Articles de revues : « France – Intellectual life – 17th century »

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Terentieva, Ekaterina. « The French Court Historical Writing as a Form of Manifestation of the Royal Power (Late 16th — First Half of 17th Century) ». ISTORIYA 13, n^o 1 (111) (2022) : 0. http://dx.doi.org/10.18254/s207987840018884-1.

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The present paper argues that the French historical writing in the late sixteenth and in the first half of the seventeenth century became a form of manifestation of the French royal power. The integrated scientific approach chosen in this research permits the author to draw several new conclusions concerning the multiplicity of forms of publicity of the French absolute monarchy. Three main aspects are in question: the institutional (or socio-political) one, the aspect of publishing specific in early modern Europe, and the substantial aspect of the historical discourse of the epoch. The existence of the court office of the royal historiographer (historiographe du roi) itself was a form of manifestation of the French royal power as it symbolized the special assignment of historical knowledge to the crown. Another visible form of manifestation of the French royal power connected with the historical writing of the epoch was the form of existence of works consecrated to historical subjects, i.e. the peculiarities of design of the editions of historical writings. Finally, the subject area of historical works in question were also related to the manifestation of the strengthening absolute monarchy. The court historical writing in early modern France evolved in tight connection with the erudite intellectual movement. Thus, however diverse the erudite movement had been, its massive current was deeply connected with the crown and its different ambitions — from uniting territories and gaining fidelity of its subjects to glorifying the French kings and controlling all the spheres of political and cultural life in the kingdom.

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Marton, Gellért Ernő. « A Life in Service of his Homeland – the Diplomatic Role and Activity of János Rimay ». Rocznik Przemyski. Historia 1 (26) (2021) : 3–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.4467/24497347rph.21.001.14724.

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The goal of this paper is to summarise the diplomatic and political role of poet and intellectual, János Rimay of Alsósztregova and Rima. Rimay is well-known as the pupil and friend of the great Hungarian poet, Bálint Balassi, and also as a great poet and a representative of stoicism, as well as as a diplomat and statesman who became important in the regional diplomacy in the last decades of the 16th century and the first decades of the 17th century.

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ШЕПКО, Л. Г., et К. Г. НОСКО. « INFORMAL ARISTOCRATIC COMMUNITIES IN 17th AND 18th CENTURY FRANCE AS A TRIGGER FOR THE FORMATION OF THE CIVILIZATION IMAGE ». Цивилизация и варварство, n^o 10(10) (10 novembre 2021) : 58–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.21267/aquilo.2021.10.10.002.

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Статья посвящена характеристике некоторых черт варварства и цивилизации в контексте их общественного развития и оппозиции. Акцент сделан на одной из форм социального общения, связанной с интеллектуальной сферой, а именно, на неформальных сообществах Франции. Такими сообществами, среди прочих, были салоны, которые появились как форма проведения досуга французской аристократии в XVII в., но особенно востребованными они стали в эпоху Просвещения, в условиях трансформации социальных структур и духовно-культурных основ общества. Ряд просветительских положений, ставших фундаментом теорий современности (в частности, идеи превосходства цивилизованных народов над варварскими и необходимости их «цивилизовать»), разрабатывались как раз в салонах аристократии, которые, таким образом, стали триггером актуальных идейных концепций. Авторы полагают, что в XVIII в. во Франции в рамках салонных собраний выработалась своеобразная коммуникативная практика в интеллектуальной сфере, которая сформировала культурный образ цивилизации, одна из основных черт которого — интеллектуальное общение, сложившееся в систему правил. The article focuses on one of the forms of social discourse in the intellectual sphere, French informal communities, in particular. Such communities, among others, included salons, which appeared as a form of leisure for the French aristocracy in the 17th century, yet demand for them surged in the Age of Enlightenment, that came with transformations of social structures, spiritual canons, and cultural foundations. A number of educational policies, which served as the base for the theories of our time (particularly the idea of civilized people superiority over barbarians and the need to “civilize” them), were developed in such salons for the aristocracy, hence making them a trigger for the spread of new societal and philosophical ideas. The authors believe that the intellectual sphere of the 18th century France has developed a kind of communicative practice within the framework of salon meetings that formed the cultural image of civilization, with intellectual discourse, forming a system of rules, as one of its main features.

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Seregina, Anna. « The “Life of Lady Falkland” : a biography or a conversion story ? » Adam & ; Eve. Gender History Review, n^o 29 (2021) : 265–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.32608/2307-8383-2021-29-265-281.

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The article presents an introduction to a first Russian translation of the “Life of Lady Falkland” written in the mid-17th century by the nuns of the English Benedictine Abbey at Cambrai (the Cary sisters), which told the life of their mother, Elizabeth Cary, Viscountess of Falkland – a translator, poet and polemicist, and also a Catholic convert. It has been argued that the “Life” combines the traits of biography and conversion story, and that the conversions described there – of Lady Falkland and her children fell into the category of the so-called “intellectual conversions” brought about by reading books and debating the fine points of religious doctrines. “Intellectual conversions’ were seen to be reserved to men. However, the Cary sisters used this model to establish their position within the Cambrai religious community, which consisted of many nuns with wide intellectual interests. The authors of the “Life” also demonstrated that intellectual efforts of their mother led to conversions of others to Catholicism, thus making her a Catholic missionary in all but a name.

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Galtsin, Dmitrii D. « Froben Prints and Polemics on Religion in Early Modern Eastern Europe ». Vestnik of Saint Petersburg University. History 67, n^o 2 (2022) : 578–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.21638/11701/spbu02.2022.216.

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The article explores the Froben prints stored at the Rare Books Department of the Library of the Russian Academy of Science (Biblioteka Akademii Nauk) in Saint Petersburg. For three generations in the 16th century, Basel printers the Frobens influenced European intellectual life like no other publishing establishment, contributing to the spread of early Latin and Greek Christian literature, which determined both the development of theology and the humanities. Some copies of Froben prints are conspicuous for the history of their use which is intrinsically connected with various kinds of religious polemics in 16th and 17th century Eastern Europe. The focus of the article is the copies of Froben’s Opera omnia of St Augustine which underwent censorship in monastic libraries of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the 16th and 17th century. The article traces the history of a number of Froben copies which belonged to notable Polish Protestants of the 16th and 17th centuries (Andrzej Trzecieski, Nicholas Radziwill the Black (“Czarny”), Andrzej Dobrzanski). The examination of the connections of Eastern European Protestants, which enabled vigorous exchange of books with Western Europe, bringing, for instance, a book from the library of the great Dutch cartographer Gerhard Mercator to the hands of a provincial Polish pastor, is carried out. Finally, the article addresses the marginalia left by Simeon of Polotsk on one of his books. These marginalia throw some new light on the question of Simeon’s genuine theological views. By examining the history of the copies from the Library of the Russian Academy of Science through the marginalia left in the 16th and 17th centuries by people of various religions, the article assesses Froben copies as a source on confessional and intellectual history of the period.

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JAINCHILL, ANDREW. « POLITICAL ECONOMY, THE STATE, AND REVOLUTION IN EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY FRANCE ». Modern Intellectual History 6, n^o 2 (août 2009) : 425–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1479244309002157.

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Among the stunning changes in material and intellectual life that transformed eighteenth-century Europe, perhaps none excited as much contemporary consternation as the twin-headed growth of a modern commercial economy and the fiscal–military state. As economies became increasingly based on trade, money, and credit, and states both exploded in size and forged seemingly insoluble ties to the world of finance, intellectuals displayed growing anxiety about just what kind of political, economic, and social order was taking shape before their eyes. Two important new books by Michael Sonenscher and John Shovlin, Before the Deluge: Public Debt, Inequality, and the Intellectual Origins of the French Revolution and The Political Economy of Virtue: Luxury, Patriotism, and the Origins of the French Revolution, tackle these apprehensions and the roles they played in forging French political and economic writings in the second half of the eighteenth century. Both authors also take the further step of demonstrating the impact of the ideas they study on the origins of the French Revolution.

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Vigeant, Jacinthe, Isabelle Ribot et Jean‐François Hélie. « Investigating individual migration life histories : An isotopic case study from 17th to 18th century Nouvelle France ». American Journal of Biological Anthropology 177, n^o 2 (14 décembre 2021) : 232–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.24455.

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Shvab, Larysa, et Yulia Tokarska. « Innovations of Socio-Religious Thought in Ukraine in the Early 17th Century ». Історико-політичні проблеми сучасного світу, n^o 43 (15 juin 2021) : 261–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.31861/mhpi2021.43.261-272.

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The article analyzes the polemical socio-religious thought in Ukraine after the Union of Brest and the Union of the Kyiv Metropolitanate with Rome, aimed at finding the lost Orthodox tradition and reviving the idea of “God’s protection” of the city of Kyiv in the Rus Orthodox intellectual tradition of the early 17th century. After-union period in Ukrainian realities is characterized as crisis in the sense of decline of religious life, Rus bourgeoisie and fraternal movement and deviation from the policy of support of the Orthodox princely families. The entire plan of church reform, cultural and national revival of the “Commonwealth of the Rus People” was undermined in its foundations. Therefore, the intellectual religious thought of the early 17th century took into account the memory of the “good old days”, when national (regional) identity based on the Orthodox tradition was searched. However, from the point of view of the continued existence of the Orthodox Church, the defeat was only partial, as Konstiantyn Ostrozkyi and his supporters among the nobility, clergy and burghers managed to preserve the Orthodox church structure. The Cossacks demanded a rethinking of this new reality by intellectuals of the post-Brest era and Ukrainian polemicists were forced to look for an independent base for their socio-religious thought. Completely accepting neither the specific Byzantine coverage of the principles of religious-ecclesiastical ethos, nor Catholic, nor Moscow with its self-confident dogmatism and limited polemics with other confessional world, Rus intellectuals had to delve into the very foundations of a particular ideology and reconsider its value from a domestic and ecclesiastical-legal point of view. There were no winners or losers in this verbal duel. The way out of the crisis was understood by Petro Mohyla, who was ready to recognize the primacy of the Pope in order to preserve the internal independence of the Church.

