Articles de revues : « First half of the 14th century »

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Bardetskyi, A. B., et B. A. Pryshchepa. « THE PECULIARITIES OF VOLYN CERAMIC ASSEMBLAGES OF THE SECOND HALF OF THE 13th — FIRST HALF OF THE 14th CENTURIES IN HNIDAVSKA HIRKA NEAR LUTSK ». Archaeology and Early History of Ukraine 29, n^o 4 (22 décembre 2018) : 98–109. http://dx.doi.org/10.37445/adiu.2018.04.03.

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In the territory of the Halych-Volyn principality, the relevance of the study of monuments dating from time after the Mongol-Tatar pogroms in the middle of the 13th century is determined by their insignificant number, regional features and insufficiently developed chronology of various categories of things. The study of pottery remains an important task, since it is the most numerous group of findings during the research of the medieval settlements. Interesting ceramic complexes of the second half of the 13th — the first half of the 14th centuries were found during the excavation of two dwellings in a settlement in Hnidavskaa Hirka near the village of Rovantsi in Lutsk district. The majority of the findings form by the fragments of pots; besides, there are also frying pans, bowls, pitchers, and large earthenware pots. Pots are divided into two groups. The first group belongs to the type that appeared at the end of the 11th century and spread throughout Southern Rus in the 12th — first half of the 13th century. New trends that developed after the Mongol-Tatar pogroms are revealed in the features of the rim profiling and new techniques of ornamentation of pots of the second group. The outer edge of the rim is divided by a horizontal groove, and there is an ornament under the rim — a horizontal line of pressings. By analogy with Lutsk, Volodymyr-Volynskyi, and Peresopnytsia, they can be dated to the second half of the 13th—14th centuries. According to the ratio of the number of pots of both groups in each of the dwellings and dating of other findings, their chronology is defined as the middle — second half of the 13th century (dwelling 9) and the end of the 13th — first half of the 14th centuries (dwelling 1).

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Mažeika, J., P. Blaževičius, M. Stančikaitė et D. Kisielienė. « Dating of the Cultural Layers from Vilnius Lower Castle, East Lithuania : Implications for Chronological Attribution and Environmental History ». Radiocarbon 51, n^o 2 (2009) : 515–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0033822200055892.

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Complex interdisciplinary studies carried out in the territory of the Vilnius Lower Castle, E Lithuania, were used to construct a chronological framework based on radiocarbon data and archaeological information. Bulk samples (wood and sediment) were collected from an approximately 3-m core that crossed cultural layers and underlying strata. 14C dates indicate that the underlying bed possibly formed during the 6th century AD, although no archaeological finds were discovered there. Paleobotanical (pollen and plant macrofossil) investigations reveal evidence of agriculture that points to the existence of a permanent settlement in the area at that time. The chronological data indicates a sedimentation hiatus before the onset of the deposition of the cultural layer in the studied area. The 14C dates showed that the formation of the cultural bed began during the late 13th–early 14th centuries AD, that is, earlier than expected according to the archaeological record. The ongoing deposition of the cultural beds continued throughout the middle to latter half of the 14th century AD as revealed by the archaeological records and confirmed by well-correlated 14C results. After some decline in human activity in the middle of the 14th century AD, a subsequent ongoing development of the open landscape, along with intensive agriculture, points to an increase in human activity during the second half of the 14th century AD. The first half of the 15th century AD was marked by intensive exploitation of the territory, indicating a period of economic and cultural prosperity. The chronological framework indicates that the investigated cultural beds continued forming until the first half of the 16th century AD.

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Veas Arteseros, Francisco de Asís. « Las relaciones Murcia-Orihuela en la primera mitad del siglo XIV (1304-1355). » Historia. Instituciones. Documentos, n^o 46 (2019) : 339–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.12795/hid.2019.i46.11.

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Petrov, Pavel, Aibar Kassenalin, Timur Smagulov et Syrym Yessen. « Coin Finds in 14th-Century Burials in Saryarka (Central Kazakhstan) ». Stratum plus. Archaeology and Cultural Anthropology, n^o 6 (30 décembre 2021) : 127–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.55086/sp216127138.

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Excavations of two significant archaeological sites were carried out in 2020 in Akmola and North Kazakhstan regions of Kazakhstan. The mausoleum of Janibek and the mausoleum on Kyzyloba site were examined. Brief descriptions and characteristics of these archaeological sites are given. Only the found Juchid coins are considered in detail in this paper. The analysis of numismatic material showed: 1. the burial in Janibek’s mausoleum contains 13 coins of the 14th century and dates from the first half of the 760s/1360s; 2. the burial in Kyzyloba’s mausoleum contains 4 coins of Khan Uzbek and dates from the second half of the 730s/1330s. The authors compare the coins with similar finds from other graves of the 14th century in Central Kazakhstan. The obtained data indicate a possibly different dynamics and scale of the spread of plague in Saryarka compared to the Volga region. A larger statistics of coin finds in 14th-century burials is required for relevant conclusions.

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Turilov, Anatoly. « Sinful «rasonosha» Martinian — unnoticed hilandarsky calligrapher of the first half of the 14th century ». Slavic and Balkan Linguistics, n^o 1 (2019) : 397–407. http://dx.doi.org/10.31168/2658-3372.2019.19.

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Lorusso, Vito. « Materiali per una raccolta degli scoli greci agli Analitici posteriori di Aristotele ». AION (filol.) Annali dell’Università degli Studi di Napoli “L’Orientale” 40, n^o 1 (20 décembre 2018) : 23–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/17246172-40010004.

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Abstract This article aims at mapping the scholia on the first lines from Aristotle’s Posterior Analytics A 1. It offers the first edition of the scholia on 71a1–21 from Vaticanus Gr. 241 (13th century), Laurentianus 72,3 (second half of the 13th century) and Laurentianus 72,4 (second half of the 13th / beginning of the 14th century). Appendix II and III present the content of a brief writing of Psellus about the Aristotelian Organon and the Praefatio to the Latin translation of Themistius’ Paraphrasis to Posterior Analytics written by Hermolaus Barbarus in the 15th century.

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Starenkyi, Ihor, et Levinzon Levinzon. « Private Housing of the Second Half of the 13th – the Beginning of the 15th Century from Archaeological Research in Kamianets-Podilskyi on Tatarska street, 17/1 ». Ukraina Lithuanica. Studìï z ìstorìï Velikogo knâzìvstva Litovsʹkogo 2021, n^o 6 (12 octobre 2021) : 121–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.15407/ul2021.06.121.

