Thèses sur le sujet « Forest policy – Portugal – History »

According to several recent studies, the future of the forest industry in British Columbia is in jeopardy. If present forestry management practices are continued, it is conceivable that within the next decade the timber harvest will decline, employment will be severely reduced, and government revenue from the forest resource will be significantly less than in previous decades. Public ownership of the vast majority of provincial forest land means that government policies are largely responsible for this state of affairs. However, there are relatively few academic studies of the history of those policies. The purpose of this thesis is to review the evolution one aspect of forest policy, the way in which timber is allocated in British Columbia, and to analyze the dynamics of this evolution in light of six alternative theories of the policy-making process. Forest policy in British Columbia is extremely complicated and is the result of decisions made to meet various demands at different times in history. It is only through a detailed understanding of the history of forest policy and the nature of the provincial state that planners, resource managers, and public policy-makers can attempt to resolve the current crisis in the forest industry. Public timber is allocated to private forest companies in British Columbia by a variety of tenures. The form of these tenures has changed dramatically over time. Prior to 1912, access to the forest resource was granted primarily by leases and licenses which carried few restrictions and relatively low royalties and rents. These tenures were perpetually renewable until the merchantable timber was removed. Between 1912 and 1947 the primary method of disposing crown timber was through competitive bidding on short-term timber sales. The crown not only received royalties and rental fees from these Timber Sale Licenses, but also a bid price. The Forest Branch established a minimum bid price based on the value of the end product minus the costs of production and an allowance for profit and risk. After 1947, the government attempted to regulate the harvest of timber in such a way as to guarantee a perpetual supply of timber. They did this by awarding huge tracts of public land to owners of private forest land and perpetual tenures in order for them to manage the whole property on a sustained yield basis. On the remaining majority of forest land the government set aside large areas which were to be managed by the public sector on sustained yield principles. Over time, as a result of these policies, competition for the resource was virtually eliminated and, as one consequence, the government always received the appraised upset price for timber. It appears that this has undervalued the crown's share of the resource rent. The combined effect of timber allocation policies after 1947 was to accommodate, if not encourage, the consolidation of timber rights. In order to explain the evolution of timber policy in British Columbia and to guide future policy development, the thesis examines six broad theories of how the state operates. These are categorized as follows: rationalist, pluralist, neo-conservative, neo-marxist instrumentalist, neo-marxist structuralist, and Canadian. After reviewing these theories the thesis concludes that elements of each theory can be employed to explain different policy changes over time. No single theoretical model is totally adequate to answer the question of why B.C. governments' acted the way they did. Nevertheless, the neo-marxist structuralist and Canadian theories provide the fullest explanation of the role of the state in British Columbia. It is apparent that large forest companies have had a disproportionate influence on public forest policies. Over time, the provincial state has become increasingly dependent on those companies to carry out many forest policy objectives, to provide employment arid generate tax revenues. New resource policies designed to meet the current crisis in the forest industry must recognize these two important facts.
Applied Science, Faculty of
Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of
Graduate

Thesis (S.M. in Technology and Policy)-- Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Engineering Systems Division, Technology and Policy Program, 2012.
This electronic version was submitted by the student author. The certified thesis is available in the Institute Archives and Special Collections.
Cataloged from student submitted PDF version of thesis.
Includes bibliographical references (p. 122-135).
Managing forest fires is a serious national problem in Portugal. Burned area has increased steadily over the past several decades, with particularly devastating years in 2003 and 2005. Ignitions also spike dramatically in summer, which greatly strains firefighting resources and leads to fires that are insufficiently extinguished and later may rekindle. The response of policymakers and fire managers to these problems has largely been to increase fire suppression capacity and technology deployment. This research asks, what are the side effects or unintended consequences of policies dedicated to large and aggressive suppression forces? Much of the previous work in forest fire management focuses on narrowly-defined, static problems solved using optimization analysis. This research uses dynamic analysis, specifically System Dynamics, to explore how self-regulating feedback loops affect the outcomes of forest fire management decisions over time. Two models are developed. The strategic model explores the dynamic between suppression and prevention expenditure and its effect on long-term burned area. The operational model explores the dynamics through which rekindled fires occur. The results from both models show that interactions between relevant social and physical systems, in the form of public or institutional pressure, can force aggressive suppression decisions into practice. Furthermore, strict adherence to these policies can trap each system in a state of long-run worse behavior due to the overwhelming effects of negative feedback loops. Policy recommendations based on the results, and informed by an in-depth analysis of relevant stakeholders and impediments to implementation, are also presented.
by Ross D. Collins.
S.M.in Technology and Policy

This is a historical study of the intersection of political economy with natural resources management, as played out on the national forests between 1945-1991. Specifically, it focuses on two core national forest management policies; sustained yield and multiple use. These two policy directives represent an attempt by the public and elected officials to apply principles of sustainable development to publicly-owned forest lands, and to ensure that a wide variety of both market and nonmarket forest values are preserved for the benefit of present and future generations. Interest groups, the Forest Service, and policy makers have conceived of sustained yield and multiple use in different and evolving ways over the years. This study explores how these principles have been variously defined and either implemented or thwarted. After World War Two, with escalating demands on national forest resources, the U.S. Forest Service turned to "intensive management" as a technological method of enhancing natural forest productivity and mitigating the environmental effects of increased use. But the agency's optimistic vision of efficient, sustained production of forest commodities through technical mastery over nature has met overwhelming fiscal, environmental, technical, and political obstacles. Nevertheless, agency leaders, industry advocates, and politicians have consistently promulgated an optimistic faith that intensive applications of labor, capital, and technology can maximize and harmonize multiple uses, rehabilitate damaged resources, and sustain high levels of outputs in perpetuity--despite repeated failures to achieve balanced multiple use management and to manage grazing and timber extraction at sustainable levels. The conspiracy of optimism ideologically justifies continued unsustainably high levels of resource extraction. Changing public values since the 1960s and the popularization of ecology have initiated a growing skepticism toward the premises of intensive management. At the same time, field level forest managers have grown frustrated with top-down imposition of resource production quotas and the lack of adequate political, fiscal, and organizational support for sound forest management. As the last old growth forests fall to the chainsaw, and as the federal subsidies required to access these remote timber stands on the national forests escalate, public controversy deepens. In this decade of the national forest centennial a revolt of conscience has erupted among grassroots Forest Service personnel, and a strong challenge from the environmental community has gained momentum. Another major period of policy evaluation and revision appears to be taking place. Whether the conspiracy of optimism can continue to sustain the old status quo is questionable.