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Shvab, Larysa, et Yulia Tokarska. « Innovations of socio-religious thought in Ukraine at the beginning of the 17th century ». History Journal of Yuriy Fedkovych Chernivtsi National University, n^o 53 (21 juin 2022) : 43–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.31861/hj2021.53.43-53.

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The article analyzes the polemical socio-religious thought in Ukraine after the Union of Brest and the Union of the Kyiv Metropolitanate with Rome, aimed at finding the lost Orthodox tradition and reviving the idea of “God’s protection” of the city of Kyiv in the Russian Orthodox intellectual tradition of the early 17th century. After-union period in Ukrainian realities is characterized as crisis in the sense of decline of religious life, Russian bourgeoisie and fraternal movement and deviation from the policy of support of the Orthodox princely families. The entire plan of church reform, cultural and national revival of the “Commonwealth of the Russian People” was undermined in its foundations. Therefore, the intellectual religious thought of the early 17th century took into account the memory of the “good old days”, when national (regional) identity based on the Orthodox tradition was searched. However, from the point of view of the continued existence of the Orthodox Church, the defeat was only partial, as K. Ostrozkyi and his supporters among the nobility, clergy and burghers managed to preserve the Orthodox Church structure. The Cossacks demanded a rethinking of this new reality by intellectuals of the post-Brest era and Ukrainian polemicists were forced to look for an independent base for their socio-religious thought. The way out of the crisis was understood by Petro Mohyla, who was ready to recognize the primacy of the Pope in order to preserve the internal independence of the Church.

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Khruleva, I. Yu. « Western European Intellectual Practices of a New Type in Russian Everyday Life at Early 18th Century (case of Feofan Prokopovich) ». MGIMO Review of International Relations 15, n^o 6 (30 décembre 2022) : 166–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.24833/2071-8160-2022-6-87-166-178.

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The focus of this study is the views of Feofan Prokopovich, a unique Orthodox thinker whose world outlook was shaped by an obvious influence of the ideas of the Protestant and Catholic Enlightenment. Talking about the Enlightenment, modern historiography focuses on the versatility of the phenomenon, preferring to talk about the Enlightenment, including the religious or confessional Enlightenment, aimed at rethinking the role of religion and the church. The Religious Enlightenment was a pan-European phenomenon that embraced Protestantism, Catholicism, Judaism, and Orthodoxy, and grew out of the desire to create an intelligent religion free of superstition and serving society. The intellectual movement of the religious Enlightenment sought to reconcile the natural philosophy of the 17th-18th centuries with a religious worldview, while trying to overcome the extremes of religious fanaticism, on the one hand, and nihilism and godlessness, on the other. The process of forming a new intellectual environment is marked by the coexistence and mutual influence of the most diverse, sometimes poorly compatible traditions, their transformation and modification. Comprehensively arguing the need for unlimited autocracy in Russia, Feofan Prokopovich, nevertheless, actively used the discourse of the Enlightenment in his writings, discussing the problem of the origin of the state, the mode of government, the boundaries of the power of the monarch, the rights and duties of subjects. On the example of Feofan Prokopovich, we can talk about the emergence and rooting of intellectual practices of a new type in Russian everyday life. The integration of Western European ideas and practices into Russian culture was ambiguous, multifaceted and depended on their adaptation to the socio-political space of Russia. Being well acquainted with the works of European authors of the 17th early 18th centuries, he rather took on the formal side of their discussions on socio-political topics, adapted a conceptual glossary that was new for the Russian educated public, which opened up opportunities for talking about politics in a new way.

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Glenn, Justin L. « The intellectual-theological leadership of John Amos Comenius ». Perichoresis 16, n^o 3 (1 juillet 2018) : 45–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/perc-2018-0016.

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Abstract John Amos Comenius was a revolutionary leader in both the church and the academy in 17th century Europe. Born and raised in Moravia and firmly grounded in the doctrine of the United Church of the Brethren, Comenius rose from obscurity in what is now the Czech Republic to become recognized around Europe and beyond as an innovative and transformational leader. He contributed to efforts such as advocating for universal education, authoring classroom textbooks (most notably in Latin education), shepherding local churches and his entire denomination, and working for unity and peace among Christians across Europe. Though for many decades after his death he seemed to be lost to time, there has been a resurgence of scholarly interest in the ideas and methods of Comenius. His life and work can serve as a source of encouragement and inspiration to church and educational leaders today.

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Janowski, Piotr Józef. « From Lugano to Krakow : The Career of Giovanni Battista Trevano as a Royal Architect at the Vasa Court in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ». Arts 11, n^o 3 (11 mai 2022) : 56. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/arts11030056.

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Throughout the 16th and 17th centuries, many builders, artists, and architects living on the shores of Italian lakes decided to settle in Poland. Upon arrival, they pursued brilliant careers in various areas of life. Over time, they became Polonized. This was also the case for Giovanni Battista Trevano, who was active in Krakow in the first half of the 17th century and whose lifetime achievement was to become the royal architect of the Vasa kings. This article presents Trevano’s artistic oeuvre and provides insight into his social, economic, and intellectual status in the new community, including the architect’s offspring, who pursued successful careers in army, church, and state offices throughout the 17th and 18th centuries. These new findings are based on manuscripts that have recently been discovered by the author of the article in both Polish and Swiss archives. They allow for expanding the knowledge of the Trevano family’s genealogy and biography, and correcting some unjustified views in the discourse. On the basis of research on new archival sources, one can conclude that Giovanni Battista Trevano was a prominent architect, who is credited with introducing in Poland the early Baroque style, which soon became dominant in northern European art.

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Marczuk-Szwed, Barbara. « L’Illustre philosophe de la sœur de La Chapelle (1663) : sainte Catherine ou Hypatie ? » Romanica Cracoviensia 22, n^o 3 (30 novembre 2022) : 251–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.4467/20843917rc.22.022.16187.

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L’Illustre philosophe by Sœur de La Chapelle (1663): Saint Catherine or Hypatia? The paper focuses on one of the five tragedies that were dedicated in the 17th century to the character of Saint Catherine of Alexandria, martyred around 307. Some modern scholars dispute the existence of the saint and suggest that her legend was based on the life and murder of Hypatia, a Neoplatonist philosopher from Alexandria, who was massacred by Christians in 415. The author of the article proposes to demonstrate that in the tragedy L’Illustre philosophe the resemblance between these two martyrs – one pagan, the other Christian – becomes particularly flagrant. As a result, Soeur de La Chapelle’s work, while remaining an apology for the saint, also becomes a great plea for women’s access to education and participation in intellectual life.

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Maber, Richard. « Friendship and Rivalry in Science and Scholarship : Pierre-Daniel Huet and the Académies de Caen ». Nottingham French Studies 56, n^o 3 (décembre 2017) : 323–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/nfs.2017.0194.

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An informed engagement in a wide variety of advanced intellectual pursuits was entirely normal in the early modern period; less predictable, though, were the crucial dynamics of interpersonal relationships. Uniquely in seventeenth-century France, Caen saw the foundation of two separate learned societies, the principal Académie de Caen and the smaller but distinct Académie de physique. The latter was also unique: inspired by the Royal Society of London and founded well before the Parisian Académie des sciences, it gained royal recognition and finance in 1668 before failing soon after 1672. In this essay, these remarkable events are reconsidered in the light of the individuals involved, especially the dominant personality of the strong-minded polymath Pierre-Daniel Huet, and their relationships. Based on primary documents that have been unstudied or misinterpreted, it serves as a case-study of the complex ways in which intellectual life in France operated in practice during the later seventeenth century.

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Nijenhuis-Bescher, Andreas. « De ‘Hollandse reis’ en de Franse visie der Verenigde Nederlanden in de eerste helft van de zeventiende eeuw ». Neerlandica Wratislaviensia 28 (26 juin 2019) : 119–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.19195/0860-0716.28.10.

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The ‘Dutch journey’ and the French vision of the United Provinces in the first half of the seventeenth century During the reign of the French king Louis XIV, and especially since the Dutch War 1672–1678, the relationship between the Netherlands and France often seemed only a long-lasting conflict, eclipsing the more positive mutual influences. However, during the Dutch Revolt 1568–1648, which led to the creation of the new Republic of the United Provinces, the two countries were close allies, united by a struggle against a common enemy – Spain.As a result of diplomatic cooperation, French travellers came to discover the young Dutch Republic. Early-modern travellers often kept a journal. From the beginning of the 17th century, such journals were frequently published, giving birth to a distinct literary genre.The analysis of the French travel writing offers an interesting insight into this new country as well as into the society and civilisation that developed in the Low Lands between 1600 and 1650. Religious coexistence or intellectual activities struck the French observers of the small but powerful Republic they discovered, leaving a vivid trace of the Dutch Golden Age, even beyond the reign of Louis XIV.

