic as a case study of how international cultural transfer causes objects of cultural production to be repositioned as they enter a new reception context. It also examines the ideological, economic, and sociological concerns underpinning the decisions of those who facilitated the movement of film across the political, cultural, and linguistic boundaries of nation states. In East Germany, the facilitators involved in the selection, censorship, dubbing, and promotion of films were mainly government administrators rather than film business professionals, because film was a state-controlled industry. The chapter focuses on the ‘official’ reception of the film on the basis of available censorship protocols and government policy papers, as well as print media sources.
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Quinn, Sarah L. « The Credit Frontier ». Dans American Bonds, 22–47. Princeton University Press, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.23943/princeton/9780691156750.003.0002.

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This chapter discusses the problem of farm credit distribution in the nineteenth century and discusses some early examples of how federal credit and securitization were mobilized in response to it. It first looks at the federal government's use of credit as a policy tool, focusing on two instances. These include the sale of land on credit to raise funds to pay down Revolutionary War debt and the use of land and credit as supports for the transcontinental railroads. Indeed, land was an essential political resource. The chapter then considers the demand for farm mortgage credit in the West and South as the nation spread over the continent. Land is a massive absorber of capital, and even when farmers received land for free, settlers and farmers used mortgages to raise funds to improve and work the land. Ultimately, land and credit have always been part of how Americans have sought to resolve disputes over who should get what and part of how government officials have sought to avoid more direct modes of taxing and spending.
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Actes de conférences sur le sujet "Government spending policy – Germany (West)"

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Geambazu, Serin. « "Yeni Instanbul" : the expansion of a global city ». Dans 55th ISOCARP World Planning Congress, Beyond Metropolis, Jakarta-Bogor, Indonesia. ISOCARP, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.47472/mwhr1573.

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The spread of neo-liberal political and economic ideology and the proliferation of global capital have created new opportunities and challenges for cities everywhere (Sassen 2012). Within the urban planning discourse, it is generally assumed that globalization leads to the same type of transformations and urban development trends everywhere in the world. However, it cannot create a certain prototype for spatial development or a new spatial order for cities. Rather, it gives a variety of spatial patterns, also called "global urban forms". Recently, these forms have identified themselves spatially within a series of "mega-projects", their intensity being felt in today's global cities, North-American and West-European, but with a domino effect, especially in the cities situated at the periphery of these capitalist economies. Total global megaproject spending is assessed at USD 6-9 trillion annually, or 8 percent of total global GDP, which denotes the biggest investment boom in human history. Never has systematic and valid knowledge about mega projects therefore been more important to inform policy, practice, and public debate in this highly costly area of business and government. It is argued that the conventional way of managing mega projects has reached a "tension point," where tradition is challenged and reform is emerging (Flyvbjerg, 2011). These kind of projects often take place within fragmented and entrepreneurial forms of governance (Harvey 1989; Healey 1997; Gordon 1997a, 1997b; Feldman 1999; Feinstein 2001; Granath 2005; Butler 2007) represented by public-private partnerships, in a societal environment of increased capital mobility and inter-urban competition (Malone 1996). Hence, it is argued, that mega projects have been examples of new governance styles and policy targets, but also object of intensive local planning debates and conflicts based on different actors (authorities, planners, residents, environmental groups, developers, etc.) holding an equal number of views (Hoyle, 2002) which are often difficult to reconcile. Strongly linked to the 2023 Vision of Turkey, the 3rd airport, Istanbul Airport is one of the mega projects that will bring Turkey among top 10 economically powerful countries. Istanbul Airport distinguishes itself from a myriad of other build-operate-transfer projects by its governance dynamics and planning process. The study employs discourse analysis through which extracts lesson from the decision-making process that will inform planners in Istanbul and beyond.
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Rapports d'organisations sur le sujet "Government spending policy – Germany (West)"

1

Mahdavian, Farnaz. Germany Country Report. University of Stavanger, février 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.31265/usps.180.

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Germany is a parliamentary democracy (The Federal Government, 2021) with two politically independent levels of 1) Federal (Bund) and 2) State (Länder or Bundesländer), and has a highly differentiated decentralized system of Government and administration (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit, 2021). The 16 states in Germany have their own government and legislations which means the federal authority has the responsibility of formulating policy, and the states are responsible for implementation (Franzke, 2020). The Federal Government supports the states in dealing with extraordinary danger and the Federal Ministry of the Interior (BMI) supports the states' operations with technology, expertise and other services (Federal Ministry of Interior, Building and Community, 2020). Due to the decentralized system of government, the Federal Government does not have the power to impose pandemic emergency measures. In the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, in order to slowdown the spread of coronavirus, on 16 March 2020 the federal and state governments attempted to harmonize joint guidelines, however one month later State governments started to act more independently (Franzke & Kuhlmann, 2021). In Germany, health insurance is compulsory and more than 11% of Germany’s GDP goes into healthcare spending (Federal Statistical Office, 2021). Health related policy at the federal level is the primary responsibility of the Federal Ministry of Health. This ministry supervises institutions dealing with higher level of public health including the Federal Institute for Drugs and Medical Devices (BfArM), the Paul-Ehrlich-Institute (PEI), the Robert Koch Institute (RKI) and the Federal Centre for Health Education (Federal Ministry of Health, 2020). The first German National Pandemic Plan (NPP), published in 2005, comprises two parts. Part one, updated in 2017, provides a framework for the pandemic plans of the states and the implementation plans of the municipalities, and part two, updated in 2016, is the scientific part of the National Pandemic Plan (Robert Koch Institut, 2017). The joint Federal-State working group on pandemic planning was established in 2005. A pandemic plan for German citizens abroad was published by the German Foreign Office on its website in 2005 (Robert Koch Institut, 2017). In 2007, the federal and state Governments, under the joint leadership of the Federal Ministry of the Interior and the Federal Ministry of Health, simulated influenza pandemic exercise called LÜKEX 07, and trained cross-states and cross-department crisis management (Bundesanstalt Technisches Hilfswerk, 2007b). In 2017, within the context of the G20, Germany ran a health emergency simulation exercise with representatives from WHO and the World Bank to prepare for future pandemic events (Federal Ministry of Health et al., 2017). By the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, on 27 February 2020, a joint crisis team of the Federal Ministry of the Interior (BMI) and the Federal Ministry of Health (BMG) was established (Die Bundesregierung, 2020a). On 4 March 2020 RKI published a Supplement to the National Pandemic Plan for COVID-19 (Robert Koch Institut, 2020d), and on 28 March 2020, a law for the protection of the population in an epidemic situation of national scope (Infektionsschutzgesetz) came into force (Bundesgesundheitsministerium, 2020b). In the first early phase of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, Germany managed to slow down the speed of the outbreak but was less successful in dealing with the second phase. Coronavirus-related information and measures were communicated through various platforms including TV, radio, press conferences, federal and state government official homepages, social media and applications. In mid-March 2020, the federal and state governments implemented extensive measures nationwide for pandemic containment. Step by step, social distancing and shutdowns were enforced by all Federal States, involving closing schools, day-cares and kindergartens, pubs, restaurants, shops, prayer services, borders, and imposing a curfew. To support those affected financially by the pandemic, the German Government provided large economic packages (Bundesministerium der Finanzen, 2020). These measures have adopted to the COVID-19 situation and changed over the pandemic. On 22 April 2020, the clinical trial of the corona vaccine was approved by Paul Ehrlich Institute, and in late December 2020, the distribution of vaccination in Germany and all other EU countries
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