There are two prevailing views today about our forests and natural resources. Both views are considered the "right" view, each position comprising a set of values by which we make decisions and choices about using our natural resources. The "dominant world view," is anthropocentric and agriculturally based, with a strong belief that we can "fix" environmental problems through the use of technology. The key result of this view is a belief in the efficiency of economic expansion and its continued growth. The second view maintains we are part of nature, not masters of it, and that we have developed an arrogant attitude toward nature, believing we have the right to do as we wish regardless of the consequences. The result of this view is a belief in the interconnectedness of all life, thus all life has rights. This work argues that the "dominant" worldview shaped the policies of the U.S. Forest Service (USFS). Consistent with this worldview, the USFS management. paradigm was to provide the greatest return, a commodity-driven focus. However, when public values changed towards a more ecocentric view, the USFS should have reevaluated its method of doing business. Instead, it remained entrenched in its management objective- timber production. After the courts enjoined the USFS against cutting in the Pacific Northwest, aftet struggling with confrontational environmentalists and increased activism within the agency, the USFS attempted to re-write its management paradigm. However even though the policy sounds eco-friendly, the USFS is still mandated by Congress, and forced by appropriations approved by Congress, to cut trees. Different ideologies are accommodated only when they do not conflict with economics. Thus, in spite of changing values, it is still business as usual.

There are two prevailing views today about our forests and natural resources. Both views are considered the "right" view, each position comprising a set of values by which we make decisions and choices about using our natural resources. The "dominant world view," is anthropocentric and agriculturally based, with a strong belief that we can "fix" environmental problems through the use of technology. The key result of this view is a belief in the efficiency of economic expansion and its continued growth. The second view maintains we are part of nature, not masters of it, and that we have developed an arrogant attitude toward nature, believing we have the right to do as we wish regardless of the consequences. The result of this view is a belief in the interconnectedness of all life, thus all life has rights. This work argues that the "dominant" worldview shaped the policies of the U.S. Forest Service (USFS). Consistent with this worldview, the USFS management. paradigm was to provide the greatest return, a commodity-driven focus. However, when public values changed towards a more ecocentric view, the USFS should have reevaluated its method of doing business. Instead, it remained entrenched in its management objective- timber production. After the courts enjoined the USFS against cutting in the Pacific Northwest, aftet struggling with confrontational environmentalists and increased activism within the agency, the USFS attempted to re-write its management paradigm. However even though the policy sounds eco-friendly, the USFS is still mandated by Congress, and forced by appropriations approved by Congress, to cut trees. Different ideologies are accommodated only when they do not conflict with economics. Thus, in spite of changing values, it is still business as usual.

Temperate forests are an important carbon sink, yet there is uncertainty regarding land-use history effects on biomass accumulation and carbon storage potential in secondary forests. Understanding long-term biomass dynamics is important for managing forests as carbon sinks and for co-benefits such as watershed protection and biodiversity. However there are many unanswered questions regarding these dynamics in northeastern U.S. forests: How have secondary forests of the U.S. Northeast recovered post nineteenth century agricultural abandonment? How has the region's extensive land-use history influenced long-term structural development and aboveground carbon storage? To answer these questions, we employed a longitudinal study based on twelve years of empirical data (2001-2013) from the Marsh-Billings-Rockefeller (MBR) National Historical Park in Woodstock, VT. MBR Park was the first parcel of land to actively be reforested in the eastern U.S., and as such, its diverse forest mosaic reflects a history of alternate reforestation approaches and varied successional trajectories indicative of secondary forest recovery occurring across the broader northeastern forest landscape. We also used 150 years of documentary data from park management records. This research evaluates the effects of reforestation approaches (planting vs. natural regeneration), management regimes (long-term low-to-intermediate harvest intensities at varied harvest frequencies), and stand development pathways on biomass outcomes. We generated biometrics representative of stand structural complexity, including the H' structural diversity index, and aboveground biomass (live trees, snags, and downed coarse woody debris pools) estimates. Multivariate analyses evaluated the predictive strength of reforestation approach, management history, and site characteristics relative to aboveground carbon pools and stand structural complexity. Classification and Regression Tree (CART) analysis ranked reforestation approach (plantation or natural regeneration) as the strongest predictor of long-term mean total aboveground carbon storage, while harvest frequency, and stand age were selected as secondary variables. CART ranked forest percent conifer (a metric closely associated with reforestation approach) as the strongest predictor of H' index, while harvest intensity, and harvest frequency were selected as secondary variables. Increases in harvest intensity can significantly reduce aboveground carbon storage. Our results suggest that a variety of long-term recovery pathways converge on high levels of aboveground carbon storage, including both conifer plantations and naturally regenerated hardwood stands, but choice of silvicultural management approach can dramatically alter those trajectories. Importantly, total aboveground biomass (i.e., carbon) co-varied with H' (r2 = 0.25), and thus, our dataset showed a positive relationship between forest carbon storage and structural complexity, supporting the concept of multifunctional forestry emphasizing late-successional habitats.