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Byrnes, Joseph F. « Chateaubriand and Destutt de Tracy : Defining Religious and Secular Polarities in France at the Beginning of the Nineteenth Century ». Church History 60, n^o 3 (septembre 1991) : 316–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3167470.

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Within ten years of the execution of Louis XVI two general and opposed features of the Old Regime, Catholic Christianity and Enlightenment rationality, were globally idealized by two authors—both of them former aristocrats— François-René de Chateaubriand (1768–1848) and Antoine-Louis-Claude Destutt de Tracy (1754–1836). No two participants in the complex discussion of religion and secularism that took place at the highest levels of government and Parisian intellectual life at the end of the First Republic and during the Napoleonic regime better represented on the one hand unconditional nostalgia for Catholicism, and on the other uncompromising intellectual pursuit of the secular scientific ideal. Though it has become customary to oppose the Neo-Christian intellectuals Chateaubriand, De Maistre, De Bonald, and Ballanche, to the Idéologues Destutt de Tracy, Cabanis, Maine de Biran, and others, I believe that this opposition can be clarified if the extremes represented by Chateaubriand and De Tracy are better defined. In other words, a clear definition of the personal metaphysics—thoughts and feelings—of Chateaubriand and De Tracy should establish the polarities of intellectual temperament that characterized the Napoleonic era.

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Stenger, Gerhardt. « From Toleration to Laïcité ». Dialogue and Universalism 31, n^o 2 (2021) : 145–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.5840/du202131225.

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This paper traces the history of the philosophical and political justification of religious tolerance from the late 17th century to modern times. In the Anglo-Saxon world, John Locke’s Letter Concerning Toleration (1689) gave birth to the doctrine of the separation of Church and State and to what is now called secularization. In France, Pierre Bayle refuted, in his Philosophical Commentary (1685), the justification of intolerance taken from Saint Augustine. Following him, Voltaire campaigned for tolerance following the Calas affair (1763), and the Declaration of the Rights of Man (1789) imposed religious freedom which, a century later, resulted in the uniquely French notion of laïcité, which denies religion any supremacy, and any right to organize life in its name. Equality before the law takes precedence over freedom: the fact of being a believer does not give rise to the right to special statutes or to exceptions to the law.

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Agratina, Elena E. « THE EMERGENCE OF ART CRITICISM IN FRANCE IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE 17TH AND THE FIRST HALF OF THE 18TH CENTURY ». RSUH/RGGU Bulletin. Series Philosophy. Social Studies. Art Studies, n^o 3 (2022) : 146–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.28995/2073-6401-2022-3-146-164.

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The topic of the emergence of art criticism in France in the second half of the 17th and the first half of the 18th century, being rather widely covered in foreign academic literature, is still underdeveloped in Russian art history. Nevertheless, that issue is extremely important for understanding the processes that took place in the French and more widely in the European artistic milieu. The article aims to highlight the process of the criticism formation not only as a literary genre but primarily as a phenomenon of cultural life. Based on original written sources and foreign academic literature, the author traces how the appearance of fine art in the light of publicity was prepared in the Parisian artistic milieu. The author addresses the important questions that arose during the formative and legitimizing phase of criticism, such as its distinction from pre-existing art theory, as well as the distinction between the critic and the theorist or fine art historian. The artwork must now satisfy not only the master and the customer and a small circle of connoisseurs, society also becomes an active participant in artistic life, and the viewer enshrines the right to judge the art. The author shows how criticism is gradually becoming more diverse and polyphonic. Works written on behalf of a wide variety of characters are appearing, writers are adapting various literary genres that already exist: epistolary, diary, plays, poems, dialogues. For many years, criticism becomes an active channel of communication linking all participants in artistic life.

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Brennan, Thomas. « Taverns in the Public Sphere in 18th-Century Paris ». Contemporary Drug Problems 32, n^o 1 (mars 2005) : 29–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/009145090503200104.

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The 18th-century Parisian tavern was public space that lay beyond the private spheres of home, family, or corporate identity. Taverns, like markets or roads, were without inherent order, so they required the ordering of public authority. For much of the old regime, taverns illustrate the public sphere in its subjection to public control. A second public sphere, found in the coffeehouses of Britain and the cafés of France, was a place of intellectual and social exchange that gradually challenged the royal monopoly on public issues. Yet taverns demonstrated the evolution of a third public sphere from a space monopolized by royal control to one in which the populace constituted a public with its own discursive practices and norms. In their increasingly autonomous use of taverns, the people of Paris were developing a model of behavior that extended to the political life of the city during the French Revolution.

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Ilchenko, N. M., et Yu A. Marinina. « “Life as Suffering” : the Motive of Revenge in the Novel by E. T. A. Hoffmann “The Marquis de la Pivardière” and the Novel by J. Janin “The Dead Donkey and the Guillotined Woman” ». Nauchnyi dialog, n^o 1 (27 janvier 2021) : 121–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.24224/2227-1295-2021-1-121-134.

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The motive of revenge is analyzed on the basis of the French topos, considered as a space of crime and punishment. It is noted that the novel by E. T. A. Hoffmann and the novel by J. Janin are united by attention to fate as a catastrophic concept inscribed in the picture of life in France. The relevance of the study is associated with the problems of the formation of national identity, national image by romantics of Germany and France. It is shown that the German romantic, who relied on fantasy as a means of understanding and cognizing life, became a model for J. Janin in the perception of “observed material”. Special attention is paid to the artistic embodiment of life as an “ugly abyss” in which the heroines of E. T. A. Hoffmann and J. Janin find themselves. The results of a comparative analysis of the novel, the action of which belongs to the second half of the 17th century are presented in the article. But the writer discusses the morals of the heroes from the point of view of the romantic canon, and the novel, the action of which is attributed to the end of the 20s of the 19th century. The novelty of the research is connected with the fact that the drama of human existence (female) is viewed as a result of the fragility of earthly existence, the loss of faith in the rationality of the universe. This approach made it possible to analyze the national forms of romanticism, the individual approach of Hoffmann and Janin to understanding the moral and the sinful.

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Bruyn, J. « Over het 16de en 17de-eeuwse portret in de Nederlanden als memento mori ». Oud Holland - Quarterly for Dutch Art History 105, n^o 4 (1991) : 244–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/187501791x00146.

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AbstractThe two sides of the current debate on the nature of 16th- and 17h-century realism are represented by an interpretation based on the recognition of familiar psychological and social factors on the one hand, and one which is averse to all empathy and endcavours to trace the intellectual process that determined function and meaning of images in the past on the other hand. This formulation of the problem also bears on portraiture, to which certain recent interpretations have assigned the significance of sociological documcnts. It is argued here that the portrait, too, had its place in the metaphorically structured and religiously orientated thought that still played a dominant role in the 17th century. Closely linked with the portrait's primary function - which is to perpetuate the memory of the sitter- is the reminder of death and transience cncountered in many (not all!) portraits. In a Family Group painted in 1661 by Jan Mytens in Dublin (fig. 1), the father points to two figurcs on the left who arc obviously deceased (as the papaver comniferum in front of them probably indicates). The piece of paper in his pointing hand is a frequent attribute of sitters in early sixteenth-century portraits, rolled up or folded (fig. 2). Seventeenth-century texts and a large number of vanitas still lifes (fig. 3) suggest that the motif was a symbol of transience: it is in this capacity that it was still being used a century ago in tomb sculpture (together with a skull) (fig. 4). The early sixteenth century saw not only the introduction of the sheet of paper but of a number of other motives which endowed the by now autonomous portrait with a religious meaning and which, together with more familiar symbols such as the skull, hourglass and carnation, alluded to the transience of earthly existcncc and the hope of eternal life. Some of them were only occasionally used, others (like the sheet of papicr) maintained their status as fixed items in the iconographic tradition. They include: - the glove (figs. 5 and 7): a frequently used motif (chiefly, but not exclusively, in male portraits) whose meaning the rejection of the false illusion of eartly existence and the search for truc life in the hereafter becomes only apparent from a relatively late printed source; - the cast shadow (fig. 7), which features in various biblical texts as an image of earthly transience and in the 16th and 17th centuries (in portraits, as well as genre scenes and still lifcs) was clearly understood as such; - musical instruments (fig. 8), which not only suggested the harmony of married life but also, due to their short lived sounds, were used as a vanitas motif in portraits and still lifes; - sumptuous architecture (fig. 8), which recalled the wealth of the rich man in Luke 12 and hence, again, the brief enjoyment of earthly possessions. Used less often, but with similar implications, were: - the butterfly (notes 42-44); - the vase of flowers (fig. 9); - the broken column (fig. 10). The meaning of the frequently occurring intact column, sometimes in combination with a curtain is still unclear. Even quite late in the 17th century a new motif was introduced in portraits to express he old vanitas idea: the waterfall, which notably in works by Jacob van Ruisdael had developed into an accepted vanitas motif (fig. 11).

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Ueno, Hiroki. « Adam Smith between the Scottish and French Enlightenments ». Dialogue and Universalism 32, n^o 1 (2022) : 127–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.5840/du20223218.