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The article describes the archaeological research conducted in Kamianets-Podilskyi on Tatarska Street, 17/1 in 2018. In this area, an intact archeological complex, rare for the territory of Podillya, was discovered and studied in the second half of the 13th - beginning of the 15th centuries, which corresponds to the time when these lands were part of the Golden Horde and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Archaeological excavations have revealed a private dwelling sunk into the mainland with a pit-cold frame-pillar structure. This housing is fundamentally different from the complex excavated in 2017 at the same time at 12 Pyatnytska Street, where the housing was a frame-pillar filled with clay. During the works, numerous materials were discovered, which made it possible for the first time to develop a typology of ceramics for the second half of the 13th - early 15th centuries for the territory of Podillya. First of all, 13 types of pots of four chronological periods were identified (the second half of the 13th - the beginning of the 14th century, the first half - the middle of the 14th century, the second half of the 14th century and the beginning - the first third of the 15th century). In turn, some types are divided into subtypes. As for the decoration of these products, their bodies were often decorated with a wavy indented line, corrugation, lines of oblique indented notches, lines of rounded indentations and painting in black paint. Jars, bowls and makitry are described separately according to morphological features. An amphora of the Lithuanian era turned out to be a valuable find. In addition, a clay ball, a denarius of Vladislav Jagail and a fragment of a metal product (chisel?) Were found during the works.

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Khromov, Kostiantyn, et Iryna Khromova. « Coinage Genesis in the Context of the Political Autonomy on the Lithuanian-Horde Border Lands (the Second Half of the 14th – the First Half of the 15th Century) ». Ukraina Lithuanica. Studìï z ìstorìï Velikogo knâzìvstva Litovsʹkogo 2019, n^o 5 (29 novembre 2019) : 1–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.15407/ul2019.05.001.

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Bílek, Karol. « Reading in the Sobotka Area in the First Half of the 19th Century – Readers, Book and Library Owners ». Acta Musei Nationalis Pragae – Historia litterarum 63, n^o 3-4 (2019) : 127–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/amnpsc-2018-0017.

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The article provides information on the cultural life of the small town of Sobotka near Jičín and its surroundings during the National Revival. In its short introduction, it presents its main cultural activities from the 14th century while focusing on significant figures of the end of the 18th century and the first half of the 19th century: the burgher Raymund Šolc and the priests Antonín Marek, František Vetešník and Damián Šimůnek. It draws particular attention to their libraries and the spread of Czech books. It also mentions other important inhabitants of the town, such as the saleswoman Barbora Pavienská or the shoemaker Josef Novák.

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Zonta, Mauro. « Medieval Judaic Logic and the Scholastic One in the 14th – 15th Centuries Provence and Italy : a Comparison of the Logical Works by Rav Hezekiah bar Halafta (First Half of the 14th Century) and Rav Judah Messer Leon (Second Half of the 15th Century) ». Studia Humana 6, n^o 2 (1 juin 2017) : 37–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/sh-2017-0010.

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Abstract Hezekiah bar Halafta and Judah Messer Leon, who wrote in 14th – 15th century in Provence and Italy, were the first and last of “Jewish Schoolman.” This short article compares two texts, in order to showing differences and similarities.

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Aibabin, Aleksandr. « Crimean Gothia in the First Half of the 13th Century ». Vestnik Volgogradskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta. Serija 4. Istorija. Regionovedenie. Mezhdunarodnye otnoshenija, n^o 6 (février 2021) : 56–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.15688/jvolsu4.2020.6.4.

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Introduction. The toponym Gothia in written sources from the 8th century was used to designate the territory of the Mountain Crimea inhabited by the Alans and the Goths between Inkerman and the north-eastern suburb of Alushta. The same region was called the Klimata of Cherson and the Klimata of Gothia. Methods. Fragmentary information about Gothia is contained in the “Synopsis of St. Eugenios” compiled by John Lazaropoulos until 1364 and in the “Alanian Epistle” by the bishop Theodore. These works describe the same period in the history of the Gothic Klimata, 1223–1227 and 1223, respectively. Analysis. The considered evidence confirms the entry of Cherson and its subordinate Klimata of Gothia into the empire of Trebizond, at least in the first half of the 13th century. It is methodically incorrect to judge the situation in the Klimata in the first half of the 13th century from the descriptions contained in later sources of what happened in the 14th–15th centuries. The “Epistle” says about the flight of bishop Theodore to an Alanian village neighboring to Cherson. Supporters of identifying the village with the Qırq-Yer fortress remote from the city on the Chufut-Kale plateau ignore geographical and historical realities. Results. There is no evidence of the existence of single-ethnic Gothic and Alanian regions in the mountains and on the southern coast in written sources. In Sudak, Guillaume de Rubrouck was talked about speakers of Teutonic and other languages in the mountains of Crimea. Historian’s allegations about the division of Gothia into two principalities are disproved by the results of archaeological excavations in the territory of Klimata of Gothia. The toponym Klimata is not mentioned in the descriptions of events that occurred after the middle 13th century. However, archaeological excavations of cities on the Inner Ridge revealed the preservation of active and diverse life activities of the population of the region until the end of the 13th century. Probably, the history of the administrative formation of the Klimata of Gothia was interrupted in 1298/99, when Nogai’s troops destroyed Cherson, cities on the Eski-Kermen plateau, Bakla and others.

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Mazor, Amir. « Jewish Court Physicians in the Mamluk Sultanate during the First Half of the 8th/14th Century ». Medieval Encounters 20, n^o 1 (17 février 2014) : 38–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15700674-12342156.

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Abstract It is usually accepted among modern scholars that the Mamluk period marked a drastic decline in the position of non-Muslims. Jews and Christians were exposed to increasing persecutions and, inter alia, could not serve as great physicians unless they converted to Islam. Against these assumptions, the article discusses new data regarding three Jewish court physicians from the first half of the 8th/14th century. Despite being under a strong pressure to convert, these doctors gained honorable positions and a high social status in the Mamluk sultanate. As erudite physicians and skillful practitioners, they were integrated with the highest circles of the political, military and especially intellectual Muslim elite of their time.

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Zivkovic, Valentina. « Prayers pro remedio animae at 14th-century Kotor ». Balcanica, n^o 35 (2004) : 273–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/balc0535273z.