Old and coarse trees implement vital functions for humans, animals, and nature. Swedish forests have for a long time been affected by man, which affects the trees’ age and size distribution. The proportion of old-trees is currently low and it is desirable to increase it. Using data on sample trees’ from the Swedish National Forest Inventory, I analysed old-tree distribution in different land-use types and age-distribution, as well as coarse trees in Östergötland under the years 1983-2017. Furthermore, I analysed the sample trees form the year 1927 to compare with the sample trees in period 1983-2017. The defined age of an old-tree 5% older trees in the data was used while the coarse trees were defined by “miljömålets” definition. The tree sample data involved Pinus sylvestris, Picea abies, Quercus robur, Populus tremula, and Alnus glutinosa. Their occurrence in four different land-use types were considered: (i) productive woodland, (ii) arable land and natural pasture, (iii) mountains and other wastelands, and (iv) peatland. The results shows that a higher percentage of old and coarse trees occur in (i) productive woodland during the years 1983-2017. The coarse trees had similar distribution in the different land-use types during the years 1983-2017 and over time. Comparison with 1927 showed that the number of old-trees has decreased while the coarse trees had increased. Thus, the land-use types, except (i), do not constitute a reservoir for old and coarse trees and that the coarse trees individuals overlap with the old trees.
Gamla träd och grova träd utför livsviktiga funktioner för både människa, djur och natur. Sveriges skogar har länge påverkats av människan och det har påverkat trädens ålders- och storleksfördelning. Idag är andelen gamla träd låg i Sverige och det manifesteras åtgärder för att öka andelen äldre och grövre träd i skogarna. Genom att använda riksskogstaxeringens provträdsdata kan vi veta hur gamla och grova träd är fördelade bland marktyper. Denna studie undersökte hur gamla provträd var fördelade bland marktyper och deras åldersfördelning, samt motsvarande för grova träd i Östergötlands län. Dessutom jämfördes perioderna 1983–2017 och 1927. Gamla träd utgjorde per definition 5% av de äldre träden, medan grova träd definierades utifrån miljömålet levande skogar. Provträdsdata var på trädslagen; Pinus sylvestris, Picea abies, Quercus robur, Populus tremula och Alnus glutinosa som fanns inom marktyperna; (i) produktiv skogsmark, (ii) åkermark och naturbete, (iii) berg och vissa andra impediment, och (iv) myr. Resultaten visar att en hög andel gamla liksom grova provträd fanns inom produktiv skogsmark i Östergötlands län under 1983–2017. Bland marktyperna hade de grova provträd liknande odds och en liknande grovleksfördelning för båda perioderna. Dock sedan 1927 har andelen gamla träd minskat, medan andelen grova provträd har ökat. Därmed utgör marktyperna utöver (i) inte en reservoar för gamla som grova träd samt att de grova träden kan spegla de gamla trädens förekomst.

Sveriges natur förknippas mer än något annat med skog. Två tredjedelar av landets drygt 40 miljoner hektar landareal täcks av skog. Av 27,1 miljoner hektar skogsmark (inklusive skyddad mark) är 23,3 miljoner hektar produktiv skogsmark. Andelen privata skogsägare uppgår till ca 330 000 personer och äger hälften av all skogsmark i Sverige samt levererar drygt 60 % av den totala råvaran till skogsindustrin. Skogsstyrelsens, och skogsvårdstyrelsernas, främsta roll har alltsedan bemyndigandet 1903 varit rådgivning till skogsägarna, ett viktigt styrmedel för att kunna förebygga lagingripanden och mildra lagstiftningen. I början av 1960-talet väcktes det diskussioner, som sedan dess har varit aktuella, om: att jordens resurser är ändliga och hur vi förvaltar dem. Det mest turbulenta årtiondet för svensk skogsvårdpolitik var 1970-talet och den tidiga miljörelaterade kritiken mot skogsbruket var inte underbyggd av forskning om miljötillståndet i skogen, utan skapades av en allmän opinion i samhället. Flertalet av de intervjuade skogsägarna uppgav att rådgivning varit viktiga vägledare för dem i deras skogsvårdsbeslut, även om det i enstaka fall fått negativa konsekvenser. Miljöhänsynens avtryck i den enskilda skogsägarens skogsvård följer i stort sett den historiska utvecklingen, det är dock inte entydigt om det i första hand berott på Skogsvårdsstyrelsens kampanjer och rådgivning. Resultatet visar att rådgivning i miljöhänsyn påverkar skogsägarnas beslut i sina val av beståndsåtgärder. Den viktigaste slutsatsen som kan dras av studien är att rådgivning, utbildning och kunskaper är de avgörande framgångsfaktorerna i det fortsatta miljövårdsarbetet. Större hänsyn till den enskilde skogsbrukarens äganderätt, erfarenheter och kännedom om sin mark är något som både myndigheter samt den allmänna opinionen bör iaktta och värdesätta.
About two-thirds of Swedens land area is covered by forest. Half of the total forest land is owned by private forest owners.The purpose of this study was to describe the decades before and after the environmental concerns became self-evident in Swedish forestry, and from a forest policy perspective elucidate the introduction of environmental concerns in forest management. Interviews with private forest owners and field studys was conducted to identify specific occurences of conservation that could be linked to advisory service from The National Board of Forestry since the 1970´s. The result shows that guidance, education and skills are crucial success factors for the continuence of conservation and sustainable forestry, but also greater consideration and respect for the private forest owners property rights, experiences and knowledge.

Cette thèse a pour objectif de théoriser et d'opérationnaliser la notion de publicisation des espaces agricoles périurbains. Cette notion, encore peu courante en géographie, désigne tout processus qui transforme la nature d'espaces agricoles sous influence urbaine, les rendant plus publics. Ce processus, complexe, est composé de débats sur l'avenir des espaces agricoles périurbains et de pratiques spatiales qui illustrent leur multifonctionnalité (production, paysage, loisirs...). La première partie vise à théoriser la notion en construisant sa définition et une grille de lecture composée de cinq dimensions : juridique, sociale, politique, historique et économique. La deuxième partie décrit le processus par l'étude des débats qui ont lieu lors d'un projet d'Agenda 21 Local. L'objectif est de savoir si des débats qui débouchent sur des actions peuvent, en territoire périurbain, publiciser des espaces agricoles. Cette partie montre que la publicisation fluctue dans le temps et se matérialise dans des lieux agricoles. Dans une troisième partie, la publicisation est étudiée à l'échelle d'un territoire : la communauté de communes du Pays de Lunel. De l'analyse de ses projets politiques et associatifs, dont certains prévoient l'ouverture d'espaces agricoles au public, à l'analyse précise de six lieux du territoire, la publicisation est un phénomène pluriel. Une typologie de lieux agricoles périurbains publicisés rend compte de la diversité du processus: débats globaux et pratiques locales s'imbriquent dans la fabrique de lieux publicisés. Cette thèse débouche sur plusieurs perspectives de recherches pour éclairer les transformations à l'oeuvre dans les espaces agricoles périurbains.