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This paper discusses Adam Smith’s intellectual relationship with the French Enlightenment, with a particular focus on his view of French culture as conveyed in The Theory of Moral Sentiments (1759). Compared to England at that time, eighteenth-century Scotland is considered as having a closer affiliation with France in terms of their intellectual and cultural life during what has been dubbed the Enlightenment. While David Hume was representative of the affinity between the French and Scottish literati, Smith also held an enduring interest in the French philosophy, literature, and other aspects of its civilisation, long before the historic visit to Toulouse and Paris (1764–1766) that would shape his political economy greatly. While this paper shall examine Smith’s Francophile and Europeanist tendency within his moral argument, it also emphasises that he was abundantly aware of the moral cultural tensions between these two branches of the European Enlightenment.

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Кryvoruchko, Svitlana. « Blood and Power/ Person and State : Mykola Khvylovyi "Blue November" ». Balkanistic Forum 32, n^o 1 (15 janvier 2023) : 28–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.37708/bf.swu.v32i1.2.

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Throughout 2022, the war between Russia and Ukraine continues. From the 17th century Ukraine is trying to get rid of this aggression. And today, in 2022, Ukraine is also resisting and defending its right to own culture, language, traditions, and life. All this is achieved with the blood of Ukrainians. Bloody events, the conflict between the individual and the state, blood and power are depicted in the story "Blue November" by the Ukrainian writer Mykola Khvylovy (1893-1933).The scientific problem is to the interpretation of the author's signs-codes, which reflect modernist aesthetics, which proves the focus of Mykola Khvylovy's Ukrainian identity on European searches at the beginning of of the 20th century, which influ-enced the specificity of artistic images. The aim is to study symbols, repetitions, epi-thets, metaphors, conflicts. It is the reflection on the communist ideology that was introduced in the 1920-s, the irony and ambiguous allusions around it, that form the ideological complex in the story “Blue November”, which is the modernist "quiet" internal reaction of the intellectual resistance humane artist to the bloody challenges and majority’s immorality of that time. Writer reveals the conflict between the individual and the state system, the problems of bloody power, the destruction of humane values. the impossibility of defending Ukrainian identity.

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Satya Wira Dananjaya, Ida Bagus Made. « Kedudukan Perempuan Dalam Hinduisme ». Jurnal Ilmiah Cakrawarti 1, n^o 2 (26 mai 2020) : 65–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.47532/jic.v1i2.19.

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Women are the sex that gets the most attention in the world compared to the opposite sex, namely men. Cognitive maps “about women” seemed to be viral in all ages. Hardiman noted that the condition and position of women in pre-historic times related to the perception and division of gender-based work was far more egalitarian compared to the beginning of the century until now. Women in pre-history times are perceived to be the same as men, even though it has entered the domestic domain domestic work for women is only temporal-positional. Women are chosen to look after children, gather food because it requires energy for it, in short there is no exploitation.Likewise Fromm stated that before the Patriarchate period women appeared despite work- ing on domestic work but their social position was not asymmetrical. As the times pro- gressed in almost every country beginning in the 17th century there was an intellectual rebellion against women’s social position. Britain, France, America initiated intellectu- al movement through poetry, short stories, women’s associations and in Indonesia this movement was initiated by R.A Kartini, Dewi Sartika, Goesti Ayu Rai etc. Women feel that their position is not the same as that of men, this brings the excess of their weak so- cial position, gender-based division of labor is more exploitative than temporal-positional. This brief description brings a question formulation, does religion have a positive impact on women’s social position in society? This paper wants to provide one answer in the form of argumentation about the position of women in Hinduism.

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Grzywacz, Małgorzata. « Zgromadzenia zakonne we współczesnym protestantyzmie. Zarys problematyki na przykładzie żeńskiej wspólnoty z Grandchamp ». Studia Religiologica 53, n^o 2 (2020) : 89–104. http://dx.doi.org/10.4467/20844077sr.20.007.12510.

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Christian Orders in Contemporary Protestantism. Outline of the Problem on the Example of the Female Community from Grandchamp The article concentrates on the renewal of monastic life in the European evangelical churches after 1945. The Reformation, initiated by the speech of Martin Luther (1483–1546), brought about great changes in this respect, questioning the current principles of the presence of the monk’s life in the Christian community. Criticism of religious life, formulated by the father of the Wittenberg Reformation, was undertaken by both Ulrich Zwingli (1484–1531) and John Calvin. Until the 19th century, monasticism had not seen rehabilitation of the churches that emerged in the wake of the Reformation. This did not mean, however, that it was completely forgotten. Due to renewal movements, including radical Pietism, which in the 17th and 18th centuries became popular in Protestant Europe, monastic issues returned. Eminent figures in the history of Christianity were discovered. Their world of faith and personal experience was mediated through community life, based on prayer rules and practices known since the time of the original church. At the same time in France, Germany and England a return to the abandoned ways of implementing Christian life began. The article analyses the inspiring community of Grandchamp to indicate the way tradition in the churches deriving from the Reformation has been discovered and re-read.

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Grzywacz, Małgorzata. « Zgromadzenia zakonne we współczesnym protestantyzmie. Zarys problematyki na przykładzie żeńskiej wspólnoty z Grandchamp ». Studia Religiologica 53, n^o 2 (2020) : 89–104. http://dx.doi.org/10.4467/20844077sr.20.007.12510.

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Christian Orders in Contemporary Protestantism. Outline of the Problem on the Example of the Female Community from Grandchamp The article concentrates on the renewal of monastic life in the European evangelical churches after 1945. The Reformation, initiated by the speech of Martin Luther (1483–1546), brought about great changes in this respect, questioning the current principles of the presence of the monk’s life in the Christian community. Criticism of religious life, formulated by the father of the Wittenberg Reformation, was undertaken by both Ulrich Zwingli (1484–1531) and John Calvin. Until the 19th century, monasticism had not seen rehabilitation of the churches that emerged in the wake of the Reformation. This did not mean, however, that it was completely forgotten. Due to renewal movements, including radical Pietism, which in the 17th and 18th centuries became popular in Protestant Europe, monastic issues returned. Eminent figures in the history of Christianity were discovered. Their world of faith and personal experience was mediated through community life, based on prayer rules and practices known since the time of the original church. At the same time in France, Germany and England a return to the abandoned ways of implementing Christian life began. The article analyses the inspiring community of Grandchamp to indicate the way tradition in the churches deriving from the Reformation has been discovered and re-read.

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WINTERER, CAROLINE. « IS THERE AN INTELLECTUAL HISTORY OF EARLY AMERICAN WOMEN ? » Modern Intellectual History 4, n^o 1 (8 mars 2007) : 173–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1479244306001120.

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Catherine Kerrison, Claiming the Pen: Women and Intellectual Life in the Early American South (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2005)Susan Stabile, Memory's Daughters: The Material Culture of Remembrance in Eighteenth-Century America (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2004)Mary Kelley, Learning to Stand and Speak: Women, Education, and Public Life in America's Republic (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press for the Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture, 2006)Consider Abigail Adams. Known to us mostly through over one thousand letters that she exchanged with her husband, John Adams, she was a woman of redoubtable intelligence and energy. Wife of the second president of the United States, she was mother to its sixth. She traveled to France and England, rubbing elbows with dukes and diplomats; she read deeply in history and literature; she supported the literacy of black children; she was a conduit for the American reception of Catharine Macaulay's republican-friendly History of England from the Accession of James I to that of the Brunswick Line (1763–8). The letters between John and Abigail fly so fast and furious, are so full of learned banter and palpable yearning, that their marriage appears strikingly modern, a union of equals. Let us not be deceived. Abigail Adams, like other women of her generation even in the social stratosphere, had no formal schooling, and her erudition was dwarfed by the massive learning bestowed upon John. He had a Harvard BA and read law for three years. He took for granted a vast public arena in which to unleash his colossal, if tortured, political ambitions. Abigail never published a word.

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Eickelman, Dale F. « The Re-Imagination of the Middle East : Political and Academic Frontiers (1991 Presidential Address) ». Middle East Studies Association Bulletin 26, n^o 1 (juillet 1992) : 3–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0026318400025013.

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The world is now undergoing a transformation as profound as that experienced with the rise of the territorial state system after the religious wars of Europe’s feudal period. Modern technology in defense and communications and “emerging trans-state patterns of commerce, politics, and cultural life” are rendering traditional notions of “frontier” obsolete. Dispersed transnational communities—Sikhs in Canada, Muslims in Britain, Germany, France, and the U.S.—sectarian and ethnic militias sustained by emigré and foreign funds, and transnational banking, commercial, religious, and intellectual links often opaque to state authorities may not threaten the existence of the nation-state everywhere, but they serve as a poignant reminder that nation-states are not the only significant political actors in the late twentieth century.

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Fluda-Krokos, Agnieszka. « The Cultural Heritage of Printing in the 15-18th Centuries as Digital Resources – a Reconnaissance ». Perspektywy Kultury 26, n^o 3 (1 octobre 2019) : 169–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.35765/pk.2019.2603.13.

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Digitization as an element of technological development has contributed to the removal of many information barriers related to access to the achievements of writing and printing culture. Thanks to numerous programs of developing and subsidizing work on intellectual property, digital libraries, museums and archives have been created, offering access to their collections online. Digital forms of priceless manuscripts, old prints, documents of social life and other manifestations of culture are not only a way of conservation and preservation of the originals or the presentation of library magazines, but also sources for research. The content of the Digital Library Federation – DLF, which associates 138 data providers, will be used as an example of digitized old prints along with ways of describing, searching, displaying results and special addons that make their use simple and effective. As a result of the research, 38,629 items marked as old prints were found in the database, supplied by 38 institutions, the most numerous being those provided by the Jagiellonian Digital Library and the Lower Silesia Digital Library, with the predominance of 18th and 17th century and Latin and Polish prints.