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With the growing belief in the reality of purgatory in medieval times, the hope was also rising of the salvation of the souls dwelling in that abode. By the fourteenth century the concept of purgatory had already been developed, and prayers, services and charitable acts came to be regarded as the most efficient aid to the souls of the dead. The hopes that people coping with the imminence of death placed in the effectiveness of prayers and masses pro remedio animae, and the belief in the existence of purgatory will be discussed by using the example of Kotor in the first half of the fourteenth century, on the basis of wall-paintings and wills. In the first decades of the fourteenth century the souls of the dead were depicted in the scene of the General Resurrection included in the Crucifixion painted in the apse of the Collegiata of St Mary at Kotor. In the context of eucharistic and soteriological symbolism of the iconographic programme of the apse, the motif of the General Resurrection - the souls of the dead depicted as babies that, wrapped in swaddling clothes, emerge from their sarcophagi explicitly expresses the idea of supplication. But the people's concern with the effectiveness of prayers for the deliverance of souls from purgatory is fully confirmed by the surviving wills dating to the 1320s and 1330s. Every citizen of Kotor could order in his will that masses, commemoration services and prayers for the salvation of his soul and the souls of his ancestors should be offered. The number and solemnity of the masses and prayers depended on the amount of money a person was able to set aside for that purpose. The imminence of death, timens mori, made people think of repentance. Still, the conventional formulae of testamentary provisions for pias causas reveal a genuine fear that death may catch them unprepared, i.e. with no charitable acts, with no repentance and, especially, with no insurance that their souls will be delivered from purgatory through masses and prayers.

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Майко, В. В. « 13th-14th century Christian churches in South-Eastern Crimea : A comparative study ». Architectural archeology, n^o 2 (20 décembre 2020) : 157–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.25681/iaras.2020.978-5-94375-327-5.157-172.

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В статье впервые проведен сравнительный анализ двадцати одного полностью раскопанного христианского храма юго-восточного Крыма, время сооружения которых датируется второй половиной XIII - первой половиной XIV в. Восемь синхронных объектов, известных по письменным источникам и данным археологических разведок, не используются. Не привлекаются и три храма, возведенные в период второй половины X - XII в. Выделено четыре типа одноапсидных сооружений с различными вариантами оформления фасадов и внутреннего объема, двухапсидные постройки разных пропорций и крупные крестово-купольные трехапсидные церкви разных вариантов. Все они свидетельствуют о влиянии византийской трапезундской строительной традиции и культурных связях с Империей. For the first time, the article offers a comparative study of twenty-one fully excavated Christian churches in South-Eastern Crimea, all of which were constructed between the latter half of 13th and the first half of the 14th century. Eight objects erected in the same period and known only from written sources and archaeological exploration, have not been taken into account, and the same is true for three churches erected from latter 10th to the 12th century. We have singled out and described four types of single-apse constructions with various decorations of the facade and interior, two-apse constructions of various proportions and large three-apse cross-domed church of several types. All of these testify to the influence of Trebizond Byzantine construction tradition and the cultural links between Crimea and the Empire.

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Moore, Jr., John Allphin. « Citizenship in the United States : A Historical Assessment of a Present-Day Contretemps ». American Studies in Scandinavia 50, n^o 1 (30 janvier 2018) : 51–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.22439/asca.v50i1.5693.

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In late 2015, debate among many US Republican presidential candidates focused on immigration policy, with one candidate who was hostile to America’s immigration policy, opining that the 14th Amendment’s definition of citizenship may be unconstitutional. This was the view of the GOP candidate who eventually won the Presidency. The question of citizenship, and the linked issue of rights, was contested in the early republic. Much of the quarrel revolved around the issue of slavery. At least three competing notions of citizenship and rights gained traction by the first half of the 19th century: one argued for citizenship and rights only for whites; another urged that “popular sovereignty” should determine rights and citizenship. A third insisted on an inclusive definition of citizenship. By 1868, the 14th Amendment underscored the latter view. But, as current affairs in America show, the bickering persists, often using arguments similar to those found in the early republic’s squabbles. This essay explores the debate among the viewpoints articulated during the first half of the 19th century and seeks to draw out counsel for our own time.

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Shaidurov, Vladimir, Tadeush Novogrodsky, Galina Sinko et Stepan Zakharkevich. « Gypsies : from Belarus to Siberia (according to documents and materials of the 18th - first half of the 19th century) ». OOO "Zhurnal "Voprosy Istorii" 2020, n^o 10 (1 octobre 2020) : 130–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.31166/voprosyistorii202010statyi08.

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In the 14th — 15th century the Belarussian part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth became a center of ethnic minorities, among which Gypsies stood out. Until the first half of the 18th century, they enjoyed the patronage of the local magnates, thanks to which they got a lean system of self-government and were able to fill their own economic niche. In the 18th century, Gypsies of Belarus were forced to leave their traditional places of residence. As a result, they came to Walachia, Moldavia and Siberia. At the end of the 18th — early 19th century Romani had a mostly semi-nomadic lifestyle in Siberia, many of them settled in cities and engaged in trade and crafts. The present paper approaches the issues of the ethnic-dispersive Gypsies community setup in Siberia, the basis of which was laid by Belarusian Gypsies. The paper is written mainly based on archive material, introduced into scientific circulation for the first time.

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Miljkovic, Bojan. « The Serbian panagiarion from Vatopedi ». Zbornik radova Vizantoloskog instituta, n^o 49 (2012) : 355–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/zrvi1249355m.

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The panagiarion made out of rhinoceros horn from Vatopedi is one of the few vessels of that kind which originate from the Middle Ages. Its creation can be dated to the end of the 14th, or first half of the 15th century, at the time of very lively relations between this Athonite monastery and the Serbian despotate.

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Gogić, Miljan. « Contribution to the Chronology of the Notary and Chancellors of Kotor in the 14th and Beginning of the 15th Centuries ». Društvene i humanističke studije (Online) 7, n^o 4(21) (30 décembre 2022) : 341–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.51558/2490-3647.2022.7.4.341.

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In contrast to the 12th and 13th centuries, the sources for the study of the Kotor notary in the 14thand 15thcenturies are significantly more numerous and diverse. In the first place, there are office notarial writings that have been preserved from the period 1326-1337, then the second half of the last decade of the 14th century, and, almost continuously, from the end of the second decade of the 15th century. Apart from them, individual documents created in the Kotor office during the 14th century have been preserved, which represent a very valuable source for studying the time when certain notaries worked in Kotor. An extremely important source for the study of this issue is the Grbalj cadaster which contains the notes of notaries and chancellors who drew up documents on the ownership of land holdings in Grbalj. Mentions of some Kotor notaries and the time of their activity can be found in the Dubrovnik archives of the 13th-15th centuries. A special type of source about Kotor notaries of the 14thand 15thcenturies contains their lists. One such can be found in the Zagreb copy of the Kotor Statute and contains a list of notaries from 1380 to 1487. The second one is the list of notaries and chancellors located in the National University Library in Zagreb. It is a particularly valuable source for the chronology of Kotor notaries from the second half of the 14th century, providing information about them until 1705. It brings the names of some hitherto little-known Kotor notaries from the beginning of the 15th century.