Defense date: 12/11/2010
Examining Board: Prof. Bartolomé Yun-Casalilla (European University Institute, Florence) - Supervisor Prof. Jaime Brown Reis (Instituto de Ciências Sociais- Universidade de Lisboa) Prof. Mauro Agnoletti (Dipartimento di Scienze Forestali - Università di Firenze) Prof. Pedro Tavares de Almeida (Universidade Nova de Lisboa)
É objectivo deste trabalho discutir a génese das políticas de águas e de florestas em Portugal na segunda metade do século XIX. Pretende-se demonstrar que a construção do objecto político de ordenamento de águas e de florestas para a globalidade do território nacional, bem como as políticas de per se sobre estes sectores, se formularam entre 1852 e 1886.
This research aims to clarify the crucial role of water and forest policies for territorial management in 19th century, both in Portugal and other European countries. The absence of forest in the slopes eases erosion, loss of biodiversity and provokes increasing torrential flows, responsible for material and vegetative destruction. In the middle of the 19th century, torrential floods became an increasingly problem in Portugal. By then, the State was only responsible for national goods and State properties administration. The connection between forestation and the control of torrential impacts would require an intervention over all property regimes. This situation led into big controversy. Some defended that public interests should prevail over private property rights in order to prevent natural catastrophes while others refused to increase such an amount of power to the Public Administration. That would endanger the system of economic activities and citizenship freedoms, rights and warranties, granted by those prerogatives. Only by the end of the 19th century, water and forest administrative laws - covering all property regimes- were approved in Portugal - and I argue -, in France, Spain and Italy by similar reasons. Like two centuries ago, urges the need for better coordination between political decision-making and the introduction of legal framework on water and forest management. To develop efficient environmental policies in Europe it has been required in the past and it should be adopted nowadays, a similar or common cross border regulation, considering ecosystems instead of political boundaries. Therefore, this work contributes for better understanding of natural disasters re-merging due to climate changes and draws the attention for the possibility of controlling that negative impact through adequate political decision.

Under what conditions can one expect to see a sustained system of community management of forests in operation? Considerable theoretical scepticism has been expressed by economists and others about the viability of any such institution. In this view, such institutions will inevitably result in a "tragedy of the commons." However, evidence from around the world has accumulated in recent years which suggests that common property institutions do exist, and in some cases, have existed for a long time. Using archival sources in India and the U.K., this thesis explores the fate of community management of forests in a region of the central Himalayas known as Kumaun. Kumaun was under British administration over the period 1815-1949. The forests of the region were not under formal state management till the 1860s. In fact, there is evidence of customary cooperative arrangements--informal local institutions--before the arbitrary takeover of forests by the new administrators. The new property regime had a disruptive effect on local institutions and precipitated much deforestation, especially since the state did not have the logistical wherewithal to enforce the new forest rules at a time when local arrangements had lost credibility. Two schools of thought emerged within the state bureaucracy to address the emerging crisis of rapidly diminishing forests. The "centralizers" argued for more effective supervision and an increase in state power in order to protect the forests. The "devolutionists," by contrast, canvassed for decentralized management by user communities. Several decades of experimentation with centralized methods failed to protect forests effectively and caused much political protest. The government ultimately had to resurrect local institutions in the 1920s. In the beginning this was a failure, since community management had lost all credibility in the eyes of local users. However, persistent efforts by government officers finally paid off and the new system of van panchayats (village forest councils) finally solved a problem which the state, on its own, could not.

Resprouting is a very important survival strategy that allows many plants to survive and recover after fire. Previous studies showed that pre-fire plant size and fire severity influence plants’ resprouting ability. In this thesis we analysed the effects of fire severity and pre-fire plant size of Arbutus unedo L., a common Ericaceae found on the Mediterranean regions, on its resprouting ability after the fire on October, 2017 in Penacova, as well as different methodologies of sampling (measuring plant height, branch length and diameter, stalk, canopy and twigs diameter). The strawberry trees, from three different sites with different disturbance histories, were classified as tree-like or shrub-like according to their pre-fire characteristics and were monitored for a year, comprising two sampling campaigns. Result revealed that fire severity negatively influenced the resprouting ability of individuals by the end of the first campaign but its effect faded with time, which could indicate that fire severity is not the best long term predictor of post-fire regeneration on Arbutus unedo. Plant size (height, branch length and diameter and canopy area), however, were significantly correlated with its resprouting ability on both field campaign, wether in resprouts length, diameter or number. It was also established that some field measurements of pre-fire plant characteristics are redundant, so in similar future studies it should not be necessary to spend as much time and resources on sampling individuals by opting for the easiest or fastest measurement, knowing that branch diameter is the most reliable one since unlike lengths or heights, it can still be used after wood removals. It was not possible to obtain statistical results that would verify the existance of regeneration differences related to the different types of strawberry trees or the sampling sites, possibly due to the limited number of individuals available for sampling.
Rebrotar é uma estratégia de sobrevivência muito importante que permite que várias espécies de plantas sobrevivam e recuperem o seu vigor após um incêndio. Estudos prévios mostram que o tamanho da planta antes do fogo, assim como a severidade desse mesmo fogo influenciam a sua capacidade de rebrotar. Nesta dissertação foram analisados os efeitos da severidade do fogo e o tamanho da planta antes do incêndio em Arbutus unedo L., uma Ericaceae muito comum das regiões Mediterrânicas, na sua capacidade de regeneração após o incêndio de outubro de 2017 em Penacova, assim como também diferentes metodologias de amostragem dos mesmos (medição de altura, comprimento de ramos, diâmetro de tronco, ramos, copa e galhos). Os medronheiros, de três parcelas com diferentes historiais de perturbação, foram categorizados como semelhante a árvore ou arbusto, conforme as características exibidas pelos mesmos antes do fogo e monitorizados ao longo de um ano, em duas campanhas de amostragem. Os resultados revelaram que a severidade do fogo influenciou negativamente a capacidade de regeneração dos indivíduos ao fim da primeira campanha de amostragem mas o seu efeito enfraqueceu com o tempo, o que poderá indicar que a severidade do fogo não é o melhor preditor de regeneração em Arbutus unedo a longo prazo. Já o tamanho da planta (altura, longitude e diâmetro do maior ramo e área da copa) antes do incêndio foi significativamente correlacionada com a capacidade de regeneração em ambas as campanhas, quer em longitude e diâmetro, quer em número total de rebentos por planta. Também ficou estabelecido que existem metodologias de medição de características das plantas antes do fogo que são redundantes entre si, daí em estudos futuros de características semelhantes não ser necessário despender tempo e recursos na medição de todas elas, podendo optar-se pela que seja mais fácil, rápida ou acessível, sendo que a medição de diâmetro de ramos é a mais conservativa pois, ao contrário de longitudes ou alturas, mesmo que haja um corte transversal ainda é possível medir com maior fiabilidade. Não foi possível obter resultados estatísticos que validassem a existência de diferenças na regeneração relacionadas quer com os dois tipos de medronheiros, quer com o local de amostragem, possivelmente devido ao limitado número de indivíduos para amostrar.
Mestrado em Ecologia Aplicada