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Sériot, Patrick. « Is language a system of signs ? Lenin, Saussure and the theory of hieroglyphics ». Sign Systems Studies 50, n^o 1 (1 juin 2022) : 143–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.12697/sss.2022.50.1.08.

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This paper strives to pursue two goals at the same time: how can one get to know in depth the intellectual life of the USSR in the 1930s–1950s; and, what can the virulent anti-Saussurean criticism in Russia at that time tell us about the specificity of the Marxist-Leninist theory of signs? We propose the following angle of attack: the recurring theme of this criticism, namely that Saussure’s Cours presents a “theory of hieroglyphics”, therefore a type of “bourgeois idealist” theory that Lenin assailed in his 1909 book Materialism and Empiriocriticism about Ernst Mach. Yet thinking about hieroglyphics is based on much older controversies, dating back to the 17th century and concerning the deciphering of Egyptian writing. The issue which arises here is semiotic in nature: it is the scalar opposition between transparency and opacity of the sign that is at stake. Does the sign hide or reveal? The Soviet discourse on language and signs in the 1930s–1950s seems to be based on an interrogation of the sign/referent, language/ thought, form/content relationship. A part of the history of semiotics can thus be discovered from the critique of the “hieroglyphic theory”, a little-known episode in a debate on the interpretation of Saussurism.

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Salvet, Ondej. « Silvestr Braito (1898–1962) : A Czech Story of the Corpus Mysticum Ecclesiology ». Ecclesiology 7, n^o 3 (2011) : 336–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/174553111x585671.

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AbstractThe purpose of this paper is to describe the lifelong work of the Czech Dominican monk and theologian Silvestr Braito (1898–1962). Braito ascribed significant importance to ecclesiology as a prerequisite for effective pastoral work, which he understood as a process of ongoing intellectual education of the faithful as well as their spiritual formation. Ecclesiology underwent a dramatic development in the twentieth century, particularly in Germany and France. Braito, while avoiding the more controversial issues, followed this discussion and presented its main themes to the Czech speaking Christian public. He considered a deep knowledge of the Church indispensable for a sound spiritual life. In this context, a dynamic comprehension of the relation between God and the human person, which Braito liked to express as 'sonship of God', presents his distinctive contribution to a practical pastoral-oriented application of ecclesiology.

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Dębicka, Malwina K. « Opiniowanie sądowo-lekarskie we Francji w XVII stuleciu ». Archives of Forensic Medicine and Criminology 72, n^o 1 (8 septembre 2022) : 28–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.4467/16891716amsik.22.003.16232.

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Artykuł ten jest syntezą historii opiniowania sądowo-lekarskiego we Francji w XVII wieku. W pracy zastosowano głównie dwie metody badawcze – metodę historyczną i metodę opisową. Artykuł ma na celu przedstawienie wiedzy o francuskiej medycynie sądowej w kontekście historycznym i prawnym. Pokazuje pionierskie badania medyków i chirurgów, przedstawia ówczesne regulacje prawne oraz podkreśla wysoki poziom francuskiej medycyny sądowej na tle innych krajów europejskich. Od najdawniejszych czasów problematyka oceny zdrowia i życia była przypisywana ekspertom medycyny – jurorom (edykt z 1603 roku médecins jurés et chirurgiens jurés). W XVII w. badania sądowo- -lekarskie stały się obowiązkiem. Ludzie zainteresowali się np. zdrowiem psychicznym oskarżonych czy oględzinami narządów rodnych w przypadku rozwodu. Na historię opinii sądowo-lekarskich na ziemiach francuskich ogromny wpływ miała chirurgia włoska. Co ciekawe, Francja była pierwszym krajem, który oddzielił kwestie sądowe i medyczne od zadań związanych z policją medyczną. Medicolegal opinions in France in XVII Century This article is a synthesis of the history of medicolegal opinions in France in the 17th century. Mainly two research methods were used in the work – the historical method and the descriptive method. The article aims to present the knowledge of French forensic medicine in a historical and legal context. It shows the pioneering research of medics and surgeons, presents the legal regulations of that time, and emphasizes the high level of French science compared to other European countries. It is worth adding that from the earliest times the issues with the assessment of health and life were assigned to medical experts – jurors (the edict of 1603 médecins jurés et chirurgiens jurés). During this period, forensic and medical examinations became a duty. People became interested in the mental health of the accused, as well as in the inspection of the reproductive organs in the event of a divorce. Italian surgery had a huge impact on the history of medicolegal opinions in the French territories. Interestingly, France was the first country to separate judicial and medical issues from tasks related to the medical police.

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Taylor, Barbara. « Philosophical Solitude : David Hume versus Jean-Jacques Rousseau ». History Workshop Journal 89 (2020) : 1–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/hwj/dbz048.

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Abstract The philosopher meditating alone in his study is a cliché of western culture. But behind the hackneyed image lies a long history of controversy. Was solitude the ‘palace of learning’ that many learned people, religious and secular, perceived it, or a debilitating state of solipsistic misery and intellectual degeneracy, as its enemies described it? In the mid eighteenth century the debate became fiercely personal during a public quarrel between two philosophical luminaries: David Hume and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. In the 1760s Rousseau faced persecution from state and church authorities in France and Switzerland. Hume gave him refuge in England. The relationship rapidly turned toxic as the convivial Hume sought to manage his notoriously reclusive charge. Solitude became a casus belli in a war of words that fascinated intellectual Europe. But the fracas was more complex than it appeared. Who are we with, when we are alone? For Hume, no less than Rousseau, the question proved inescapable, in both his personal career and his philosophy. A closer look at two thinkers who, on the surface, were a study in opposites, reveals much about the vicissitudes of solitude in the life of the creative mind.

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Stankevičiūtė, Kristina. « BLOWING UP THE FASHION BUBBLE, OR NINE THINGS WRONG WITH FASHION : AN OUTSIDER’S COMMENT. A CRITICAL ESSAY ON FASHION AS A CREATIVE INDUSTRY ». Creativity Studies 14, n^o 2 (1 octobre 2021) : 376–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.3846/cs.2021.15096.

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The world of fashion has lived in a bubble long before the concept found its way into social networks. Well before the social networks themselves, in fact. The very emergence of fashion as an idea occurred within the bubble of the social life at Palace of Versailles, France, where the notorious Louis XIV sported great interest in the looks of his court in addition to those of his own. The article is an outsider’s attempt to have a sober look at the fashion industry that until recently seemed to have maintained the “structure of feeling” of the 17th century Palace of Versailles. Today’s social realities, however, put fashion in the state of a shock that probably equals that of the Storming of the Bastille in 1789, even though it is presumably much less sudden. Written in the manner of the most popular contemporary fashion media format – a bullet list, the text presents a conceptual analysis of the world’s second most wasteful yet poisonously attractive industry, critically reflecting on such characteristic values of the fashion field as concept and features, hierarchy, arrogance, resources and philosophy.

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Ortiz, Roberto José. « Aristocratic Rebellion : Ruben Darío and the Creation of Artistic Freedom in the World-System ». Journal of World-Systems Research 21, n^o 2 (31 août 2015) : 339–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.5195/jwsr.2015.6.

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The late 19th struggle for artistic freedom in the capitalist world-system put the artist in a contradictory position. This contradiction is particularly relevant for writers of the periphery. Freedom or autonomy to pursue purely intellectual projects required a certain aristocratic defense of the value of art. At the same time, however, artists and intellectuals did confront structural subordination: they belonged, as Pierre Bourdieu explained, to the dominated fractions of the dominant class, subordinated both to the state and the bourgeoisie. The life of Nicaraguan Ruben Darío (1867–1916), probably the most well-known poet in Latin American history, provides a paradigmatic instance of this dilemma. Moreover, it sheds light into a dilemma particular to the peripheral intellectual. Peripheral writers, in the 19th century and still today, are subject to world-systemic hierarchies, even cultural ones. This double subordination is clear in the case of Ruben Darío. He was in a subordinated position not only vis-à-vis the national state and the bourgeoisie. Darío was also in a subordinated position, even if symbolic, in relation to those same intellectuals that Bourdieu celebrated as creators of the autonomy of culture in France. One can account for this complex of hierarchies only through a 'world-systems biography' approach. World-systems biographies clearly examine the dialectic of personal, national and global levels of social life. Moreover, it can uncover the core-periphery dialectic in the realm of artistic production. Thus, this world-systems biography approach is shown to be a useful framework through a brief analysis of Darío's life and work.

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Hanovs, Deniss. « THE ARISTOCRAT BECOMES A COURTIER… FEATURES OF EUROPEAN ARISTOCRATIC CULTURE IN THE 17th CENTURY ». Via Latgalica, n^o 1 (31 décembre 2008) : 62. http://dx.doi.org/10.17770/latg2008.1.1590.