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Cârciumaru, Radu. « The Beginnings of the First Medieval Romanian State and the International Relations during the First Half of the 14th century ». Annales d'Université "Valahia" Târgovişte. Section d'Archéologie et d'Histoire 10, n^o 1 (2008) : 79–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.3406/valah.2008.1240.

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Benyovsky Latin, Irena. « Eastern Adriatic cities and their role in Venetian (long distance) commercial activities during the 13th and the first half of the 14th century ». Review of Croatian history 18, n^o 1 (14 décembre 2022) : 31–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.22586/review.v18i1.24278.

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The main strategy was to maintain the sea route from the northernmost point of the Adriatic to the Levant, and to introduce the necessary legal, commercial, and administrative practices modelled upon its own. During the 13th and 14th centuries Venice worked on gaining military and economic control over the Eastern Adriatic and “prepared the ground” for its later long dominance in that area. In this period, from Venetian perspective, the cities were primarily strategic and exchange points – and were increasingly perceived as the natural hub of connections between the Mediterranean and Central Europe or the West and the Levant. The infrastructures that supported the Venetian long-distance trade in the 13th and 14th centuries were related to security, equipment, and the possibility of transit, as well as supplying enough manpower on the way.

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Taxidis, Ilias. « À la recherche de l’auteur de sept lettres inconnues : la collection épistolographique du codex Vat. gr. 1020 ». Byzantinische Zeitschrift 112, n^o 1 (1 février 2019) : 171–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/bz-2019-0009.

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Abstract F. 1v-9v of the codex Vat. gr. 1020, which is dated to the first half of the 14th century, contains seven unknown and anonymous letters, the last one mutilated. In this study, at first, the ascription of the letters to Maximus Neamonites as proposed by the database of the PINAKES is rejected, and a number of assumptions are made concerning the name of their writer in the light of the little prosopographical information offered. The content is studied, as well as the style of the letters and their place in the literary context of the Palaiologan Rennaisance of the 13th-14th centuries. A critical edition of the letters completes the article.

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Yakovleva, Maria I. « MOSAICS IN THE REGIONAL MUSEUM OF MESSINA, THEIR STYLISTIC FEATURES AND PLACE IN THE ART OF THE EARLY PALAEOLOGAN PERIOD ». RSUH/RGGU Bulletin. "Literary Theory. Linguistics. Cultural Studies" Series, n^o 6 (2021) : 65–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.28995/2686-7249-2021-6-65-77.

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The Regional Museum of Messina possesses four fragments of monumental mosaics originating from local churches. Their dating, as suggested in research literature, varies between the second half of the 13th century and the first third of the 14th. А question remains open concerning the roles that the authentic Byzantine and/or local Sicilian masters played in their creation. Messinian mosaic fragments show familiarity with methods of rendering faces which were not crystallized in Byzantine art before the origin of the mosaics in Kariye Camii (1316–1321). In the opinion expressed here, they were all produced during the first third of the 14th century, by local craftsmen who were guided by Constantinople models, although a manner they worked in was more simplified in comparison with metropolitan one. An exception is a mosaic depicting the archangel Michael, which could have been created by a visiting Byzantine master who had metropolitan training.

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Maléth, Ágnes. « Curialists and Hungarian Church Benefices in the 14th Century ». Specimina Nova Pars Prima Sectio Medaevalis 11 (27 avril 2022) : 59–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.15170/spmnnv.2021.11.03.

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The papal government was characterized by centralization in the 14th century in which the tax system and the papal beneficial policy were two main factors. The Avignon popes strived to extend their influence on every stratum of the ecclesiastical hierarchy by rewarding the members of the curia’s dévéloping administrativé systém with bénéficés in thé local churchés. Thé changés in thé functioning of the papal curia offered a great opportunity for a growing number of qualified clerics to build successful careers in the papal service. The process briefly described above had an impact on the contemporary ecclesiastical structure of the Hungarian Kingdom, as more and more clerics tried to obtain benefices with papal protection, especially in the second half of the 14th century. Soon not only papal officers, but cardinals and the members of their entourage held Hungarian ecclesiastical titles as well. The main aim of the present paper is to analyse the lifepath of a curialist, Petrus Begonis. First procurator of cardinal Guillaume de la Jugie, later papal chaplain, Petrus Begonis was granted various church offices – also in the Hungarian Kingdom – and charged with diverse diplomatic tasks in different parts of Europe (Hungary, Holy Roman Empire, Italy). His ecclesiastical career – spanning from the reign of Clement VI to that of Urban VI – gives an insight in the functioning of the papal curia in Avignon and helps us comprehend the administrational changes in the 14th century.

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Zakharov, Sergey A. « So-called “Lollardsʼs Catechism”. The translation of part from middle English to Russian with commentary and introduction article ». Russian Journal of Church History 1, n^o 2 (8 juillet 2020) : 77–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.15829/2686-973x-2020-2-23.

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Publication of the Russian translation of part of so-called “Lollardsʼs Catechism”, which was written by anonymous author in 14th century England. The title “Lollardsʼs Catechism” was given by first editors in the early 20th century, because the text wasnʼt originally entitled. The text is an expanded version of official Catechism, written by ordered archbishop of York John de Thoresby (died 1373). In comparison with the original, anonymous author focused on the ethos of clergy. For some time, researchers believed that the author of the text was John Wycliffe (1320-1384), but now this point of view isn’t shared by scientists. The rhetoric presented in the text gives the reasons to believe that the text was written by one of the wandering preachers, who may have belonged to the Lollards, who were especially active in England in the second half of the 14th century.

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Hronček, Pavel, Bohuslava Gregorová, Dana Tometzová et Miloš Jesenský. « Scientific journeys to one of the oldest copper cementation sites in Central Europe (Smolník, Slovakia) ». History of Geo- and Space Sciences 12, n^o 2 (14 octobre 2021) : 179–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/hgss-12-179-2021.