British Columbia brought a tremendous natural forest endowment into the Canadian Confederation in the 1870s. The Fulton Commission estimated there to be between 200 and 240 billion board feet of accessible timber in the province at the time. Total volume by 1937 was estimated to be 254.5 billion board feet. When British Columbia's Land Act of 1896 carefully defined Crown timberland and reserved more than 91% of such lands from sale, a public-sector model had been adopted for the development of this resource. The dissertation uses a historic approach to examine the magnitude and tempo of change in public forest policy development in the province. It proposes that the magnitude of change—especially with respect to economic value of the resource—along with a narrow focus by the public landowner on exploitation, discouraged the development of links between forest exploitation and the standard of living of the province's residents especially in rural resource based communities. This study also contends that the evolution of a scientific and technical foundation for the development of coastal forests and forest resources may also have suffered because of the focus of the public-land owner. The impact of government interventions and further changes in forest policy intensified in the 1990s. Measures like the Timber Supply Review from 1992–1996; changes in the target rate of timber pricing to finance the creation of Forest Renewal BC; and the implementation of the Forest Practice Code in 1994, were serious public sector interventions in the forest economy. They resulted in severe economic shocks to the provincial forest economy. The structure of the coastal forest responded. Companies like Weldwood left the coast, the shareholders of MacMillan Bloedel Ltd. divided and sold the company to Weyerhaeuser Canada and Pacifica Papers while Fletcher Challenge Canada was purchased by Norse Skog after it had spun off solid wood operations to a new company named TimberWest. TimberWest subsequently bought Pacific Forest Products. With the consent of the Minister of Forests, Pacific's Crown tenures were transferred to Western Forest Products. These changes negatively impacted many coastal communities. Especially vulnerable were the “instant” resource-dependent towns like Ucluelet, Gold River, Port Alice and Port McNeill on Vancouver Island. These towns had been created during the late 1960s through the early 1970s and are tied, in an economic sense, very closely to the health of the company or companies controlling the timber tenures in their area. As the financial fortunes of many coastal companies declined, so did socio-economic conditions in these forest dependent communities. Using a case study of the Kingcome Timber Supply Area, the dissertation examines the flow of economic forest values associated with the depletion of the mature forest. An outflow of resource values from the sub-regional to the provincial and national economies linked directly forest tenure, pricing and tax policy is identified. To compensate the sub-region for forest depletion, the idea of a timber income stabilization fund is developed. It is suggested that the present value of the timber income stabilization fund be used as a basis for capitalizing a regional community model forest.
Graduate

This study traces the history of the development of the rules that apply to land use, land-use change and forestry (LULUCF) under the Kyoto Protocol and follows the role of various IPCC scientists who have contributed to providing specific guidance on matters relating to LULUCF (For the purpose of this study they are called IPCC Authors). The study focuses primarily on forestry issues as these have been the most contentious in the context of accounting rules associated with the Kyoto Protocol. The aim of the study is to critically assess the role of IPCC Authors associated with developing guidance for accounting for LULUCF within the Kyoto Protocol and to ascertain whether the roles of some IPCC Authors cross-over from the provision of scientific information to outcome determined policy prescription. The study then considers whether this possible cross-over is driven by conflicts of interest. This is a unique longitudinal study lasting fourteen years of participant observation. It also represents an extensive literature review tracking decision text and related literature from the commencement of the Kyoto Protocol through to the development of rules for the Second Commitment Period of the Protocol. It traces the evolution of the rules associated with LULUCF under the Kyoto Protocol from the period 1997 through to 2011. It explores the numerous LULUCF decisions that evolved during this period and analyses the implications of these decision. It considers whether these decisions have orientations that suit the economic or national interests of certain individuals and nations. The study was taken from within a unique perspective as the author was engaged actively in the negotiation of the LULUCF rules for the Kyoto Protocol as a representative of the Government of Tuvalu. This has enabling a unique insider's insight into the negotiations process. The study follows the path of a number of key IPCC Authors who played a dual role of negotiator for their country in the Kyoto Protocol negotiations and IPCC Authors in the development of guidance. The role of other influential IPCC Authors are also explored and given context within the negotiation process. Due to various public pressures and concerns about the role of it Chairman, the IPCC developed a conflict of interest policy. This study the IPCC policy with other models developed in other spheres of science. Literature on COI is prominent with respect to the medical and pharmaceutical industry but is relatively scant with respect to multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs). Consideration is given on how to improve COI measures to ensure the full breadth of conflicts are addressed. It should be noted that this study is not a criticism of the IPCC as a whole. On the whole it operates effectively as a boundary organisation even though it was established as an intergovernmental organisation. This study identifies a core group of scientists with a particular interest in LULUCF that appear to have infiltrated the inner machinations of the organisation. The consequences of their roles are considered to be detrimental to the overall standing of the institution.