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As John Adamson outlined in his voluminous comparative analysis of European court culture, „in the period between 1500 and 1750 a „Versailles model” of a court as a self-sufficient, situated in a free space, architectonically harmonious city-residency remote from the capital city, where the king’s household and administration was located, was an exception.” The Versailles conception and „model” both architectonically and in terms of practical functioning of the court was spread and secured in the 18th century, developing into a model of absolutism which was imitated to different extents. The spectrum of the adoption of the court of Louis XIV by material and intellectual culture reached from the grand ensembles of palaces of Carskoye Selo in Peterhof, Russia, Drottningholm in Sweden and Sanssouci in Germany to several small residences of the German princes’ realms in Weimar, Hanover, and elsewhere in Europe. Analyzing the works of several researchers about the transformation of the French aristocracy into court society, a common conclusion is the assurance of the symbolic autocratic power by Louis XIV to the detriment of the economic and political independence of the aristocracy. In this context, A. de Tocqueville points at the forfeiture of the power of the French aristocracy and its influence and a simultaneous self-isolation of the group, which he defines as a „caste with ideas, habits and barriers that they created in the nation.” Modern research, when revisiting the methods of the resarch on the aristocracy and when expanding the choice of sources, is still occupied with the problem defined in the beginning of the 19th century by A. de Tocqueville: The aristocracy lost its power and influence, and by the end of the 18th century also its economic basis for its dominance in French society. John Levron defines courtiers as functional mediators between the governor and society, calling them a „screen”.1 In turn, Ellery Schalk stated that in the time of Louis XIV the aristocracy was going through an elite identity crisis, when alongside the old aristocracy involved in military professions (noblesse d’épée), the governor allowed a new, so-called administrative aristocracy (noblesse de robe) to hold major positions and titles of honour. Along with the transformation of the traditional aristocratic hierarchy formed in the early Middle Ages, which John Lough described as an anachronism already back in the 17th century, also the status of governor and its symbolic place in the aristocratic hierarchy changed. It shall be noted that it is the question of a governor’s role in the political culture of absolutism by which the ideas of many researches can be distinguished. Norbert Elias thinks that an absolute monarch was a head of a family, which included the whole state and thereby turned into a governor’s „household”. Timothy Blanning, on the other hand, thinks that the court culture of Louis XIV was the expression of the governor’s insecurity and fears. This is a view which the researcher seems to derive from the traumatic experience of the Fronde (the aristocrats’ uprising against the mother of Louis XIV, regent Anna of Austria), which the culturologist K. Hofmane interpreted from a psychoanalytical point of view and defined Louis XIV as a conqueror of chaos and a despotic governor. In the wide spectrum of opinions, it is not the governor’s political principles which are postulated as a unifying element, but scenarios of the representation of power, their aims and various tools that are combined in the concept of court culture. N. Elias names symbolic activities in the court etiquette as the manifestation of power relations, whereas M. Yampolsky identifies a symbolic withdrawal of a governor’s body from the „circulation in society”, when a governor starts to represent himself, thereby alienating himself from society. George Gooch in this way reprimanded Louis XV as he thought this development would deprive the royal representation from the sacred. In turn, Jonathan Dewald in his famous work „European Aristocracy” noted that Louis XIV was not the first to use the phenomenon of the court for securing the personal authority of a governor, and refers to the courts during the late period of the Italian Renaissance as predecessors of French court culture. What role did the monarch’s closest „viewers” – the courtiers – play in this? K. Hofmane by means of comparison with the ancient Greek mythical monster Gorgon comes to conclusion that the court had to provide prey for the Gorgon (the king), who is both scared and fascinated by the terrific sight (of power and glory). The perception of the court as a collective observer implies the presence of the observed and worshiped object, the king. The public life of Louis XIV, which was subjected to the complicated etiquette, provided for the hierarchical access to the king’s public body. Let’s remember the „Memoirs” of Duc de Saint-Simon that gives a detailed description of the symbolic privileges granted to the courtiers, which along the material gifts (pensions, concessions and land plots) were tools for the formation of the identity and the status of a new aristocrat/courtier – along with the right to touch the king’s belongings, his attire, etc. The basis for securing the structure of the court’s hierarchy was provided by the governor’s body along the lines mentioned above, which according to the understanding of representation by M. Yampolsky was withdrawn from society and placed within the borders of the ensemble of the Versailles palace. There, by means of several tools, including dramatic works of art, the governor’s body was separated from its symbolic content and hidden behind the algorithms of ritualized activities. Blanning also speaks about a practice of hiding from the surrounding environment, thereby defining court culture as a hiding-place that a governor created around himself. It was possible to look at a governor and thereby be observed by him not only on particular festivals, when a governor was available mostly for court society, but also in different works of visual art, for example, on triumphal archs, in engravings, or during horse-racings.

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Loshitzky, Yosefa. « A Tale of Two Feminists ? » Camera Obscura : Feminism, Culture, and Media Studies 34, n^o 2 (1 septembre 2019) : 103–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1215/02705346-7584928.

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One of the most engaging, yet controversial, public intellectuals of the twentieth century, Hannah Arendt continues to be attacked with the same venom and ferocity that followed the publication of Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil (1963) more than fifty years ago. This article discusses why Arendt remains such a divisive figure and why her intellectual legacy is still so unsettling, particularly for Zionists. The essay examines how these issues are represented, negotiated, and problematized in Margarethe von Trotta’s film Hannah Arendt (Germany/ Luxembourg/France, 2012). It explores how one of the most prominent contemporary feminist filmmakers, whose work celebrates the life and activism of revolutionary women from Rosa Luxemburg to Gudrun Ensslin from the Red Army Faction, transforms the “historical Arendt” into a “cinematic Arendt.” Although not a revolutionary in the tradition of Luxemburg, the German-Jewish political thinker Arendt is an interesting choice for a left-leaning, post-Holocaust German woman director. Yet Arendt presents a paradox for feminists due to the contradictions embedded in her works and public pronouncements. The article examines these contradictions and how Arendt emerges from this film, which attempts to portray a politically engaged intellectual woman, a figure that is almost entirely absent from the film screen.

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Moros, Larysa. « Panteleimon Kulish’s Dramaturgy : Historical and Spiritual-Philosophical Features ». Слово і Час, n^o 10 (16 octobre 2019) : 44–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.33608/0236-1477.2019.10.44-51.

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The paper explores the ground of the ideas, plots, and schemes of conflicts in ideological dramas by P. Kulish. The two of them are conditionally symbolic while the other three are based on real historical material. The libretto of the musical performance “A Woman from the Farmstead, or Singing Praise to the Bride in front of the Wedding Guests” and multifaceted drama “Herod’s Trouble” show combination of biblical, i. e. international, elements, while the latter also contains traditional folklore features of the Ukrainian Nativity Play. The other group of works makes up the trilogy, although P. Kulish interprets the selected topics in different ways and every time uses special literary techniques. The tragedy “Baida, Prince Vyshnevetskyi” depicts the conflict between the real historical figure, who was the founder of the regular Cossack army and folklore character, and representative of the Cossack poor, therefore between the knightly and lumpen forces. The heroes of the drama “Petro Sahaidachnyi” are prominent figures of the Ukrainian authorities, church, and culture of the 17th century, so the main conflict is determined by the concern for the development of cultural life; it unfolds in intellectual and philosophical sphere. The characters reflect on the problems of confrontation, combination of faith and science, possibility of spiritual or political struggle, etc. The ‘Old Ruthenian’ drama “Tsar Nalyvai” (the action takes place in the hot 1596) is the most dynamic; it has the most elaborate intrigue, but here the focus is rather on the deep symbolic language than on revealing the emotional or intellectual world of the characters. There are also some common features in all the dramas by Kulish. The author interpreted historical events estimated as the most important in a way of ideological conflict, combining historical phenomena and figures with symbolic (biblical and folklore) images and details.

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Holmgaard, Jørgen. « Fænomenologi og strukturalisme ». K&K - Kultur og Klasse 34, n^o 101 (2 avril 2006) : 182–202. http://dx.doi.org/10.7146/kok.v34i101.22332.

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Eller: Håndværkeren og filosoffen Phenomenology and StructuralismThis paper traces the changes in the French phenomenologist Merleau- Ponty’s ideas of language and cognition during the 1940s and 50s. In the mid-40s he is under the spell of the new French Hegel interpretation heralded by Alexandre Kojève and Jean Hippolyte since the late 1930s. Gradually, as Cl. Lévi-Strauss, starting in the late 1940s, demonstrates that he is able to rejuvenate the Durkheim-Mauss tradition in French intellectual life by way of inspirations from structuralist linguistics, Merleau-Ponty takes up reading Saussure and other founding fathers of structuralism. By 1960, when he welcomes Lévi-Strauss into the Collège de France, Merleau-Ponty seems to be close to a structuralist concept of language. But then again, in 1962 young Derrida presents a radical re-reading of Husserl leading up to his well-known attack a few years later on Lévi-Strauss and structuralism, thus swinging back the pendulum between two competing strands in French thought in the 20th century.

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CHARTIER, ROGER. « THE ORDER OF BOOKS REVISITED ». Modern Intellectual History 4, n^o 3 (4 octobre 2007) : 509–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1479244307001382.

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The Order of Books was published in France in 1992 and translated into English in 1994. I have to confess that I had not reread it since, and perhaps I would have never read it again had I not been invited to do so for this exercise. The central aim of that book was to try to understand something of how in the period between the fourteenth and the eighteenth century the written word was classified, organized, and perceived by all the actors involved within the trajectory of the text, from authors to publishers and printers, from the printing shop to the library. I will begin by recounting some of the factors in my own intellectual life that I believe led up to that book, and go on to reflect on the arguments that I posited in 1992, in the hope of giving some account of the ways in which that earlier work might today be supplemented.

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Klymov, Valeriy. « Modernized philosophical skepticism in the seventeenth century. as a means of affirming the ideas of tolerance and freedom of thought, the creation of the science of modern times (religious-scholarly aspect) ». Ukrainian Religious Studies, n^o 68 (19 novembre 2013) : 15–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.32420/2013.68.337.