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Abstract. The process of copper cementation has already been known since the period of antiquity in Europe. Nevertheless, the first historically relevant reports come from the 14th century from the mining town of Smolník in Upper Hungary (present-day Slovakia), which makes this site the oldest place of the commercial production of copper using cementation in Europe. It is one of the oldest known sites in the world after China, where this process has been used since the 11th century. The cementation copper from Smolník was considered to be a high-quality copper in the period between the 14th and 19th century and was an important export product of Hungary. The study processes the history of cementation and discusses the production process of the artificial cementation water, as well as its subsequent mining and sedimentation. A detailed description of the technological progress of cementation from the earliest times up to the first half of the 19th century is given. The study is based upon the historical works of medieval alchemists and the first miners and naturalists, which were published as early scientific books in Europe from the 16th to the 18th century. These findings are complemented by original archival research.

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Petrov, Mikhail, et Olga Tarabardina. « Novgorod in 10th–14th centuries : city area evolution ». Archaeological news 28 (2020) : 134–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.31600/1817-6976-2020-28-134-151.

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The article deals with development of Novgorod in 10th–14th cc. Main task of the research was to study dynamics of spatial changes of medieval city using archaeological data and GIS-techniques for modeling and mapping of this process and dendrochronology as source of chronological boundaries. Chronology of constructions of each archaeological site became a source for housing distribution maps with an interval of 50 years. These maps also contain medieval churches (both lost and survived) as additional markers of city area development. This research resulted with five-century picture of city area evolution with phases of city growth along with time of decline in the first half of the 13th c.

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Kabir, Saleh Muhammad, et Idris Ahmad Yunus. « al-Lughah al-‘Arabīyah ka-Lughah ‘Ālamīyah wa-al-Tanabbu’ ‘an Mustaqbalihā fī al-Mujtama‘ al-Nījīrī ». Al-Ma‘rifah 18, n^o 2 (31 octobre 2021) : 205–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.21009/almakrifah.18.02.08.

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Since the 20th century AD, Arabic has become a global language used at the United Nations in speaking, making official speeches, issuing documents, and in simultaneous translation into official languages, in addition to being an official language in the Organization of African Unity and other international organizations of the United Nations Africa remained related to Arab trade and civilization centuries before Islam, and when Islam came, the first Arab migration to the African continent was the migration to Abyssinia, and thus the Muslim Arabs found their first home after their homeland in Africa. Islam entered Kanem Borno in the 8th century, and in Kano in the 14th century. As for the western region; the country of Yoruba, reached it in the first half of the 14th century AD according to one saying and the 15th according to another, and the 16th according to a third. As for the eastern region, whose population is mostly Igbo, it was reached by displaced merchants from the two regions: the northern and western. The masters of the Arabic language in Nigeria have made effective efforts to advance the Arabic language, as these efforts herald the splendid independence of the Arabic language in Nigerian society.

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Pashin, S. S. « THE LARGEST GALICIAN BOYARS OF THE SECOND HALF OF THE 14th CENTURY AND THEIR DESCENDANTS ». Bulletin of Udmurt University. Series History and Philology 32, n^o 1 (11 février 2022) : 126–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.35634/2412-9534-2022-32-1-126-130.

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The article is devoted to the history of two most prominent Galician boyar families after the capture of the Red Rus’ (the former Principality of Galicia) by Poland in 1349. The most influential Galician boyar (nobleman of Russian origin) Khodko Loevich, apparently, owned only 3-4 small villages. He had no sons, so his family stopped. Vasko Tyaptyukovich began his career as an ordinary nobleman in the 1370s. He became the richest Galician landowner of Russian origin thanks to generous grants of 1375, 1376, 1392, 1416 and 1417. After the childless Vasko, his younger brother Prokop inherited. His son Jan Prokopovich and grandson Andrei Prokop, who died in the XVI century, held positions in the system of the nobility self-government of the Galician land and were Polonized Catholics. The fate of these nobles is a vivid proof that almost all the descendants of the famous Galician boyars of the 13th century were the owners of one or two small villages in the first decades of the Polish domination.

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GONZÁLEZ FERNÁNDEZ, Martín. « Philosophia et medicina duæ sorores sunt. Divulgación del escepticismo en fuentes médicas del Medioevo / Philosophia et medicina duæ sorores sunt. Divulgation of Scepticism in the Medical Sources of the Middle Ages ». Revista Española de Filosofía Medieval 16 (1 octobre 2009) : 123. http://dx.doi.org/10.21071/refime.v16i.6183.

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At the beginning of the 17th century, a confluence between the sceptical tendency and the Latin Averroism is advised in the libertine movement of the classical age, so like Tommaso Campanella proclames. We try to explain in the present article why this was not possible in a previous time. Like the role played by the «Latin Galen» (we drop to analyze the translations of Niccolò da Reggio di Calabria during the first half of the 14th century), with its censure to the pyrrhonisme and the supposed, for him, contamination of the Hellenistic medical schools (empirical and methodical), in this process of delay.

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Kypta, Jan, Filip Laval, Zdeněk Neustupný et Barbara Marethová. « K stavebním proměnám venkovského domu v pozdním středověku a raném novověku : příklad ze Zbečna u Křivoklátu / Structural changes of a rural house in the Late Middle Ages and Early Modern period : An example from Zbečno, Central Bohemia ». Archeologické rozhledy 72, n^o 4 (15 décembre 2020) : 607–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.35686/ar.2020.21.

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Extraordinarily valuable house no. 22 in the village of Zbečno (Rakovník district) underwent complex construction development in the Early Modern period. The oldest preserved structures date from the 16th century, and significant reconstruction work took place in the 18th century. However, the origin of the house is substantially older. The article presents the comprehensive results of an archaeological excavation performed in a pair of living rooms and in the courtyard of the homestead. In the stratified layers beneath today’s floors, it was possible to distinguish the remains of three consecutive medieval houses, the internal layout of which corresponded to the floor plan of today’s house. Two of these houses were destroyed by fire. Pottery dates the construction of the earliest house to the period between the second half of the 13th century and the first half of the 14th century. Although the current walls are slightly shifted in plan from the medieval development stages, the orientation of the main dispositional axes has not changed.

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Pokrovskaya, L. « Baltic and Balto-Finnish objects at urban properties of the Lyudin Konets of mediaeval Novgorod (after the materials from the Troitsky excavation) ». Archaeological News 31 (2021) : 113–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.31600/1817-6976-2021-31-113-127.