Wildlife management in Moryambique has had a troubled history. The end of civil war and installment of a democratic Government provided opportunity to redefine policy and implementation of conservation. Weakened by civil strife and with wildlife decimated in many areas, Government sought approaches to conservation that would promote participation by investors and civil society, particularly rural communities. The intention is to acknowledge the rights of rural people to resources and the benefits that can accrue from their use. Partnerships are seen as a way in which Government can bring the required financial and human resources to bear whilst at the same time engendering positive attitudes to conservation in general, and to policy in particular. The purpose of this research is to examine, using two case study conservation areas, the consequences of Government's attempts to implement its policy. The philosophical basis for the research is that policy reform and implementation should be envisaged as a complex system comprising many interactions and that when this complexity is not acknowledged and addressed systemically, it predisposes the process of policy reform and implementation to failure. A principal cause of failure is considered to be that assumptions are not made explicit and this results in development and application of an approach that does not accord with reality. Further, because of the networked nature of the system, failure at one point can be magnified as its consequences are propagated through the system. A conceptual framework for policy reform and implementation is developed. This exposes some critical assumptions about Government's capacity to implement policy and the ways in which implementation is experienced by stakeholders, especially local communities. Context is provided by tracing the evolution of approaches to conservation in Moryambique from the pre-colonial era to the present. The findings are that Government does not have the capacity to implement its conservation policy and this is shown to have serious implications for how local people perceive and respond to Government approaches to conservation. Causal factors are analysed and assessed. It is concluded that the process of policy reform and implementation is complex but that a systems approach provides a simple and easily comprehended way in which this complexity can be interpreted and taken into account with potentially very significant benefits. Perceptions are shown to be a powerful determinant of response to policy reform and implementation. As these are commonly a basis for destructive tensions between parties, it is suggested that research directed at defining the principles that should underpin management of perceptions and tensions should be encouraged.
Thesis (M.Env.Dev.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2004.

This thesis concerns the cultural and scientific practices involved with turn-of-the-century struggles to conserve the Maine Woods. Conservation was underwritten by the powerful and productive fiction that an essential nature exists as something completely apart from the elaborately organized exhibitions by which it has been staged for our benefit. The absolute distinction between nature and culture is profoundly problematic but tremendously productive as well. Drawing on a variety of historical and theoretical sources, this thesis describes the various ways in which the essential nature of the Maine Woods was set up and represented as something demanding protection and conservation. The thesis is divided into three parts. Part I sets the stage for the historical discussions that follow by assessing debates in geography and environmental history about the social construction of knowledge and nature. Recent scholarship has been caught on the horns of a theoretical dilemma: while understanding of the present environmental crisis and its historical roots seems to demand recognition of the independent agency of nature, social theory suggests the impossibility of stepping outside the bounds of culture to represent an independent nature as it really is. Different responses to this dilemma are discussed. It is argued that environmental critique demands a more humble approach to truth, one sensitive to the meanings of its metaphors and the politics of its practices. Part II assesses the forest conservation movement. The objects of scientific forestry depended fundamentally upon the ways in which the forest was framed as an object of knowledge. Very different programs of action flowed from competing metaphorical definitions of the Maine Woods as a crop, a mine, or a kind of capital. The ascendency of technical and quantitative knowledge of the forest and its displacement of local understandings are described as are public policy disputes in Maine about the regulation of private property, the institution of publicly owned forest reserves, and the role of the state in forestry. Part in deals with the conservation of wildlife for sport. Flocking to the forest to hunt, wealthy sportsmen articulated a variety of sexual, class, and racial anxieties about the debilitating embrace of modern life. The transfomation of the Maine Woods into a vacationland for their manly recreation demanded the institution of game laws and the criminalization of traditional lifeways to save the game for sport. In these struggles, conservationists had to contend not only with local residents, who resisted this construction of the Maine Woods, but also with a variety of non-human actors, such as deer, predators, and pathogens, whose presence, though difficult to deny outright, was culturally framed and mediated in materially significant ways.