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The previous practice of applying a skeptical-critical approach to the gradual displacement of the dominant still in all spheres of life in Europe has also received a method of thinking oriented on dogmatisation, orthodoxization and conservatism in the seventeenth century. further dissemination and development. Known, authoritative thinkers - philosophers, naturalists, mathematicians, theologians in France, England, Holland, Germany, Italy, trying to solve the pressing social problems and advocating the latest vision of ways to solve them, quite actively used the arsenal of ideas of the skeptical heritage of antiquity, "pyronics" New time. True, the philosophical achievements of predecessors of skeptics, before being used to justify and validate new approaches and goals in science, social life, moral complex, thinkers of the modern times, have been substantially revised. Some of them - actualized, second, inappropriate to the needs of intellectual development and society as a whole, omitted; the third are perceived, developed, transcended and thought-out, or endowed with new meanings, which were neither in the pyron nor in the "academics", but which have already been designated by "new pioneers" (Castellon, Sanchez, Montaigne, Sharon, Lamote Lewaye, Gassendi, etc.).

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Mallet, Damien. « Pierre des Noyers, a scholar and scientific intermediary at the court of Louise-Marie Gonzaga ». Rocznik Filozoficzny Ignatianum 27, n^o 2 (30 décembre 2021) : 179–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.35765/rfi.2021.2702.9.

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Pierre des Noyers, secretary of Queen of Poland Louise-Marie Gonzaga, is known for his role as a messenger, envoy, court journalist and sometimes propagandist. His work as an unofficial diplomat for the Queen and ambassador for France is less famous though no less interesting. Even though he was already quite involved in these time-consuming tasks, Pierre des Noyers also acted as a scientific intermediary for the quite curious Queen Louise-Marie of Poland. He maintained contacts with many scholars from France and Italy. He could nurture this network thanks to his position as an informal diplomat at the court of the Queen and his dedication to science in general. Even by discarding his most official and political letters, his known correspondence amounts to several hundred letters written in a period of around 50 years to various friends and scholars. Roberval, Gassendi, Boulliau, Hevelius or Pascal are among these contacts and he plays for most of them the role of a scientific intermediary sharing with them observations, books and anecdotes. His letters are filled with astronomical observations, prodigies and prophecies. Des Noyers was also a practitioner of science. Having possessed a rather large collection of scientific instruments he always sought the improved ones and his daily life was marked by scientific studies. He wrote meteorological bulletins for Academia del Cimento in Florence, studied the measurement of time, observed the sun and showed interest in the inner workings of the human body. This article will delve further into more scientific aspects of Pierre des Noyers’s life, both at the court of Louise-Marie and outside. The first part presents a rough overview of the secretary’s contacts in the scientific environment of 17th Century France and how they were used to connect scholars from Poland with this environment. The second part of this work presents Pierre des Noyers’s practice of science as a tool to understand the world and for which utmost diligence in measurement and practice is required. The last part focuses on des Noyers’s application of this scientific method in two, now pseudo-scientific fields: astrology and divination.

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Chang, Han-liang. « Notes towards a semiotics of parasitism ». Sign Systems Studies 31, n^o 2 (31 décembre 2003) : 421–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.12697/sss.2003.31.2.06.

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The metaphor of parasites or parasitism has dominated literary critical discourse since the 1970s, prominent examples being Michel Serres in France and J. Hillis Miller in America. In their writings the relationship between text and paratext, literature and criticism, is often likened to that between host and parasite, and can be therefore deconstructed. Their writings, along with those by Derrida, Barthes, and Thom, seem to be suggesting the possibility of a semiotics of parasitism. Unfortunately, none of these writers has drawn enough on the biological foundation of parasitism. Curiously, even in biology, parasitism is already a metaphor through which the signified of an ecological phenomenon involving two organisms is expressed by the signifier of “[eating] food at another’s [side] table”. This paper will make some preliminary remarks on semiotics of parasitism, based on the notions of Umwelt (Jakob von Uexküll) and structural coupling (Maturana and Varela). It will look into the phenomenon of co-evolutionary process in community ecology. With reference to empirical history, the project will briefly survey the literary and medical praxis of the 17th century England where large number of creative writings referred to the phenomenon of parasitism, which was deeply embedded in religious practice (e.g., the Eucharist) and political life (e.g., the courtier ecology in monarchy) of the times. Finally, it will touch upon the possible ‘parasitic’ relationship between language and biology.

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Timofeev, Dmitry V. « THE CONCEPT OF “REPUBLIC” IN PUBLIC SPACE OF THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE OF THE FIRST QUARTER OF THE 19TH CENTURY ». Ural Historical Journal 76, n^o 3 (2022) : 93–102. http://dx.doi.org/10.30759/1728-9718-2022-3(76)-93-102.

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On the basis of the comparative and contextual analysis of publications in the Russian periodicals of the first quarter of the 19th century the article reconstructs the methods of argumentation used in the course of public discussion of ideals and practice of republicanism. Theoretical approaches of the modern history of concepts are used as methodological tools to reveal the ideas of contemporaries about the essence of the republic, the reasons for its emergence and decline, the nature of the relationship between citizens and the state. The intellectual context of Russia’s republican discourse was built on the basis of combination of two space-time prospects — historical experience of the republics of the ancient world and the description of options of the embodiment of the republican idea in France, the modern small states, and “the Republic of the Connected American Areas”. In public space of Russia of the first quarter of the 19th century the republicanism remained an important element of a discourse “about the best form of communal life” which starting point was a statement about the paramount importance of moral qualities of subjects/citizens and the monarch for steady functioning of power institutes. Such interpretation of the republican idea in Russia caused a shift from a question of the institutional embodiment of the republic to reflections about a possibility of combination of republicanism as the ideas of joint action of patriotic citizens, their partnership in “common cause” with historically developed monarchic form of government.

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Nowak, Alicja Z. « Starość nie tylko latami mierzona w ruskiej literaturze żałobnej XVII wiek ». Slavica Wratislaviensia 163 (17 mars 2017) : 337–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.19195/0137-1150.163.29.

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Senescence counted not only in yearsin Ruthenian mourning literature 17th centuryIn Ukrainian and Belarusian 17th century literature of mourning there is no one common to all the authors vision of old age. It was presented as adifficult state, filled with suffering and even dangerous for those whom mental and bodily weakness prevented the holding of penance-delayed too long. At the same time, this grim vision coexisted with the optimistic picture of the autumn of life active and fruitful in creative activities. Old age was the penalty for sin, but also one way of moving away from him and sourcing selection everlasting. Old age was sometimes synonymous with maturity, wisdom, young people, could be asymbol of duration in sin.Despite that dra ws certain tendency to recognition of the topic related to the fact that these considerations were partly subordinated to panegyric, and above all pastoral goal. Traditional mourning for the composition elements: to show the size of the loss, mourning the dead or solace grief of the living, most often occur as acomponent of moral exhortations and instructions. The explanation of this trend must be sought in an environment of contemporary authors’ funeral compositions. They were mainly representatives of the intellectual elite of clerical: priests, bishops and archimandrites; church reformers at the same time, cultural activists, workers and publisher. So those who took on their shoulders the renewal of religious life and spiritual and cultural life in The Metropolitanate of Kiev, realizing it and by disseminated in mourning texts role models and moral attitude.Старість не тільки роками вилічуванав руській траурній літературі 17 століттяВ українській та білоруській жалобній літературі 17-го століття відсутнє спільне для всіх авторів бачення старості. Вона зображена передусім як складний стан, наповнений стражданням, особливо небезпечний для тих, кому психічна та тілесна слабість не дозволила здійснити надто довго відкладуваного покаяння. Водночас цей похмурий образ співіснував з оптимістичною картиною осени життя — активної і плідної творчою діяльністю. Старість була водночас покаранням за гріх, засобом відходу від нього і здобування доброї вічності. Іноді — синонімом зрілості, мудрості молодих, або символом гріховного існування.Попри ці суперечності у підході до проблеми старості можна простежити певну тенденцію використання теми. Вона пов’язана з фактом часткового її підпорядкування панегіричній та, перш за все, пастирській меті. Традиційні елементи траурних композицій: зазначення розміру втрати, оплакування померлого, заспокоєння душевного болю живих — найчастіше виступають як компоненти моральних настанов та інструкцій.Пояснення цієї тенденції слід шукати в середовищі авторів — в основному представників інтелектуальної еліти, насамперед духовної єпископи, ігумени та архімандрити, в той же час церковних реформаторів, культурних діячів, видавців. Отже, це були подвижники оновлення релігійного та духовно-культурного життя в Київській Митрополії, які реалізували його, між іншим, шляхом поширення в траурних текстах життєвих взірців та зразків моральної поведінки.

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Usenko, Igor. « Viktor Novytsky : an attempt at a scientific biography. » Yearly journal of scientific articles “Pravova derzhava”, n^o 32 (2021) : 119–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.33663/0869-2491-2021-32-119-131.