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Finds of objects of Baltic and West-Finnish provenience constitute a small but stable group at the Troitsky excavation and are encountered in layers of the late 10th — first half of the 14th century. Chronological and topographic analysis of this group of objects allowed the researchers to establish the connections of the owners of the urban properties investigated at the Troitsky excavation, with the Eastern Baltic region, North-Western Ladoga and the North-West of the Novgorod Land.

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Açikyildiz-Şengül, Birgül. « From Yezidism to Islam : Religious Architecture of the Mahmudî Dynasty in Khoshâb ». Iran and the Caucasus 20, n^o 3-4 (19 décembre 2016) : 369–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573384x-20160307.

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The Yezidi Mahmudî Dynasty controlled Khoshâb and surrounding area between Van, Nakhchivân and Marâgha during almost five centuries, from the end of the 14th century to the second half of the 19th century. Тhe Mahmudî rulers consolidated their power by their rational diplomacy with the main political forces of the region, first with the Black Sheep and White Sheep Turkomans and later with the Ottomans and the Safavids. Converted to Islam in the mid-16th century, the Mahmudîs contributed to the Islamic art by endowing buildings in Khoshâb between 1563 and 1671.The article focuses on the study of Mahmudî religious architecture in Khoshâb, tracing particularly the pre-Islamic Yezidi elements in it.

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Kruk, Mirosław P. « The Icon of the Holy Unmercenaries (Greek : Άγιοι Ανάργυροι) Cosmas and Damian, as Bequeathed by Zofia Ruebenbauer, in the Collection of the National Museum in Cracow ». Ikonotheka 27 (10 juillet 2018) : 27–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0012.2315.

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In 2011 the National Museum in Cracow received a bequest that had been specified in the last will and testament of Zofia Ruebenbauer from Ottawa. The gift was described as a 19th century Russian icon. Comparative stylistic analysis complemented by restoration work and a material study revealed an exquisite paint layer, for which analogies may be found in the mid-14th-century Greek art of the Paleologian period. The icon was probably painted in the third quarter of the 14th century in one of the centres in northern Greece including Kastoria, Veria, Mt. Athos, Thessalonike and Constantinople itself. The collection of the Byzantine Museum in Kastoria includes many icons of the holy physicians depicted in a similar pose. Iconographical details such as the surgical knives in the hands of the physicians and in the open tool case find close analogies in the 14th-century wall paintings in Peloponnese, e.g. in the Church of Saint Paraskevi (Αγία Παρασκευή, Agia Paraskevi) and Saint John Chrysostom (Άγιος Ιωάννης Χρυσόστομος, Agios Ioannes Chrisostomos) in Geraki, as well as in the Orthodox Church of the Holy Unmercenaries (Άγιοι Ανάργυροι, Agioi Anargyroi) in Nomitsi. The conclusions of the analysis regarding the icon’s provenance find indirect corroboration in the recently discovered fact that in the first half of the 19th century the work of art was owned by Haryklia Mavrocordatos-Serini, Sas-Hoszowska (1836–1906), a member of the Lvov line of the Greek princely family of Mavrocordatos. The names of her children with the exact dates of their birth appear on the reverse side of the icon. The work of art was passed down to Jerzy Ruebenbauer, who carried it away from Lvov during the Second World War, taking it first to Warsaw, where he met his future wife Zofia, and after the war to Canada via Belgium.

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Shashaev, A. K., A. A. Maksutova, S. B. Tleubayev et S. D. Мamraimov. « THE COMPOSITION OF M.KH. DULATI «TARI H-I-RA SHI DI» AS A SOURCE ON THE HISTORY OF MOGULSTAN(SECOND HALF OF THE XIV TH CENTURY – THE FIRST HALF OF THE XVI TH CENTURY) ». History of the Homeland 95, n^o 3 (27 septembre 2021) : 32–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.51943/1814-6961_2021_3_32.

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This article analyzes the works of M.Kh. Dulati «Tarikh-i Rashidi» as a historiographic source of the history of Moghulistan in the second half of the 14th-17th centuries and its role in historical research. According to Muhammad Haydar, at that time, the Mogul khans began to move away from the conquered lands, from state administration and power, so their history was not recorded in chronicles. «Tarikh-i Rashidi» is a valuable work containing information about historical events that took place from the XIV-th to the XVI-th century. Mirza Haydar in his «Tarikh-i Rashidi» not only refers to events and their eyewitnesses, but also widely uses the works of famous scientists-historians, geographers and even Sufi treatises. Based on the foregoing, the main goal of our article is to analyze the historical research of this work by M.Kh. Dulati, which mission was to keep the history of the Moguls from extinction.

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Robov, Mirko. « A Contribution to the Urban Planning of Tarnovo XII-XIV Century ». Cultural and Historical Heritage : Preservation, Presentation, Digitalization 8, n^o 1 (30 juin 2022) : 36–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.55630/kinj.2022.080103.

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The examined sector is situated on three adjacent ledges, on the southernmost of which is discovered a large ensemble, encompassing an area of 900 m2. It was constructed during the first half of the 13th century and existed until the fall of Tarnovo at the end of the 14th century. Two wings are discovered. The west wing is a chain building. The inner walls are plastered and the floors are covered with a brick pavement. The north wing (a dining hall) is constructed in a similar manner. A large domestic furnace is uncovered, as well as an elliptical heating equipment. The newly discovered ensemble is a contribution to the understanding of the urban planning of the sector. Here no traces were found of residential buildings, production and trade structures, necropoles, etc. In this context here was formed an urban environment, only with large enclosed ensembles, bordering with one another and inhabited by representatives of the eminent metropolitan aristocracy.

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Webster, Lyndelle, Katharina Streit, Michael Dee, Irka Hajdas et Felix Höflmayer. « New Radiocarbon-based assessment Supports the Prominence of Tel Lachish during late Bronze age IB-IIA ». Radiocarbon 61, n^o 6 (18 novembre 2019) : 1711–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/rdc.2019.131.

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ABSTRACTThis article presents a new suite of radiocarbon (14C) dates for the lower portion of the Late Bronze Age (LBA) sequence of Area S, Tel Lachish. The results show that the lowest levels reached by Ussishkin in the 1980s (S-2 and S-3) date significantly earlier than was previously thought. Level S-3, with its monumental architecture, belongs in the 2nd half of the 15th century BCE, as does the commencement of Level S-2. The laminated deposit of S-2 continues through the first half of the 14th century BCE, coinciding at least in part with the Amarna period. This redating leads to improved agreement between archaeological and textual evidence regarding the presence of a substantial, prominent settlement at Lachish during LB IB-IIA, from the reign of Thutmoses III through the Amarna period.