Orientação: António Teodoro
O nosso problema de investigação assenta no pressuposto de que a construção do conhecimento curricular em Portugal entre 1970 e 2009 é enformada por processos com diferentes referentes ideológicos, eventualmente teóricos e práticos, e apresenta uma forte influência dos contextos económico, político, cultural e social de cada ciclo político, nomeadamente no que concerne às dimensões de equidade e igualdade no conhecimento curricular, bem como à sua pertinência e relevância, com repercussões ao nível da cultura curricular construída. Neste contexto, desenvolvemos uma investigação que nos conduziu à identificação das principais tendências curriculares desenhadas nas diferentes reformas educativas, através da análise dos quatro ciclos políticos em que encontramos os marcos legislativos curriculares centrais, procurando, sobretudo, responder a três questões: Que conhecimento curricular tem sido construído e o que faz parte desse conhecimento? Quem participou nessa construção e como construiu esse conhecimento? Que processos têm sido usados na construção do conhecimento curricular? Assim, a ênfase do estudo recai sobre três tipos de conhecimento: o conhecimento da política, o conhecimento curricular e o conhecimento profissional. A nossa hipótese de partida prende-se com a reconfiguração do conhecimento curricular, acelerando o esgotamento da gramática da escola e, consequentemente, do currículo, nas suas formas escolares assumidas, uma vez que parecem verificar-se contradições entre as lógicas e racionalidades sociais, visíveis nas exigências da avaliação das agências internacionais, e as lógicas e racionalidades de organização do currículo. Esta hipótese de trabalho foi desdobrada em três hipóteses que considerámos em termos operacionais, a saber: i) as políticas curriculares não são nacionais, antes decorrem de agendas transnacionais; ii) as mudanças em políticas curriculares devem ser estudadas de acordo com ciclos longos de mudança, nos quais as forças de mudança desempenham papéis diferenciados; iii) a prática das orientações curriculares fixadas apresenta uma estreita relação com as histórias de vida dos seus atores, não sendo possível dissociar a história de vida de cada um da medida de política curricular em desenvolvimento. Recorremos à proposta de Ball (1994) para analisar três contextos em cada ciclo de políticas e adotámos o conceito de cosmopolitismo metodológico (Beck, 2005, Dale & Robertson, 2008) que nos permitiu uma abordagem em que o nível de análise não se situou no Estado, mas em novos espaços e noutros níveis. Assumimos que as políticas curriculares nacionais são espaços de refração (Goodson, 2010) de políticas educativas regionais e globais. O método de triangulação que construímos foi completado com o modelo de análise biográfica, através do qual foram desenvolvidas histórias de vida dos professores, com base no relato subjetivo da sua vida profissional e pessoal, ao qual foi justaposto a genealogia de contextos, que incluiu o estudo de três escolas onde os professores trabalharam. Identificámos diferentes processos de mudança, bem como os seus efeitos no trabalho e vida dos professores. Por outro lado, concluímos acerca da necessidade do alinhamento entre forças de mudança externas e internas para que se operem transformações no currículo. O imperativo do abandono do paradigma da uniformidade é igualmente fundamental, uma vez que o currículo tem sofrido alterações no seu design e na sua forma, embora o seu conteúdo e a sua organização se mantenham inalterados, não promovendo respostas eficientes às demandas sociais, económicas e políticas.
Our research problem is based on the assumption that the construction of curriculum knowledge in Portugal between 1970 and 2009 is shaped by processes with different ideological guidance, eventually theoretical and practical, and has a strong influence of economic, political, cultural and social contexts of each policy cycle, particularly with regard to the dimensions of equity and equality in curriculum knowledge, as well as its relevance, with effects on built curriculum culture. In this context, we developed a research that led us to identify the main curriculum trends drawn in different educational reforms, by examining the four policy cycles in which we find the main curriculum legislative frameworks, seeking to answer to three questions: What curriculum knowledge has been built and what is part of that knowledge? Who participated in this construction and how was this knowledge built? What processes have been used in the construction of curriculum knowledge? Thus, the emphasis of the study rests on three types of knowledge: policy knowledge, curriculum knowledge and professional knowledge. Our starting hypothesis is related to the curriculum knowledge reconfiguration, which accelerates the exhaustion of grammar and consequently the curriculum in its school assumed forms, because it seems that there are contradictions between the social logic and rationalities, visible on the requirements of the evaluation of international agencies, and the logic and rationalities of curriculum organization. This working hypothesis was split into three scenarios operationally considered, namely: i) curriculum policies are not national but result from transnational agendas; ii) changes in curriculum policies should be studied according long cycles of change, in which change forces play different roles; iii) the practice of set curriculum has a close relationship with the life histories of the actors and it is not possible to detached the life history of each one of the curriculum policy measure under development. We used Ball’s proposal (1994) to analyze the three contexts in each policy cycle and take the methodological concept of cosmopolitanism (Beck, 2005, Dale & Robertson, 2008) that enables us an approach in which the level of analysis is not the state, but new spaces at a new level. We assume that national curriculum policies are spaces of refraction (Goodson, 2010) of global and regional educational policies. The triangulation method that we built was completed with the model of biographical analysis, through which teachers’ life histories were developed, based on the subjective report of their professional and personal life with a juxtaposition of the genealogy of contexts that included the study of three shools where teachers worked. We identified different processes of change and its effects on the work and lives of teachers. Moreover, we concluded on the need of alignment between external and internal change forces so that changes in curriculum can be real. The need of leaving the paradigm of uniformity is also crucial, since curriculum has undergone changes in its design and in its form, though its contents and its organization remain unchanged, not promoting effective responses to social, economic and political demands.

Despite the long-standing cooperation between Portugal and Russia, the current bilateral trade values do not commensurate the two and a half decades of cooperation. The current trade values trend based on data between 2006 and 2019 shows somewhat unstable trade relations characterized by both rising and falling in different years. While different scholars have explored the challenges that should be addressed, such as trade protectionism and opportunities that can be exploited to enhance trade relations, there still exists a gap in literature exploring various measures that can be employed to improve the Russian-Portuguese trade relations. Therefore, this research aims to explore the current situation in the trade relations between Russia and Portugal and also the measures that can be employed to improve the international trade standing between the two countries. Analysis of data from secondary sources shows that Portugal and Russia have traded for approximately 240 years. Russia mainly sells crude oil products and farm inputs to Portugal, while Portugal mainly provides agricultural commodities to Russia. The key success factors required to improve the Russian-Portuguese trade relations include favorable trade policies, increased foreign direct investment, and preferential bilateral agreements. Presently, there is a mismatch between Russia's and Portugal’s trade policies, whereby Russia is more protectionist than Portugal. Moreover, there is only one identifiable bilateral trade agreement whose impact on countries’ trade relations is remote. The level of foreign direct investment is still low to impact trade relations between Russia and Portugal. This study proposes a three-fold strategy to improve Russian-Portuguese trade relations. Firstly, the relaxation of trade policies such as ease of trading across the border, tariffs, and economic freedom is necessary. Secondly, the nations should take measures to boost the level of foreign direct investment amongst them. Thirdly, preferential trade agreements are necessary to address the trade barriers and position the countries as strategic trade and investment partners.
Apesar da cooperação de longa data entre Portugal e a Rússia, o acordo comercial bilateral em vigor não é proporcional de parte a parte nos últimos 25 anos de cooperação. Os valores de transação comercial, relativamente aos anos de 2016 e 2019 demonstram relações instáveis de comércio caracterizadas por subidas e descidas em diferentes anos. Enquanto que alguns especialistas tenham explorado alguns dos desafios que devem ser encarados, como medidas protecionistas e oportunidades que poderiam ser exploradas para aumentar as relações de comércio, ainda existe uma disparidade na literatura no que concerne às diferentes medidas que poderiam ser tomadas para melhorar as relações comerciais entre Portugal e a Rússia. Por isso, esta pesquisa procura explorar a situação atual de comércio internacional entre os dois países e focar nas medidas que podem ser tomadas para melhorar o comércio internacional. A análise de dados de fontes secundárias mostram que o comércio internacional entre Portugal e a Rússia datam de, aproximadamente, há 240 anos. A Rússia vende maioritariamente produtos petrolíferos e matérias primas agrícolas a Portugal, enquanto que Portugal exporta produtos agrícolas à Rússia. Os fatores-chave de sucesso necessários para melhorar as relações de comércio incluem políticas comerciais favoráveis, aumento do Investimento Direto Estrangeiro (IDE) e acordos de preferência bilateral. Atualmente existe um desfasamento entre as duas políticas comerciais, de onde a Rússia denota uma postura mais protecionista do que Portugal. Além disso, é possível identificar apenas um acordo bilateral cujo impacto no comércio internacional de ambos os países é pequeno. O nível de IDE ainda não é suficiente para ter impacto no comércio internacional entre os dois países. Este estudo propõe uma estratégia de três etapas para aumentar as relações russo-portuguesas: em primeiro lugar, é necessário a flexibilização de políticas comerciais, como, por exemplo no sentido de facilitação de comércio bilateral, tarifas e liberdade económica; em segundo lugar, as nações deveriam tomar medidas para aumentar os níveis de IDE; por fim, acordos de comércio preferenciais são necessários para enfrentar as barreiras comerciais e posicionar os países como parceiros estratégicos de comécio e de investimento.