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Introduction. Victor Izmailovich Novytsky played a significant role in the life of the pre-war Ukrainian Academy, in the development of historical and legal science and archival affairs. He was a researcher of the Commission for the study of Western Russian and Ukrainian law of the All-Ukrainian Academy of Sciences and scientist-archivist of the Kyiv Central Archive of Ancient Acts. In 1938, the scientist was shot on falsified charges, and his creative legacy was artificially withdrawn from scientific circulation. It seems that the time has come to restore justice to the scientist and to give a proper assessment of his scientific achievements. The aim of the article. The reconstruction of the scientist's biography, clarification of the composition and evaluation of its scientific heritage. Results. The life and creative activity of V. I. Novytsky, a Kyiv intellectual in the third generation, was markedly influenced by his family and the city environment, his participation in the propaganda work of the Socialist-Revolutionary Party during his high school and university years. He was persecuted by the tsar for participating in the student movement, later became a member of the Ukrainian Central Rada (Central Council of Ukraine). Before the revolution, the researcher, doing science at his own expense, became an author оf a priority work on the history of the nobility of the 16th and 17th centuries. At the All-Ukrainian Academy of Sciences he prepared a number of problematic works on the history of Ukrainian law, in particular, of historiographical and methodological nature, developed the views of Mykhailo Hrushevsky on the stages of development of the law of the Ukrainian people. As a historian and archivist he was a profound connoisseur of act books, the author of interesting explorations of historical and geographical nature. Conclusion. The life destiny of V. I. Novytsky, a jurist and historian of the first third of the twentieth century, seems quite instructive, and his creative achievements are still not really appreciated. Researchers have yet to return a number of his scientific works to scientific circulation, to fill numerous gaps in the biography of the scientist.

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Silantieva, M. « Diego Velázquez's Kings, Buffoons and Philosophers in the Context of His Religious Paintings : the View from Russia (Philosophical-Anthropological Analysis) ». MGIMO Review of International Relations, n^o 2(35) (28 avril 2014) : 271–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.24833/2071-8160-2014-2-35-271-284.

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The article is dedicated to the analysis of philosophic anthropology of the great Spanish artist of the 17th century Diego Velazquez. This anthropology is considered through the prism of the problems that set the life of contemporary Russia and its "reflections" in the present-day Russian artists' works. At that Velazquez's philosophical anthropology is reconstructed on the basis of his works. As a consequence, significant part of attention is paid to the method that allows performing such reconstruction. The author proceeds from the belief according to which not only written texts can be considered philosophically. The visual "texts" connected with certain world outlook component of art creative work undoubtedly possess definite semantics. Expressed by the language of art, such image lines contain intelligible sense component reconstruction of which can be subjected to strict scientific and philosophical analysis and corrected with its help. At that one should not think that the images are "translated" into "the text of words" - on the contrary, philosophical reconstruction implies not as "verbalization" of visual line as coherent to it logical mastering of the picture's sense (in this case) against the background of historical and historical-philosophical "scenery". The urgency of turning to this problem is brought about by the fact that a number of questions that found vivid and coherent (as philosophical-anthropological research shows) embodiment in Velazquez's creative work are extremely interesting for contemporary thinkers speaking the language of contemporary fine arts. "The topic of mirror" is among such questions and it deals with correlation of intellectual and rational in a person's consciousness, and, finally, there is the issue of the man as a bearer of moral principles. Comparison of attitudes shown by contemporary painting with Velazquez's ideas enables to trace the development of philosophical anthropology and in the area of its most significant categories - the man, society, consciousness, corporality, creative work, etc.

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Holmquist, Ingrid. « Kvinnligt och manligt i Malla Silfverstolpes salong ». Tidskrift för genusvetenskap 16, n^o 2-3 (20 juin 2022) : 34–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.55870/tgv.v16i2-3.4810.

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Tliis artide discusses the literary salon as a cultural "room" for women and men with regard lo emancipatory possibilities, gender constructions and issnes of power. On the basis of the most famous salon in Sweden, Malla Sifverstolpe's salon during literary romanticism (1820-1850), the sex/gender system of the salon is investigated. The result shows that on the one hand Silfverstolpe^ salon is strongly influenced by the dominant romantic ideology of difference at that time. This ideology advocates an idea of complementary separate spheres where men are responsible for society and intellectual matters and women for the home and the emotional area. As a result of this division of labour a sex/gender hierarchy is formed where men and masculinity are superior. On the other hand, however, structural elements of the salon, such as the dominant role of the hostess and the social and cultural position of the salon as a semi public context, offer possibilities for deviations from the dominant ideology. Women are invited into Silfverstolpe s sulotl clS daughters and vvives of famous male artists and academics. They partake of artistic activities and occasionally develop into artists, although not always for a public audience. Alternative personal relationships and gender constructions also grow out of the salon milieu because of its offer of a cultural room which is situated outside of the family and the family ideology. The emancipatory possibilities of the salon are connected to its historically continuous criticism of the family and family-oriented gender constructs. This criticism can be strong and explicit as in the "précieuse" salons of 17th century France and the early romantic salons of Germany around 1800, and weaker and more implicit as in the case of Silfverstolpe's salon. Men often profit from the salons, i e as young artists who get pecuniary as well as personal support from the hostess and other encouraging women. But a young woman artist can get similar help as shows the example of the author Thekla Knös (1815- 1880) who has been called a "daughter" of Silfverstolpe^ salon. Men's social and political power make them powerful also in the salons, but women's use of the salon in their moves towards power is therefore not without interest.

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Chekalov, Kirill A. « New Book on the Author of a Poem Monrepos. Baron Nicholay and his Entourage ». Studia Litterarum 7, n^o 4 (2022) : 356–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.22455/2500-4247-2022-7-4-356-369.

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On October 17, 2017 the conference “An Alsatian Intellectual in Enlightenment Russia: L.G. Nikolay, Strasbourg President of the Russian Academy of Sciences” happened. Materials of the conference, with the addition of other essays and documents, formed the basis of the book under review (published under the editorship of Sorbonne Professor Rodolphe Baudin and Senior Researcher of IWL RAS Alexandra Veselova). The book’s authors are well-known scientists from France, Russia, Germany and Switzerland. Baron Ludwig Heinrich von Nikolay (1737–1820; in Russia he was called Andrey Lvovich) played a prominent role in Russian social and cultural life at the end of the 18th century. Nicolay came from the intellectual milieu of Strasbourg, which became a subject of research in the essays included the book by R. Baudin, D. Ryusk and V. Berelovich. From 1769 he was in Russia, where he was entrusted with the position of mentor to the heir to the throne, Pavel Petrovich. In 1798, Nikolay was appointed president of the Russian Academy of Sciences; N. Prokhorenko’s essay is devoted to his productive activity in this post. Thanks to his personal qualities, Nicholas managed to stay at court after the coup on March 12, 1801 and ingratiate himself with Alexander I; in 1803 he left the service. A number of materials of the reviewed work are devoted to the literary work of Nikolay, a prolific and versatile poet (articles by M. Arens and A. Ananyeva). For posterity, the name Nikolay is associated primarily with the famous estate of Mon Repos in Vyborg, which he acquired in 1788, to which he dedicated a poem in 1804, probably his best work (article by Yu. Moshnik and M. Efimov). The book also pays attention to Nikolay as a character in historiographical essays and fiction (articles by A. Veselova and M. Efimov). Attached are five unpublished letters from Nicolai; their addressees are the diplomat and lawyer F.A. Annenberg and the poet and scientist K. Pfeffel. The book is provided with a chronology of Nicolai’s life and work and brief annotations of articles (in French and Russian).

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Nikitenko, L. « Evolution of the idea of participative democracy ». Analytical and Comparative Jurisprudence, n^o 6 (18 février 2023) : 346–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.24144/2788-6018.2022.06.63.

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The article examines the transformation of the content of the idea of participatory democracy with reference to historical retrospection. To carry out a full-fledged analysis of the evolution of the idea of participatory democracy, the way of development of the concept of democracy in general is considered. It has been established that the phenomenon of "democracy" originates from the times of antiquity and the works of Aristotle (384-322 BC), and the philosophers of the Renaissance (M. Machiavelli, J. Locke, S. Montesquieu, J.-J. Rousseau, A. Tocqueville, etc.). The process of implementing the ideas of democracy in practice started at the end of the 17th century in England and France, went through four stages, the last of which began in the 21st century and continues to this day. It was found that the history of participatory democracy tentatively dates back to the 5th century to n. (the city of Athens, Ancient Greece), and after the Second World War, the gradual expansion of electoral rights and the processes of emancipation paved the way for its large-scale development. In the 80s of the XX century in Western Europe and the USA, the idea of participatory democracy gained momentum. B. Barber, K. McPherson, J. Mansbridge, C. Pateman, J. Zimmerman and S. Shalom made the greatest contribution to its spread. The result of a long path of transformation of the content of democracy, which for several centuries was perceived as a means of including the poor in the space of politics, was the understanding of participatory democracy as an indispensable process of requiring the rotation of leaders, the breakdown of social hierarchies, and a change in the perception of the essence of freedom. The evolution of the idea of participatory democracy, first of all, is connected with the declaration of the priority of human freedoms over the interests of the state. Today, the theory of participatory democracy occupies a leading place in the rating of democratic theories and is actively used in practice in many countries of the world. The defining idea of participatory democracy lies in the potential of ordinary citizens to exercise self-management, but it has not yet been fully implemented in life. So, we have the following movement vectors to ensure universal and effective involvement of the vast majority of citizens in the decision-making process: increasing the level of awareness and education, leveling economic inequality, providing real tools for influencing the political process (especially with the help of information and communication and blockchain technologies). At the same time, it is worth taking into account the autonomy of the individual, the freedom of individuality and the issue of voluntary participation or non-participation of each individual citizen.

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