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Ágnes, Maléth. « A pápai Kúria tagjai és a magyar javadalmak a 14. században : Petrus Begonis életpályája ». PONTES 4 (20 octobre 2021) : 144–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.15170/pontes.2021.04.01.07.

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The papal government was characterized by centralisation in the 14th century in which the tax system and the papal beneficial policy were two main factors. The Avignon popes strived to extend their influence on every stratum of the ecclesiastical hierarchy by rewarding the members of the Curia’s developing administrative system with benefices in the local churches. The changes in the functioning of the papal curia offered a great opportunity for a growing number of qualified clerics to build successful careers in the papal service. The process briefly described above had an impact on the contemporary ecclesiastical structure of the Hungarian Kingdom, as more and more clerics tried to obtain benefices with papal protection, especially in the second half of the 14th century. Soon not only papal officers, but cardinals and the members of their entourage held Hungarian ecclesiastical titles as well. The main aim of the present paper is to analyse the lifepath of a curialist, Petrus Begonis. First procurator of cardinal Guillaume de la Jugie, later papal chaplain, Petrus Begonis was granted various church offices – also in the Hungarian Kingdom – and charged with diverse diplomatic tasks in different parts of Europe (Hungary, Holy Roman Empire, Italy). His ecclesiastical career – spanning from the reign of Clement VI to that of Urban VI – gives an insight in the functioning of the papal curia in Avignon and helps us comprehend the administrational changes in the 14th century.

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Sin, Eunje. « Contents and Features of the Prayers for the Transcription of Buddhist Scriptures Text in the First Half of 14th Century ». Journal of Korean Medieval History 59 (30 novembre 2019) : 269–305. http://dx.doi.org/10.35863/jkmh.59.9.

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Choi, Yoon-Jung. « Political Situation of Yuan Dynasty and Its Relations with Koryo Dynasty during the first half of 14th century (1307~1323) ». Korean Historical Review 226 (30 juin 2015) : 287. http://dx.doi.org/10.16912/tkhr.2015.06.226.287.

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Kurtović, Esad. « Trebinjska vlastela Dragančići ». Godišnjak Centra za balkanološka ispitivanja, n^o 50 (26 avril 2022) : 135–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.5644/godisnjak.cbi.anubih-50.154.

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The Trebinje nobles Dragančići mark the history of the Trebinje region in the second half of the 14th and the first half of the 15th century. The author completes earlier contours of Mihailo Dinić’s approach with new indicators. Dragančići are located in the Trebinje settlements of Poljice and Kremeni Dol, in the southern parts of Travunija on the border with Konavle. Their seniors are Pavlovići, and from 1438, Kosače. They are in the rank of families Ljubibratić, Kobiljačić, Starčić, Krasomirić, Poznanović and Priljubović. With their vassals, they are engaged in cattle breeding, agriculture and trade, and in the 15th century they significantly participated in looting, contextualized by the general action of their seniors Pavlović and Kosač towards the people of Dubrovnik. Thanks to the preserved sources, more detailed observations are dedicated to the Pribatovićs (successors of Pribat Dragančić) and the Usinovićs (successors of Usin Brajanović Dragančić).

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Akbiyev, Arsen S., et Magomed-Pasha B. Abdusalamov. « On the origin of Dagestani shamhals and Gazikumukh Shamkhalate (the 12th to 16th centuries) ». Vestnik of Kostroma State University, n^o 4 (2019) : 8–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.34216/1998-0817-2019-25-4-8-13.

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The article discusses the problem of Dagestani shamkhalate and the term "shamkhal", which is debatable in Dagestani historical science, based on the analysis of sources and special historical literature. According to the authors, the Arabic version of the origin of the first Dagestani Shamkhals is untenable and beneath scientific criticism. The first rulers with the title "shaukhal" who appeared in Dagestan at the early 12th century, belonged to Turkic peoples who led ghazi groups (those who contended for the faith) and spread Islam in Upland Dagestan. The Turkic dynasty existed until the early 14th century only to be overthrown by the combined forces of the Golden Horde, Kajtaks and the Avar Khanate. The Golden Horde established their own ruler (Tatar-Shamkhal) from among the Chingissids, whose descendants ruled this state formation until the second half of the 19th century. The authors come to the conclusion that those were the Kumyks who supported the Tatar-Shamkhals unlike the rest warlike highland population who disliked them; and they finally migrated to live among the Kumyks when, in the second half of the 16th century, they faced deterioration. The Kumyks, being the basis, the core of Shamkhalism, after the withdrawal from Gazikumukh possession, prevented the final disintegration of the Shamkhalate and continued the traditions of medieval statehood

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Ardavičiūtė-Ramanauskienė, Skaistė. « Metal spoons of the 14th-18th centuries from the archaeology collection of the National Museum of Lithuania : Typology, chronology and provenance ». Archaeologia Baltica 29 (27 décembre 2022) : 52–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.15181/ab.v29i0.2470.

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Metal spoons from archaeological excavations in Lithuania are a rare find. Therefore, no research has been done on their shape, chronology or provenance. The aim of this article is to identify what types of metal spoons were owned by the residents of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, whether the spoons were imported or produced locally, and whether the western European spoon trends had any influence on the material culture of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Only 19 spoons from the archaeology collection of the National Museum of Lithuania are attributed to the 14th–18th centuries. A morphological typology based on the spoons’ finials and handles was chosen in the current study. The first type is a spoon with a hexagonal ball finial from the second half of the 14th century. The other five types of spoons, from the second half of the 16th century and the 17th century, are characterised by a strawberry-shaped finial, an apostle figure, a twisted handle, a flat handle, and a hexagonal handle, respectively. The last type — a spoon with a rounded top — belongs to the end of the 17th century and the18th century. The spoon types and their chronology correspond to the types of spoons produced in northern, western and central Europe during the same period. This indicates that residents of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania not only followed the trends of the European cutlery fashion but also reacted promptly to changes. Although there is insufficient data to say with certainty whether non-precious metal spoons were produced in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, it can be shown at least that the goldsmiths there produced silver spoons which were popular in the region at the time.

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Jóźwiak, Sławomir. « Dieners in the Service of the Teutonic Order in Prussia in the Second Half of the 14th Century – the First Half of the 15th Century : the Group Size, Maintenance, Accommodation (English) ». Zapiski Historyczne lxxxiii, n^o 1 (18 décembre 2018) : 7–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.15762/zh.2018.15.