De 1974 a 1985 as relações entre Portugal e o Brasil foram caraterizadas pela diferenciação dos objetivos e das opções estratégicas adotadas por ambas as partes e pelo empenho em dotá-las de uma importância renovada. A coexistência destas duas dinâmicas evidencia um relacionamento marcado por paradoxos, exemplificado por uma retórica que atribuía aos vínculos comuns uma relevância que não correspondia aos fatos. Este discurso, aparentemente desprovido de justificação, permitiu que Lisboa e Brasília mantivessem a centralidade de uma ligação à qual se reconhecia um potencial que naquele momento não era possível consubstanciar. A dissociação de interesses entre os dois Estados assumiu visibilidade a partir da década de 1960 e acentuou-se à medida que a questão colonial se encaminhava para o fim. O 25 de Abril, a descolonização e a transição para democracia, concorreram para que durante o período analisado houvesse uma tentativa de clarificação dos significados que as relações luso-brasileiras poderiam assumir para os dois países. Este esforço de revisão dos vínculos bilaterais foi concomitante a um processo interno de reflexão sobre a identidade nacional e internacional brasileira e portuguesa, fortemente influenciado pelas repercussões da Guerra Fria nas periferias do sistema e pela realidade pós-colonial. A África lusófona emergiu como um ator omnipresente na agenda diplomática luso-brasileira, embora assumisse sentidos distintos para Lisboa e Brasília. O relacionamento gradualmente estabelecido entre Portugal, o Brasil e os novos Estados lusófonos não só influenciou a evolução do diálogo bilateral, mas o modo como o espaço da lusofonia viria a estruturar-se nos anos seguintes.
From 1974 to 1985, the Luso-Brazilian relationship was characterized by the differentiation of objectives and strategies adopted by both countries and, at the same time, by their efforts to upgrade the bilateral dialogue. These political dynamics reveals a relationship marked by a paradox, exemplified by an effusive rhetoric about the Luso-Brazilian relations mostly as empty of substance. This evasive discourse evoking a special relation between Lisbon and Brasilia, apparently devoid of content, conferred certain centrality to a diplomatic relation while it could not be deepened or reshaped. The disconnection between the interests of both States became perceptible over the 60s and has intensified as the colonial question was approaching its end. During the time period analysed, the Carnation Revolution, the decolonization process and the transition to democracy contributed to clarify the significances the Luso-Brazilian relationship could have for both countries. The effort to reassess bilateral ties happened concomitantly with a debate on the international and national identity of both countries, which was deeply influenced by the effects of the Cold War on the global peripheries and by the post-colonial reality. The Lusophone Africa became omnipresent in the Luso-Brazilian diplomatic agenda, although with different connotations in Lisbon and Brasilia. Portugal, Brazil and the new Lusophone States have gradually established a relationship that influenced not only the Luso-Brazilian ties but also how the whole Lusophone space would be framed over the next years.

American jurisprudence currently applies two incompatible validity standards to determine which laws are enforceable. The natural law tradition evaluates validity by an uncertain standard of divine law, and its methodology relies on contradictory views of human reason. Legal positivism, on the other hand, relies on a methodology that commits the analytic fallacy, separates law from its application, and produces an incomplete model of law. These incompatible standards have created a schism in American jurisprudence that impairs the delivery of justice. This dissertation therefore formulates a new standard for legal validity. This new standard rejects the uncertainties and inconsistencies inherent in natural law theory. It also rejects the narrow linguistic methodology of legal positivism. In their stead, this dissertation adopts a pragmatic methodology that develops a standard for legal validity based on actual legal experience. This approach focuses on the operations of law and its effects upon ongoing human activities, and it evaluates legal principles by applying the experimental method to the social consequences they produce. Because legal history provides a long record of past experimentation with legal principles, legal history is an essential feature of this method. This new validity standard contains three principles. The principle of reason requires legal systems to respect every subject as a rational creature with a free will. The principle of reason also requires procedural due process to protect against the punishment of the innocent and the tyranny of the majority. Legal systems that respect their subjects' status as rational creatures with free wills permit their subjects to orient their own behavior. The principle of reason therefore requires substantive due process to ensure that laws provide dependable guideposts to individuals in orienting their behavior. The principle of consent recognizes that the legitimacy of law derives from the consent of those subject to its power. Common law custom, the doctrine of stare decisis, and legislation sanctioned by the subjects' legitimate representatives all evidence consent. The principle of autonomy establishes the authority of law. Laws must wield supremacy over political rulers, and political rulers must be subject to the same laws as other citizens. Political rulers may not arbitrarily alter the law to accord to their will. Legal history demonstrates that, in the absence of a validity standard based on these principles, legal systems will not treat their subjects as ends in themselves. They will inevitably treat their subjects as mere means to other ends. Once laws do this, men have no rest from evil.