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Singkh, Victor, et Andrey Stepanov. « Wooden toys — imitations of armament from excavations of mediaeval Novgorod (materials from the Troitsky Excavation) ». Archaeological news 28 (2020) : 182–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.31600/1817-6976-2020-28-182-193.

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This paper presents a review of the finds of children’s wooden toys imitating battle armament from the properties uncovered at the Troitsky Excavation in Veliky Novgorod. Totally, 203 items have been found including: wooden swords (160), bows (21), spears (14), knives (3), axes (3), a mace (1) and a bec de corbin (1). The chronological range of the study is the mid-10th — late 14th century. The majority of the collection is composed by sword hilts (160 items). Among this category, three main types have been distinguished according to the shape of the pommel corresponding to real battle swords. The topography of the finds throughout the properties was examined revealing separate accumulations characteristic primarily of the 10th — first half of the 11th century.

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Cârciumaru, Radu. « Formations in Maramureş during the First Half of the 14th Century (A Few Considerations concerning the Status of the Romanian Nobility) ». Annales d'Université "Valahia" Târgovişte. Section d'Archéologie et d'Histoire 11, n^o 2 (2009) : 51–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.3406/valah.2009.1021.

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Hong, Yong Jin. « The Appearance of the Capital Paris and Construction of Royal Palaces as Political Communicationin the first half of the 14th Century ». Korean Journal of Urban History 6 (31 décembre 2011) : 73–103. http://dx.doi.org/10.22345/kjuh.2011.12.6.73.

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Šefců, Radka, Václav Pitthard, Štěpánka Chlumská et Ivana Turková. « A multianalytical study of oil binding media and pigments on Bohemian Panel Paintings from the first half of the 14th century ». Journal of Cultural Heritage 23 (janvier 2017) : 77–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.culher.2016.10.003.

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Webster, Lyndelle C., Omer Sergi, Sabine Kleiman, Oded Lipschits, Quan Hua, Geraldine E. Jacobsen, Yann Tristant et Yuval Gadot. « Preliminary Radiocarbon Results for Late Bronze Age Strata at Tel Azekah and Their Implications ». Radiocarbon 60, n^o 1 (14 septembre 2017) : 309–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/rdc.2017.85.

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AbstractThis article presents the first radiocarbon (14C) results from the Late Bronze Age levels of Tel Azekah (Israel). The results testify to the long and prosperous occupation of the site during this period, commencing at least in LB IIA and ending with a severe destruction at the close of LB III. In the extra-mural quarter (Area S2), a pre-monumental building phase (S2-6) dates to the 14th or early 13th century BCE. Two sub-phases of a public building constructed above this yielded dates in the second half of the 13th century and first two-thirds of the 12th century BCE, suggesting that occupation persisted through the “Crisis Years” of the eastern Mediterranean region. On the top of the mound, in Area T2, the destruction of the final LB III level (T2-3) most likely occurred near the end of the 12th century BCE. The preliminary Azekah results are in good agreement with existing data from Lachish and Megiddo, but seem at odds with results from nearby Tel es-Safi/Gath.

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Constantinov, Valentin. « Moldova's Relations with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the Second Half of the 14th Century – Beginning of the 15th Century (until the Treaty of Lublau in 1412) ». Ukraina Lithuanica. Studìï z ìstorìï Velikogo knâzìvstva Litovsʹkogo 2021, n^o 6 (12 octobre 2021) : 1–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.15407/ul2021.06.001.

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In the middle and second half of the 14th century, significant territorial changes took place in Central, Eastern, and Southeastern Europe. The old political structures, which by that time had outlived their usefulness, were replaced by new ones: the revived Kingdom of Poland, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and the Moldavian principality. These changes took place in a fierce struggle, with confrontations on the battlefield giving way to confrontations on the diplomatic front. In addition to the above-mentioned political formations, the Hungarian king also had an important place in this struggle. Louis the Great of Anjou at one time united the Hungarian and Polish crown into his own hands, after the death of Casimir the Great Polish king who had no male offspring. The Moldovan rulers took advantage of the international political conjuncture in this space, who skillfully conducted their foreign policy based on the principle of the balance of power. First, the problem of heredity in Poland and then in the Hungarian kingdom itself undoubtedly contributed to the strengthening of a still very young state that appeared in the middle of the 14th century, first as a Hungarian march, and which was tasked with moving eastward, and then as an independent state. However, at that time, every political entity had a suzerain, which gave him the right to exist. Vasal addiction varied from case to case. In turn, when such an opportunity arose, the Moldovan rulers could change their overlords based on political interest. In this, they used the strength and power of the Lithuanian princes. At first, being in allied relations with the Koriatovichs, the Moldovan rulers strengthened their state, and then, by the will of fate, they developed friendly relations with Vitovt / Alexander and tried not to spoil relations with him, participating in those planned through the Grand Duke of Lithuania. A special test for the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was the war with the Teutonic Order, which broke out in 1409. The Moldavian soldiers again took part in the Battle of Grunwald in 1410. However, the problem was that the Teutons were supported by the Hungarian king, Sigismund of Luxembourg, who wanted to return the Hungarian influence in Moldova. Thus, the Moldavian principality was drawn into the tangle of international relations in this area where the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was of great importance.

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Borchardt, Karl. « Vom officium zum beneficium : Lokale Verwaltungsstrukturen im Johanniter-Priorat Alamania während des 13. und frühen 14. Jahrhunderts ». Ordines Militares Colloquia Torunensia Historica 26 (9 novembre 2021) : 9–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.12775/om.2021.001.

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From officium to beneficium: Local government structures in the Hospitaller Priory of Alamania during the 13th and early 14th century The paper is about the appointment of commanders for Hospitaller houses in southern Germany during the second half of the thirteenth and the first half of the fourteenth century (until c. 1330). No written documents about such appointments are extant from the time and region. The names of the commanders are only known from local charters. Some commanders were changed almost annually. Others stayed on more or less for life. The Hospitaller rule, statutes and consuetudines concerning such appointments are not clear. In the fourteenth century commanders were entrusted their houses either for ten years or for life. Earlier on shorter periods are probable, five years or even only one year, until the next regional chapter. Further research should be devoted to the question whether military-religious orders started with an office whose officers was ad nutum amovibilis, and then changed to procedures known from ecclesiastical benefices held by non-religious, secular clergy for life and from fiefs held by secular knights that were also held for life.

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